Progressive public health administration in the Jim Crow south: A case study of Richmond, Virginia, 1907-1920

Journal of Social History

Volumn 35, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 175-194

  Hoffman, Steven J ^a  

^a Department of History ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040923918     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2001.0085     Document Type: Article

References (183)

1. John Duffy, The Sanitarians, A History of American Public Health (Urbana and Chicago, 1990); George Rosen, A History of Public Health (Baltimore, 1993); Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn, The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York, 1989). For a southern perspective, see Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect: Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, TN, 1987); G. Erickson, "Southern Initiative in Public Health Nursing: The Founding of the Nurses' Settlement and Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond, Virginia, 1900-1910," Journal of Nursing History (Nov. 1987): 17-29; S.L. Smith, "White Nurses, Black Midwives, and Public Health in Mississippi, 1920-1950," Nursing History Review (1994): 29-49; Don H. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South; Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill, 1990); C.E. Terry, "The Negro, A Public Health Problem," Southern Medical Journal 7 (1914): 458-467.
2. John Duffy, The Sanitarians, A History of American Public Health (Urbana and Chicago, 1990); George Rosen, A History of Public Health (Baltimore, 1993); Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn, The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York, 1989). For a southern perspective, see Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect: Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, TN, 1987); G. Erickson, "Southern Initiative in Public Health Nursing: The Founding of the Nurses' Settlement and Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond, Virginia, 1900-1910," Journal of Nursing History (Nov. 1987): 17-29; S.L. Smith, "White Nurses, Black Midwives, and Public Health in Mississippi, 1920-1950," Nursing History Review (1994): 29-49; Don H. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South; Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill, 1990); C.E. Terry, "The Negro, A Public Health Problem," Southern Medical Journal 7 (1914): 458-467.
3. John Duffy, The Sanitarians, A History of American Public Health (Urbana and Chicago, 1990); George Rosen, A History of Public Health (Baltimore, 1993); Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn, The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York, 1989). For a southern perspective, see Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect: Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, TN, 1987); G. Erickson, "Southern Initiative in Public Health Nursing: The Founding of the Nurses' Settlement and Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond, Virginia, 1900-1910," Journal of Nursing History (Nov. 1987): 17-29; S.L. Smith, "White Nurses, Black Midwives, and Public Health in Mississippi, 1920-1950," Nursing History Review (1994): 29-49; Don H. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South; Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill, 1990); C.E. Terry, "The Negro, A Public Health Problem," Southern Medical Journal 7 (1914): 458-467.
4. John Duffy, The Sanitarians, A History of American Public Health (Urbana and Chicago, 1990); George Rosen, A History of Public Health (Baltimore, 1993); Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn, The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York, 1989). For a southern perspective, see Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect: Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, TN, 1987); G. Erickson, "Southern Initiative in Public Health Nursing: The Founding of the Nurses' Settlement and Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond, Virginia, 1900-1910," Journal of Nursing History (Nov. 1987): 17-29; S.L. Smith, "White Nurses, Black Midwives, and Public Health in Mississippi, 1920-1950," Nursing History Review (1994): 29-49; Don H. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South; Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill, 1990); C.E. Terry, "The Negro, A Public Health Problem," Southern Medical Journal 7 (1914): 458-467.
5. John Duffy, The Sanitarians, A History of American Public Health (Urbana and Chicago, 1990); George Rosen, A History of Public Health (Baltimore, 1993); Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn, The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York, 1989). For a southern perspective, see Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect: Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, TN, 1987); G. Erickson, "Southern Initiative in Public Health Nursing: The Founding of the Nurses' Settlement and Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond, Virginia, 1900-1910," Journal of Nursing History (Nov. 1987): 17-29; S.L. Smith, "White Nurses, Black Midwives, and Public Health in Mississippi, 1920-1950," Nursing History Review (1994): 29-49; Don H. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South; Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill, 1990); C.E. Terry, "The Negro, A Public Health Problem," Southern Medical Journal 7 (1914): 458-467.
6. John Duffy, The Sanitarians, A History of American Public Health (Urbana and Chicago, 1990); George Rosen, A History of Public Health (Baltimore, 1993); Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn, The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York, 1989). For a southern perspective, see Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect: Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, TN, 1987); G. Erickson, "Southern Initiative in Public Health Nursing: The Founding of the Nurses' Settlement and Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond, Virginia, 1900-1910," Journal of Nursing History (Nov. 1987): 17-29; S.L. Smith, "White Nurses, Black Midwives, and Public Health in Mississippi, 1920-1950," Nursing History Review (1994): 29-49; Don H. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South; Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill, 1990); C.E. Terry, "The Negro, A Public Health Problem," Southern Medical Journal 7 (1914): 458-467.
7. John Duffy, The Sanitarians, A History of American Public Health (Urbana and Chicago, 1990); George Rosen, A History of Public Health (Baltimore, 1993); Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn, The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York, 1989). For a southern perspective, see Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect: Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, TN, 1987); G. Erickson, "Southern Initiative in Public Health Nursing: The Founding of the Nurses' Settlement and Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond, Virginia, 1900-1910," Journal of Nursing History (Nov. 1987): 17-29; S.L. Smith, "White Nurses, Black Midwives, and Public Health in Mississippi, 1920-1950," Nursing History Review (1994): 29-49; Don H. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South; Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill, 1990); C.E. Terry, "The Negro, A Public Health Problem," Southern Medical Journal 7 (1914): 458-467.
8. John Duffy, The Sanitarians, A History of American Public Health (Urbana and Chicago, 1990); George Rosen, A History of Public Health (Baltimore, 1993); Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn, The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York, 1989). For a southern perspective, see Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect: Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, TN, 1987); G. Erickson, "Southern Initiative in Public Health Nursing: The Founding of the Nurses' Settlement and Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond, Virginia, 1900-1910," Journal of Nursing History (Nov. 1987): 17-29; S.L. Smith, "White Nurses, Black Midwives, and Public Health in Mississippi, 1920-1950," Nursing History Review (1994): 29-49; Don H. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South; Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill, 1990); C.E. Terry, "The Negro, A Public Health Problem," Southern Medical Journal 7 (1914): 458-467.
9. Beardsley, A History of Neglect is the best and most comprehensive study that examines the role of race in the administration of public health in the early twentieth century South.
10. Duffy, The Sanitarians; and Rosen, A History of Public Health.
11. Duffy, The Sanitarians; and Rosen, A History of Public Health.
12. William A. Link, The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880-1930 (Chapel Hill, 1992), p. 79; and V.F. King, and K.F. Kiple, Another Dimension to the Black Diaspora (Cambridge, Eng., 1981); and Phoebe Ann Pollitt, "From National Negro Health Week to National Public Health Week," Journal of Community Health (December 1996): 401-407; F. G. DuBose, "The Condition of the Negro in the South, Southern Medical Journal 7(1914): 864-866.
13. William A. Link, The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880-1930 (Chapel Hill, 1992), p. 79; and V.F. King, and K.F. Kiple, Another Dimension to the Black Diaspora (Cambridge, Eng., 1981); and Phoebe Ann Pollitt, "From National Negro Health Week to National Public Health Week," Journal of Community Health (December 1996): 401-407; F. G. DuBose, "The Condition of the Negro in the South, Southern Medical Journal 7(1914): 864-866.
14. William A. Link, The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880-1930 (Chapel Hill, 1992), p. 79; and V.F. King, and K.F. Kiple, Another Dimension to the Black Diaspora (Cambridge, Eng., 1981); and Phoebe Ann Pollitt, "From National Negro Health Week to National Public Health Week," Journal of Community Health (December 1996): 401-407; F. G. DuBose, "The Condition of the Negro in the South, Southern Medical Journal 7(1914): 864-866.
15. William A. Link, The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880-1930 (Chapel Hill, 1992), p. 79; and V.F. King, and K.F. Kiple, Another Dimension to the Black Diaspora (Cambridge, Eng., 1981); and Phoebe Ann Pollitt, "From National Negro Health Week to National Public Health Week," Journal of Community Health (December 1996): 401-407; F. G. DuBose, "The Condition of the Negro in the South, Southern Medical Journal 7(1914): 864-866.
16. Beardsley, A History of Neglect, 142; Ellis, Yellow Fever and Public Health in the New South (Lexington, KY, 1992), 164-165; and S. B. Jones, "Fifty Years of Negro Public Health," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 49 (Sept. 1913): 138-146.
17. Beardsley, A History of Neglect, 142; Ellis, Yellow Fever and Public Health in the New South (Lexington, KY, 1992), 164-165; and S. B. Jones, "Fifty Years of Negro Public Health," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 49 (Sept. 1913): 138-146.
18. Beardsley, A History of Neglect, 142; Ellis, Yellow Fever and Public Health in the New South (Lexington, KY, 1992), 164-165; and S. B. Jones, "Fifty Years of Negro Public Health," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 49 (Sept. 1913): 138-146.
19. John H. Ellis, "Businessmen and Public Health in the Urban South During the Nineteenth Century: New Orleans, Memphis, and Atlanta" Bulletin of the History of Medicine vol. 44, no. 4 (July-August 1970): 346-71; and Duffy, The Sanitarians.
20. John H. Ellis, "Businessmen and Public Health in the Urban South During the Nineteenth Century: New Orleans, Memphis, and Atlanta" Bulletin of the History of Medicine vol. 44, no. 4 (July-August 1970): 346-71; and Duffy, The Sanitarians.
21. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Population: 1920, Occupational Statistics, Tables 46 and 47.
22. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of the United States ... in 1860, book 4 (Washington, D.C., 1866), xviii-xix; U.S. Department of Commerce, Ninth Census of the United States, Volume III, The Statistics of Wealth, and Industry of the United States, 1870, Table ix(A); U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report on the Manufactures of the United States ... 1880, Table VI; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report on Manufactures for the 12th Census, 1900, Part I, Table XXIV; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufactures, 1920, Volume VIII, Table 12and Table 50; see also, Steven J. Hoffman, "Behind the Façade: The Constraining Influence of Race, Class and Power on Elites in the City-Building Process, Richmond, Virginia, 1870-1920 (Ph.D. Dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University, 1993), 32-48, 96-108, 158-172.
23. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of the United States ... in 1860, book 4 (Washington, D.C., 1866), xviii-xix; U.S. Department of Commerce, Ninth Census of the United States, Volume III, The Statistics of Wealth, and Industry of the United States, 1870, Table ix(A); U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report on the Manufactures of the United States ... 1880, Table VI; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report on Manufactures for the 12th Census, 1900, Part I, Table XXIV; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufactures, 1920, Volume VIII, Table 12and Table 50; see also, Steven J. Hoffman, "Behind the Façade: The Constraining Influence of Race, Class and Power on Elites in the City-Building Process, Richmond, Virginia, 1870-1920 (Ph.D. Dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University, 1993), 32-48, 96-108, 158-172.
24. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of the United States ... in 1860, book 4 (Washington, D.C., 1866), xviii-xix; U.S. Department of Commerce, Ninth Census of the United States, Volume III, The Statistics of Wealth, and Industry of the United States, 1870, Table ix(A); U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report on the Manufactures of the United States ... 1880, Table VI; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report on Manufactures for the 12th Census, 1900, Part I, Table XXIV; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufactures, 1920, Volume VIII, Table 12and Table 50; see also, Steven J. Hoffman, "Behind the Façade: The Constraining Influence of Race, Class and Power on Elites in the City-Building Process, Richmond, Virginia, 1870-1920 (Ph.D. Dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University, 1993), 32-48, 96-108, 158-172.
25. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of the United States ... in 1860, book 4 (Washington, D.C., 1866), xviii-xix; U.S. Department of Commerce, Ninth Census of the United States, Volume III, The Statistics of Wealth, and Industry of the United States, 1870, Table ix(A); U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report on the Manufactures of the United States ... 1880, Table VI; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report on Manufactures for the 12th Census, 1900, Part I, Table XXIV; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufactures, 1920, Volume VIII, Table 12and Table 50; see also, Steven J. Hoffman, "Behind the Façade: The Constraining Influence of Race, Class and Power on Elites in the City-Building Process, Richmond, Virginia, 1870-1920 (Ph.D. Dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University, 1993), 32-48, 96-108, 158-172.
26. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of the United States ... in 1860, book 4 (Washington, D.C., 1866), xviii-xix; U.S. Department of Commerce, Ninth Census of the United States, Volume III, The Statistics of Wealth, and Industry of the United States, 1870, Table ix(A); U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report on the Manufactures of the United States ... 1880, Table VI; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report on Manufactures for the 12th Census, 1900, Part I, Table XXIV; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufactures, 1920, Volume VIII, Table 12and Table 50; see also, Steven J. Hoffman, "Behind the Façade: The Constraining Influence of Race, Class and Power on Elites in the City-Building Process, Richmond, Virginia, 1870-1920 (Ph.D. Dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University, 1993), 32-48, 96-108, 158-172.
27. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of the United States ... in 1860, book 4 (Washington, D.C., 1866), xviii-xix; U.S. Department of Commerce, Ninth Census of the United States, Volume III, The Statistics of Wealth, and Industry of the United States, 1870, Table ix(A); U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report on the Manufactures of the United States ... 1880, Table VI; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report on Manufactures for the 12th Census, 1900, Part I, Table XXIV; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufactures, 1920, Volume VIII, Table 12and Table 50; see also, Steven J. Hoffman, "Behind the Façade: The Constraining Influence of Race, Class and Power on Elites in the City-Building Process, Richmond, Virginia, 1870-1920 (Ph.D. Dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University, 1993), 32-48, 96-108, 158-172.
28. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Population of the United States, 10th Census, Table VI; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 13th Census, Population, Table 46; and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Population, 1890, Table 118.
29. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Population of the United States, 10th Census, Table VI; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 13th Census, Population, Table 46; and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Population, 1890, Table 118.
30. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Population of the United States, 10th Census, Table VI; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 13th Census, Population, Table 46; and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Population, 1890, Table 118.
31. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Occupation, 1900, Table 43; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Occupation, 1910, Table VIII; and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Occupation, 1920, Table 2.
32. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Occupation, 1900, Table 43; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Occupation, 1910, Table VIII; and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Occupation, 1920, Table 2.
33. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Occupation, 1900, Table 43; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Occupation, 1910, Table VIII; and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Occupation, 1920, Table 2.
34. Hoffman, "Behind the Façade," 156-72.
35. Richmond's 1893 death rate of 24.27 placed it fourth on the list behind New Orleans (28.17), Charleston (27.91) and Mobile (26.99). Richmond Chamber of Commerce, Minutes, vol. 5: 99 (8 June 1894); Annual Report of the Health Department of the City of Richmond for the Year 1893 (Richmond, Virginia), 8 (hereafter Annual Report of the Health Department); and Richmond City Council, "Resolution Regarding Investigation of Health Department," adopted 12 January 1906, Papers of Both Branches (6/05-5/06), Richmond City Papers, Virginia State Library and Archives, Richmond, Virginia (hereafter Papers of Both Branches).
36. Richmond's 1893 death rate of 24.27 placed it fourth on the list behind New Orleans (28.17), Charleston (27.91) and Mobile (26.99). Richmond Chamber of Commerce, Minutes, vol. 5: 99 (8 June 1894); Annual Report of the Health Department of the City of Richmond for the Year 1893 (Richmond, Virginia), 8 (hereafter Annual Report of the Health Department); and Richmond City Council, "Resolution Regarding Investigation of Health Department," adopted 12 January 1906, Papers of Both Branches (6/05-5/06), Richmond City Papers, Virginia State Library and Archives, Richmond, Virginia (hereafter Papers of Both Branches).
37. Richmond Chamber of Commerce, Minutes, vol. 4: 183 (27 November 1891).
38. Hoffman, "Behind the Facade," 172-201.
39. Hoffman, "Behind the Facade," 194-204.
40. Papers of Both Branches (6/05-5/06), "Resolution Regarding Investigation of the Health Department," 12 January 1906.
41. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1906, 8.
42. Ibid.
43. Hoffman, "Behind the Facade," 172-201; Annual Report of the Health Department, 1907, 33-34; American Journal of Public Health, vol. 7, no. 12 (Dec. 1922): 1042-1044; and vol. 12, no. 11 (Nov. 1924): 982.
44. Hoffman, "Behind the Facade," 172-201; Annual Report of the Health Department, 1907, 33-34; American Journal of Public Health, vol. 7, no. 12 (Dec. 1922): 1042-1044; and vol. 12, no. 11 (Nov. 1924): 982.
45. Hoffman, "Behind the Facade," 172-201; Annual Report of the Health Department, 1907, 33-34; American Journal of Public Health, vol. 7, no. 12 (Dec. 1922): 1042-1044; and vol. 12, no. 11 (Nov. 1924): 982.
46. Hoffman, "Behind the Facade," 172-201; Annual Report of the Health Department, 1907, 33-34; American Journal of Public Health, vol. 7, no. 12 (Dec. 1922): 1042-1044; and vol. 12, no. 11 (Nov. 1924): 982.
47. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1906, 10.
48. Ibid., 1915, 50.
49. Ibid, 1916, 5-7 and 47-50. Richmond city government had been reorganized in 1916, and the new Administrative Board acted quickly to cut expenditures across the board. After a year of fighting for more funding for the Department, Levy put his job on the line and declared he would resign unless the Health Department received a minimum level of funding need to maintain its standards. When the budget numbers were released they did not include any additional funding for the Health Department and Levy made good on his promise and resigned. Ibid, 1916, 6-7) He spent a year in public health consulting in New York City before joining the U.S. Army Medical Corps in August of 1918. Upon his discharge from the army in January of 1919, Levy returned to Richmond to assume the post of Director of Social Welfare. With a change of administrations in 1924, however, Levy lost his position and returned to teaching at the Medical College of Virginia before moving to Tampa, Florida as that city's Chief Health Officer from 1925 to 1928. Upon retiring from the Tampa position, Levy returned to Richmond and continued consultation work in public health and sanitation until he died on 29 September 1938 after a long illness. (Richmond News-Leader, 30 September 1938; "E.C. Levy," vertical files, Special Collections and Archives Department, Tompkins-McCaw Library, Virginia Commonwealth University).
50. Ibid, 1916, 5-7 and 47-50. Richmond city government had been reorganized in 1916, and the new Administrative Board acted quickly to cut expenditures across the board. After a year of fighting for more funding for the Department, Levy put his job on the line and declared he would resign unless the Health Department received a minimum level of funding need to maintain its standards. When the budget numbers were released they did not include any additional funding for the Health Department and Levy made good on his promise and resigned. (Ibid, 1916, 6-7) He spent a year in public health consulting in New York City before joining the U.S. Army Medical Corps in August of 1918. Upon his discharge from the army in January of 1919, Levy returned to Richmond to assume the post of Director of Social Welfare. With a change of administrations in 1924, however, Levy lost his position and returned to teaching at the Medical College of Virginia before moving to Tampa, Florida as that city's Chief Health Officer from 1925 to 1928. Upon retiring from the Tampa position, Levy returned to Richmond and continued consultation work in public health and sanitation until he died on 29 September 1938 after a long illness. (Richmond News-Leader, 30 September 1938; "E.C. Levy," vertical files, Special Collections and Archives Department, Tompkins-McCaw Library, Virginia Commonwealth University).
51. Ibid, 1916, 5-7 and 47-50. Richmond city government had been reorganized in 1916, and the new Administrative Board acted quickly to cut expenditures across the board. After a year of fighting for more funding for the Department, Levy put his job on the line and declared he would resign unless the Health Department received a minimum level of funding need to maintain its standards. When the budget numbers were released they did not include any additional funding for the Health Department and Levy made good on his promise and resigned. Ibid, 1916, 6-7) He spent a year in public health consulting in New York City before joining the U.S. Army Medical Corps in August of 1918. Upon his discharge from the army in January of 1919, Levy returned to Richmond to assume the post of Director of Social Welfare. With a change of administrations in 1924, however, Levy lost his position and returned to teaching at the Medical College of Virginia before moving to Tampa, Florida as that city's Chief Health Officer from 1925 to 1928. Upon retiring from the Tampa position, Levy returned to Richmond and continued consultation work in public health and sanitation until he died on 29 September 1938 after a long illness. (Richmond News-Leader, 30 September 1938; "E.C. Levy," vertical files, Special Collections and Archives Department, Tompkins-McCaw Library, Virginia Commonwealth University).
52. American Journal of Public Health, vol. 7, no. 12 (Dec. 1922): 1042-1044.
53. The Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of the Nurse's Settlement, Richmond, Virginia (Richmond, Everett Waddey Company, 1903). p.1, and Samuel Nadler, "A History of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond, Virginia, 1900-1950," Master's Thesis, Richmond Professional Institute, College of William and Mary, 1951), 4-8; Erickson, "Southern Initiative in Public Health Nursing".
54. The Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of the Nurse's Settlement, Richmond, Virginia (Richmond, Everett Waddey Company, 1903). p.1, and Samuel Nadler, "A History of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond, Virginia, 1900-1950," Master's Thesis, Richmond Professional Institute, College of William and Mary, 1951), 4-8; Erickson, "Southern Initiative in Public Health Nursing".
55. The Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of the Nurse's Settlement, Richmond, Virginia (Richmond, Everett Waddey Company, 1903). p.1, and Samuel Nadler, "A History of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond, Virginia, 1900-1950," Master's Thesis, Richmond Professional Institute, College of William and Mary, 1951), 4-8; Erickson, "Southern Initiative in Public Health Nursing".
56. Nadler, "A History of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond," 20-21; and Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910, "Report of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 130-132.
57. Nadler, "A History of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond," 20-21; and Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910, "Report of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 130-132.
58. Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn; Catherine W. Tinkham and Eleanor F. Voorhies, Community Health Nursing, Evolution and Process (New York, 1972), 18-25; and Susan M. Reverby, Ordered to Care, The Dilemma of American Nursing, 1850-1945 (New York, 1987), 109-110; and Diane Hamilton, "The Cost of Caring: The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company's Visiting Nurse Service, 1909-1953," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 63, no. 3 (Fall 1989): 414-434.
59. Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn; Catherine W. Tinkham and Eleanor F. Voorhies, Community Health Nursing, Evolution and Process (New York, 1972), 18-25; and Susan M. Reverby, Ordered to Care, The Dilemma of American Nursing, 1850-1945 (New York, 1987), 109-110; and Diane Hamilton, "The Cost of Caring: The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company's Visiting Nurse Service, 1909-1953," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 63, no. 3 (Fall 1989): 414-434.
60. Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn; Catherine W. Tinkham and Eleanor F. Voorhies, Community Health Nursing, Evolution and Process (New York, 1972), 18-25; and Susan M. Reverby, Ordered to Care, The Dilemma of American Nursing, 1850-1945 (New York, 1987), 109-110; and Diane Hamilton, "The Cost of Caring: The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company's Visiting Nurse Service, 1909-1953," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 63, no. 3 (Fall 1989): 414-434.
61. Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn; Catherine W. Tinkham and Eleanor F. Voorhies, Community Health Nursing, Evolution and Process (New York, 1972), 18-25; and Susan M. Reverby, Ordered to Care, The Dilemma of American Nursing, 1850-1945 (New York, 1987), 109-110; and Diane Hamilton, "The Cost of Caring: The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company's Visiting Nurse Service, 1909-1953," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 63, no. 3 (Fall 1989): 414-434.
62. Duffy, The Sanitarians, 208; Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn; and Reverby, Ordered to Care.
63. Duffy, The Sanitarians, 208; Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn; and Reverby, Ordered to Care.
64. Duffy, The Sanitarians, 208; Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn; and Reverby, Ordered to Care.
65. E.C. Levy, "Reciprocity Between the Health Officials and the Medical Profession" (Presidential Address to American Public Health Association, Boston, 8 October 1923) American Journal of Public Health vol. 13, no. 12 (December 1923): 989.
66. Duffy, The Sanitarians, Rosen, A History of Public Health; and Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore, 1990).
67. Duffy, The Sanitarians, Rosen, A History of Public Health; and Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore, 1990).
68. Duffy, The Sanitarians, Rosen, A History of Public Health; and Annual Report of the Health Department, 1906, 17.
69. Duffy, The Sanitarians, Rosen, A History of Public Health; and Annual Report of the Health Department, 1906, 17.
70. The other communicable diseases with a higher mortality rate among whites than among blacks were Diphtheria, and occasionally Measles and Scarlet Fever. Whites consistently outnumbered African Americans for deaths due to Diabetes, Cancer, Suicide, Appendicitis, and Senile Debility, but none of these was a communicable disease and none of them was susceptible to the kinds of public health interventions available at the time. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1900-1920. See also, D.C. Ewbank, "History of Black Mortality and Health Before 1940," Milbank Quarterly 1987 (65 Suppl 1): 100-28.
71. The other communicable diseases with a higher mortality rate among whites than among blacks were Diphtheria, and occasionally Measles and Scarlet Fever. Whites consistently outnumbered African Americans for deaths due to Diabetes, Cancer, Suicide, Appendicitis, and Senile Debility, but none of these was a communicable disease and none of them was susceptible to the kinds of public health interventions available at the time. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1900-1920. See also, D.C. Ewbank, "History of Black Mortality and Health Before 1940," Milbank Quarterly 1987 (65 Suppl 1): 100-28.
72. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1900, Table 13:29; 1901, Table 13:34; 1902, Table 13: 29; 1903, Table 13: 30; 1904, Table 13: 30; 1905, Table 13: 30; 1906, Table 23: 59; 1907, 33 and 67 ; 1908, 41 and 81; 1909, 35 and 73; and 1910, 48 and 104.
73. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1900, Table 13:29; 1901, Table 13:34; 1902, Table 13: 29; 1903, Table 13: 30; 1904, Table 13: 30; 1905, Table 13: 30; 1906, Table 23: 59; 1907, 33 and 67 ; 1908, 41 and 81; 1909, 35 and 73; and 1910, 48 and 104.
74. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1900, Table 13:29; 1901, Table 13:34; 1902, Table 13: 29; 1903, Table 13: 30; 1904, Table 13: 30; 1905, Table 13: 30; 1906, Table 23: 59; 1907, 33 and 67 ; 1908, 41 and 81; 1909, 35 and 73; and 1910, 48 and 104.
75. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1900, Table 13:29; 1901, Table 13:34; 1902, Table 13: 29; 1903, Table 13: 30; 1904, Table 13: 30; 1905, Table 13: 30; 1906, Table 23: 59; 1907, 33 and 67 ; 1908, 41 and 81; 1909, 35 and 73; and 1910, 48 and 104.
76. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1900, Table 13:29; 1901, Table 13:34; 1902, Table 13: 29; 1903, Table 13: 30; 1904, Table 13: 30; 1905, Table 13: 30; 1906, Table 23: 59; 1907, 33 and 67 ; 1908, 41 and 81; 1909, 35 and 73; and 1910, 48 and 104.
77. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1900, Table 13:29; 1901, Table 13:34; 1902, Table 13: 29; 1903, Table 13: 30; 1904, Table 13: 30; 1905, Table 13: 30; 1906, Table 23: 59; 1907, 33 and 67 ; 1908, 41 and 81; 1909, 35 and 73; and 1910, 48 and 104.
78. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1900, Table 13:29; 1901, Table 13:34; 1902, Table 13: 29; 1903, Table 13: 30; 1904, Table 13: 30; 1905, Table 13: 30; 1906, Table 23: 59; 1907, 33 and 67 ; 1908, 41 and 81; 1909, 35 and 73; and 1910, 48 and 104.
79. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1900, Table 13:29; 1901, Table 13:34; 1902, Table 13: 29; 1903, Table 13: 30; 1904, Table 13: 30; 1905, Table 13: 30; 1906, Table 23: 59; 1907, 33 and 67 ; 1908, 41 and 81; 1909, 35 and 73; and 1910, 48 and 104.
80. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1900, Table 13:29; 1901, Table 13:34; 1902, Table 13: 29; 1903, Table 13: 30; 1904, Table 13: 30; 1905, Table 13: 30; 1906, Table 23: 59; 1907, 33 and 67 ; 1908, 41 and 81; 1909, 35 and 73; and 1910, 48 and 104.
81. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1900, Table 13:29; 1901, Table 13:34; 1902, Table 13: 29; 1903, Table 13: 30; 1904, Table 13: 30; 1905, Table 13: 30; 1906, Table 23: 59; 1907, 33 and 67 ; 1908, 41 and 81; 1909, 35 and 73; and 1910, 48 and 104.
82. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1900, Table 13:29; 1901, Table 13:34; 1902, Table 13: 29; 1903, Table 13: 30; 1904, Table 13: 30; 1905, Table 13: 30; 1906, Table 23: 59; 1907, 33 and 67 ; 1908, 41 and 81; 1909, 35 and 73; and 1910, 48 and 104.
83. Ibid., 1911, 15; Ernest C. Levy and Allen W. Freeman, "Certain Conclusions Concerning Typhoid Fever in the South," Reprinted from the Old Dominion Journal of Medicine and Surgery, Vol. viz, No. 5 (November 1908)(Richmond, 1908); and E.C. Levy, "Reductions of Deaths from Infantile Diarrhea by Care of the Bowel Discharges of Infants" American Journal of Public Health vol. 10 (1920): 400.
84. Ibid., 1911, 15; Ernest C. Levy and Allen W. Freeman, "Certain Conclusions Concerning Typhoid Fever in the South," Reprinted from the Old Dominion Journal of Medicine and Surgery, Vol. viz, No. 5 (November 1908)(Richmond, 1908); and E.C. Levy, "Reductions of Deaths from Infantile Diarrhea by Care of the Bowel Discharges of Infants" American Journal of Public Health vol. 10 (1920): 400.
85. Ibid., 1911, 15; Ernest C. Levy and Allen W. Freeman, "Certain Conclusions Concerning Typhoid Fever in the South," Reprinted from the Old Dominion Journal of Medicine and Surgery, Vol. viz, No. 5 (November 1908)(Richmond, 1908); and E.C. Levy, "Reductions of Deaths from Infantile Diarrhea by Care of the Bowel Discharges of Infants" American Journal of Public Health vol. 10 (1920): 400.
86. American Journal of Public Health, vol. 7, no. 12 (Dec. 1922): 1042-1044.
87. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1908, 28-31; and 1915, 16.
88. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1908, 28-31; and 1915, 16.
89. Ibid., 1920, 9.
90. Ibid., 1916, 18.
91. Ibid., 1910, 10.
92. Meckel, Save the Babies; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Stuart Galishoff, Safeguarding the Public Health, Newark, 1895-1918 (Westport, CT, 1975), 81-119; Jesse D. Burks, "Clean Milk and Public Health," 192-206, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911); and S.W. Newmayer, "The Warfare Against Infant Mortality," 288-298, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911).
93. Meckel, Save the Babies; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Stuart Galishoff, Safeguarding the Public Health, Newark, 1895-1918 (Westport, CT, 1975), 81-119; Jesse D. Burks, "Clean Milk and Public Health," 192-206, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911); and S.W. Newmayer, "The Warfare Against Infant Mortality," 288-298, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911).
94. Meckel, Save the Babies; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Stuart Galishoff, Safeguarding the Public Health, Newark, 1895-1918 (Westport, CT, 1975), 81-119; Jesse D. Burks, "Clean Milk and Public Health," 192-206, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911); and S.W. Newmayer, "The Warfare Against Infant Mortality," 288-298, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911).
95. Meckel, Save the Babies; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Stuart Galishoff, Safeguarding the Public Health, Newark, 1895-1918 (Westport, CT, 1975), 81-119; Jesse D. Burks, "Clean Milk and Public Health," 192-206, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911); and S.W. Newmayer, "The Warfare Against Infant Mortality," 288-298, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911).
96. Meckel, Save the Babies; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Stuart Galishoff, Safeguarding the Public Health, Newark, 1895-1918 (Westport, CT, 1975), 81-119; Jesse D. Burks, "Clean Milk and Public Health," 192-206, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911); and S.W. Newmayer, "The Warfare Against Infant Mortality," 288-298, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911).
97. Meckel, Save the Babies; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Stuart Galishoff, Safeguarding the Public Health, Newark, 1895-1918 (Westport, CT, 1975), 81-119; Jesse D. Burks, "Clean Milk and Public Health," 192-206, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911); and S.W. Newmayer, "The Warfare Against Infant Mortality," 288-298, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911).
98. Meckel, Save the Babies; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Stuart Galishoff, Safeguarding the Public Health, Newark, 1895-1918 (Westport, CT, 1975), 81-119; Jesse D. Burks, "Clean Milk and Public Health," 192-206, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911); and S.W. Newmayer, "The Warfare Against Infant Mortality," 288-298, in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911).
99. "Response of Dr. Oppenheimer," 28 May 1906, 6-7 (Papers of Both Branches, 5/06-1/07); and Annual Report of the Health Department, 1906, 12.
100. American Journal of Public Health, vol. 7, no. 12 (Dec. 1922), 1044.
101. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1914, 29; and 1920, 33.
102. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1914, 29; and 1920, 33.
103. Ibid., 1914, 30.
104. Ibid., 29.
105. Ibid., 1910, 65.
106. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1914, 29.
107. Ibid., 1910, "Report of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 130-132.
108. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1914, 29-31.
109. Ibid.
110. Ibid., 1920, 32.
111. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South, 286; Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910, 68; and 1912, 44.
112. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South, 286; Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910, 68; and 1912, 44.
113. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South, 286; Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910, 68; and 1912, 44.
114. Annual Report of the Health Department, "Report of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; "Report of the Chief Nurse," 1915-1916; and Annual Report of the Health Department, Table 2 and Table 2A, 1910-1916.
115. Annual Report of the Health Department, "Report of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; "Report of the Chief Nurse," 1915-1916; and Annual Report of the Health Department, Table 2 and Table 2A, 1910-1916.
116. Annual Report of the Health Department, "Report of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; "Report of the Chief Nurse," 1915-1916; and Annual Report of the Health Department, Table 2 and Table 2A, 1910-1916.
117. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1920, 33.
118. Ibid., 1918, 28-29.
119. Ibid., 1916, 49, and 1918, 5.
120. Ibid., 1916, 49, and 1918, 5.
121. Ibid., 1917, 33.
122. Ibid., 1909, 33. This was not unusual. In Birmingham, Alabama, even though tuberculosis was the largest cause of deaths of African Americans in 1915, no medical institutions in the city would admit African American tuberculosis patients. Carl V. Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 1871-1921 (Knoxville, 1977), 160. This was often the case in northern cities as well. See Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia, 1992); and Marion M. Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes: Medical Research on a Racial Disease, 1830-1950." Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (July 1977): 260-261.
123. Ibid., 1909, 33. This was not unusual. In Birmingham, Alabama, even though tuberculosis was the largest cause of deaths of African Americans in 1915, no medical institutions in the city would admit African American tuberculosis patients. Carl V. Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 1871-1921 (Knoxville, 1977), 160. This was often the case in northern cities as well. See Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia, 1992); and Marion M. Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes: Medical Research on a Racial Disease, 1830-1950." Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (July 1977): 260-261.
124. Ibid., 1909, 33. This was not unusual. In Birmingham, Alabama, even though tuberculosis was the largest cause of deaths of African Americans in 1915, no medical institutions in the city would admit African American tuberculosis patients. Carl V. Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 1871-1921 (Knoxville, 1977), 160. This was often the case in northern cities as well. See Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia, 1992); and Marion M. Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes: Medical Research on a Racial Disease, 1830-1950." Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (July 1977): 260-261.
125. Ibid., 1909, 33. This was not unusual. In Birmingham, Alabama, even though tuberculosis was the largest cause of deaths of African Americans in 1915, no medical institutions in the city would admit African American tuberculosis patients. Carl V. Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 1871-1921 (Knoxville, 1977), 160. This was often the case in northern cities as well. See Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia, 1992); and Marion M. Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes: Medical Research on a Racial Disease, 1830-1950." Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (July 1977): 260-261.
126. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910, 46-47; 1911, 39-40; and 1916, 30.
127. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910, 46-47; 1911, 39-40; and 1916, 30.
128. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910, 46-47; 1911, 39-40; and 1916, 30.
129. Ibid., 1914, 29.
130. Ibid., 1909, 33-34; and John A. Kenney, "Health Problems of the Negroes," in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911).
131. Ibid., 1909, 33-34; and John A. Kenney, "Health Problems of the Negroes," in Emory R. Johnson, editor, The Public Health Movement, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. XXXVII, No. 2 (March 1911).
132. Beardsley, A History of Neglect, 137.
133. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South, 278-289; Stuart Gallishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (Vol. 40, Jan. 1985): 22-41; Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 160; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes;" Bates, Bargaining for Life; and John W. Trask, "The Significance of the Mortality Rates of the Colored Population of the United States," American Journal of Public Health 6 (1916): 254-260.
134. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South, 278-289; Stuart Gallishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (Vol. 40, Jan. 1985): 22-41; Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 160; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes;" Bates, Bargaining for Life; and John W. Trask, "The Significance of the Mortality Rates of the Colored Population of the United States," American Journal of Public Health 6 (1916): 254-260.
135. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South, 278-289; Stuart Gallishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (Vol. 40, Jan. 1985): 22-41; Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 160; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes;" Bates, Bargaining for Life; and John W. Trask, "The Significance of the Mortality Rates of the Colored Population of the United States," American Journal of Public Health 6 (1916): 254-260.
136. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South, 278-289; Stuart Gallishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (Vol. 40, Jan. 1985): 22-41; Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 160; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes;" Bates, Bargaining for Life; and John W. Trask, "The Significance of the Mortality Rates of the Colored Population of the United States," American Journal of Public Health 6 (1916): 254-260.
137. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South, 278-289; Stuart Gallishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (Vol. 40, Jan. 1985): 22-41; Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 160; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes;" Bates, Bargaining for Life; and John W. Trask, "The Significance of the Mortality Rates of the Colored Population of the United States," American Journal of Public Health 6 (1916): 254-260.
138. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South, 278-289; Stuart Gallishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (Vol. 40, Jan. 1985): 22-41; Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 160; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes;" Bates, Bargaining for Life; and John W. Trask, "The Significance of the Mortality Rates of the Colored Population of the United States," American Journal of Public Health 6 (1916): 254-260.
139. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South, 278-289; Stuart Gallishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (Vol. 40, Jan. 1985): 22-41; Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 160; Duffy, The Sanitarians; Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes;" Bates, Bargaining for Life; and John W. Trask, "The Significance of the Mortality Rates of the Colored Population of the United States," American Journal of Public Health 6 (1916): 254-260.
140. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1907, 25.
141. Ibid., 1907-1912.
142. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1908-1920, "Reports of the White Tuberculosis Dispensary," 1908-1920; "Reports of the Colored Tuberculosis Dispensary," 1908-1920; "Reports of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; and "Reports of the Chief Nurse, 1915-1920."
143. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1908-1920, "Reports of the White Tuberculosis Dispensary," 1908-1920; "Reports of the Colored Tuberculosis Dispensary," 1908-1920; "Reports of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; and "Reports of the Chief Nurse, 1915-1920."
144. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1908-1920, "Reports of the White Tuberculosis Dispensary," 1908-1920; "Reports of the Colored Tuberculosis Dispensary," 1908-1920; "Reports of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; and "Reports of the Chief Nurse, 1915-1920."
145. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1908-1920, "Reports of the White Tuberculosis Dispensary," 1908-1920; "Reports of the Colored Tuberculosis Dispensary," 1908-1920; "Reports of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; and "Reports of the Chief Nurse, 1915-1920."
146. Annual Message of the Mayor, 30 March 1907 (Richmond, Virginia), 21.
147. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1917, 33
148. Allan M. Brandt, "Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study," in Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers, eds., Sickness and Health In America; Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, second edition, revised (Madison, 1985), 331. See also, John Haller, Outcasts from Evolution; Scientific Attitudes of Racial Inferiority, 1859-1900 (Urbana, IL, 1971); Beardsley, A History of Neglect; David McBride, From TB to AIDS: Epidemics Among Urban Blacks Since 1900 (Albany, New York, 1991); James Reed, "Racism, Scientific," in Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris, eds., Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, vol. 4 (New York, 1991), 158-161; and Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes," 260-261.
149. Allan M. Brandt, "Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study," in Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers, eds., Sickness and Health In America; Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, second edition, revised (Madison, 1985), 331. See also, John Haller, Outcasts from Evolution; Scientific Attitudes of Racial Inferiority, 1859-1900 (Urbana, IL, 1971); Beardsley, A History of Neglect; David McBride, From TB to AIDS: Epidemics Among Urban Blacks Since 1900 (Albany, New York, 1991); James Reed, "Racism, Scientific," in Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris, eds., Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, vol. 4 (New York, 1991), 158-161; and Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes," 260-261.
150. Allan M. Brandt, "Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study," in Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers, eds., Sickness and Health In America; Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, second edition, revised (Madison, 1985), 331. See also, John Haller, Outcasts from Evolution; Scientific Attitudes of Racial Inferiority, 1859-1900 (Urbana, IL, 1971); Beardsley, A History of Neglect; David McBride, From TB to AIDS: Epidemics Among Urban Blacks Since 1900 (Albany, New York, 1991); James Reed, "Racism, Scientific," in Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris, eds., Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, vol. 4 (New York, 1991), 158-161; and Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes," 260-261.
151. Allan M. Brandt, "Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study," in Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers, eds., Sickness and Health In America; Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, second edition, revised (Madison, 1985), 331. See also, John Haller, Outcasts from Evolution; Scientific Attitudes of Racial Inferiority, 1859-1900 (Urbana, IL, 1971); Beardsley, A History of Neglect; David McBride, From TB to
152. Allan M. Brandt, "Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study," in Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers, eds., Sickness and Health In America; Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, second edition, revised (Madison, 1985), 331. See also, John Haller, Outcasts from Evolution; Scientific Attitudes of Racial Inferiority, 1859-1900 (Urbana, IL, 1971); Beardsley, A History of Neglect; David McBride, From TB to AIDS: Epidemics Among Urban Blacks Since 1900 (Albany, New York, 1991); James Reed, "Racism, Scientific," in Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris, eds., Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, vol. 4 (New York, 1991), 158-161; and Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes," 260-261.
153. Allan M. Brandt, "Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study," in Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers, eds., Sickness and Health In America; Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, second edition, revised (Madison, 1985), 331. See also, John Haller, Outcasts from Evolution; Scientific Attitudes of Racial Inferiority, 1859-1900 (Urbana, IL, 1971); Beardsley, A History of Neglect; David McBride, From TB to AIDS: Epidemics Among Urban Blacks Since 1900 (Albany, New York, 1991); James Reed, "Racism, Scientific," in Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris, eds., Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, vol. 4 (New York, 1991), 158-161; and Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes," 260-261.
154. Frederick L. Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro (New York, 1896); Beardsley, A History of Neglect, 130; W.D. Weatherford, Negro Life in the South, Present Conditions and Needs (New York, 1915), 71-83.
155. Frederick L. Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro (New York, 1896); Beardsley, A History of Neglect, 130; W.D. Weatherford, Negro Life in the South, Present Conditions and Needs (New York, 1915), 71-83.
156. Frederick L. Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro (New York, 1896); Beardsley, A History of Neglect, 130; W.D. Weatherford, Negro Life in the South, Present Conditions and Needs (New York, 1915), 71-83.
157. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1908, 40.
158. Ibid., 1917, 10.
159. Ibid., 1913, 36. See also Frederick L. Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro (New York, 1896, part of volume 11 of the Publications of the American Economic Association); Beardsley, A History of Neglect; and McBride, From TB to AIDS.
160. Ibid., 1913, 36. See also Frederick L. Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro (New York, 1896, part of volume 11 of the Publications of the American Economic Association); Beardsley, A History of Neglect; and McBride, From TB to AIDS.
161. Ibid., 1913, 36. See also Frederick L. Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro (New York, 1896, part of volume 11 of the Publications of the American Economic Association); Beardsley, A History of Neglect; and McBride, From TB to AIDS.
162. Ibid., 1913, 36. See also Frederick L. Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro (New York, 1896, part of volume 11 of the Publications of the American Economic Association); Beardsley, A History of Neglect; and McBride, From TB to AIDS.
163. Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn; and Reverby, Ordered to Care.
164. Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn; and Reverby, Ordered to Care.
165. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910-1920, "Reports of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; and "Reports of the Chief Nurse, 1915-1920."
166. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910-1920, "Reports of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; and "Reports of the Chief Nurse, 1915-1920."
167. The Ninth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond Virginia, 31 January 1911 (Richmond, 1911), 11. This was not uncommon, see Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn for other examples.
168. The Ninth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond Virginia, 31 January 1911 (Richmond, 1911), 11. This was not uncommon, see Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn for other examples.
169. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1917, "Report of the Chief Nurse," 90.
170. An additional factor influencing Richmond's public health nurses' uncharacteristic attention to the needs of African Americans was their relationship to the city's private physicians and the policies of the city's private visiting nurse association. The IVNA, dependent on charitable donations and fees for its livelihood, attended only those patients retaining a doctor. Families employing midwives were routinely dropped from care. The Ninth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond Virginia, 31 January 1911 (Richmond, 1911); The Seventeenth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of the Nurses' Settlement, Richmond, Virginia, 31 December 1918; and The Nineteenth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of the Nurses' Settlement, Richmond, Virginia, 31 December 1920.) The Health Department nurses, on the other hand, specialized in caring for patients without doctors and, in particular, those mothers employing midwives. Given the prominent role of midwives in the African-American community and the widespread inability to afford regular physicians' fees, the caseload of the Health Department nurses naturally accommodated a larger percentage of African Americans (Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910-1920, "Reports of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; and "Reports of the Chief Nurse, 1915-1920.")
171. An additional factor influencing Richmond's public health nurses' uncharacteristic attention to the needs of African Americans was their relationship to the city's private physicians and the policies of the city's private visiting nurse association. The IVNA, dependent on charitable donations and fees for its livelihood, attended only those patients retaining a doctor. Families employing midwives were routinely dropped from care. The Ninth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond Virginia, 31 January 1911 (Richmond, 1911); The Seventeenth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of the Nurses' Settlement, Richmond, Virginia, 31 December 1918; and The Nineteenth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of the Nurses' Settlement, Richmond, Virginia, 31 December 1920.) The Health Department nurses, on the other hand, specialized in caring for patients without doctors and, in particular, those mothers employing midwives. Given the prominent role of midwives in the African-American community and the widespread inability to afford regular physicians' fees, the caseload of the Health Department nurses naturally accommodated a larger percentage of African Americans (Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910-1920, "Reports of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; and "Reports of the Chief Nurse, 1915-1920.")
172. An additional factor influencing Richmond's public health nurses' uncharacteristic attention to the needs of African Americans was their relationship to the city's private physicians and the policies of the city's private visiting nurse association. The IVNA, dependent on charitable donations and fees for its livelihood, attended only those patients retaining a doctor. Families employing midwives were routinely dropped from care. The Ninth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond Virginia, 31 January 1911 (Richmond, 1911); The Seventeenth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of the Nurses' Settlement, Richmond, Virginia, 31 December 1918; and The Nineteenth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of the Nurses' Settlement, Richmond, Virginia, 31 December 1920.) The Health Department nurses, on the other hand, specialized in caring for patients without doctors and, in particular, those mothers employing midwives. Given the prominent role of midwives in the African-American community and the widespread inability to afford regular physicians' fees, the caseload of the Health Department nurses naturally accommodated a larger percentage of African Americans (Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910-1920, "Reports of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; and "Reports of the Chief Nurse, 1915-1920.")
173. An additional factor influencing Richmond's public health nurses' uncharacteristic attention to the needs of African Americans was their relationship to the city's private physicians and the policies of the city's private visiting nurse association. The IVNA, dependent on charitable donations and fees for its livelihood, attended only those patients retaining a doctor. Families employing midwives were routinely dropped from care. The Ninth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond Virginia, 31 January 1911 (Richmond, 1911); The Seventeenth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of the Nurses' Settlement, Richmond, Virginia, 31 December 1918; and The Nineteenth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of the Nurses' Settlement, Richmond, Virginia, 31 December 1920.) The Health Department nurses, on the other hand, specialized in caring for patients without doctors and, in particular, those mothers employing midwives. Given the prominent role of midwives in the African-American community and the widespread inability to afford regular physicians' fees, the caseload of the Health Department nurses naturally accommodated a larger percentage of African Americans (Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910-1920, "Reports of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; and "Reports of the Chief Nurse, 1915-1920.")
174. An additional factor influencing Richmond's public health nurses' uncharacteristic attention to the needs of African Americans was their relationship to the city's private physicians and the policies of the city's private visiting nurse association. The IVNA, dependent on charitable donations and fees for its livelihood, attended only those patients retaining a doctor. Families employing midwives were routinely dropped from care. The Ninth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of Richmond Virginia, 31 January 1911 (Richmond, 1911); The Seventeenth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of the Nurses' Settlement, Richmond, Virginia, 31 December 1918; and The Nineteenth Annual Report of the Instructive Visiting Nurse Association of the Nurses' Settlement, Richmond, Virginia, 31 December 1920.) The Health Department nurses, on the other hand, specialized in caring for patients without doctors and, in particular, those mothers employing midwives. Given the prominent role of midwives in the African-American community and the widespread inability to afford regular physicians' fees, the caseload of the Health Department nurses naturally accommodated a larger percentage of African Americans (Annual Report of the Health Department, 1910-1920, "Reports of the Nurse in Charge of Work for the Prevention of Infant Mortality," 1910-1914; and "Reports of the Chief Nurse, 1915-1920.")
175. An important influence on Levy, no doubt, was his courtship and marriage to the city's Chief Public Health Nurse in 1912. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1912.
176. Darlene Clark Hine, Black Women in White, Racial Conflict and Cooperation in the Nursing Profession, 1890-1950 (Bloomington, 1989), 92.
177. Annual Report of the Health Department, 1906-1916.
178. Ibid., 1915, 34.
179. Ibid., 1916, 6-7.
180. Ibid., 10.
181. Based on 1995 statistics, infant mortality among African Americans is 2 1/2 times as high as among whites. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Health Care Rx: Access for All, The President's Initiative on Race, "Barriers to Health Care for Racial and Ethnic Minorities: Access: Workforce Diversity, and Cultural Competence, " 2. See, also, the web site established on the issue by the Office of Minority Health, http://www.raceandhealth.omhrc.gov/, accessed June 24, 2000.
182. Based on 1995 statistics, infant mortality among African Americans is 2 1/2 times as high as among whites. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Health Care Rx: Access for All, The President's Initiative on Race, "Barriers to Health Care for Racial and Ethnic Minorities: Access: Workforce Diversity, and Cultural Competence, " 2. See, also, the web site established on the issue by the Office of Minority Health, http://www.raceandhealth.omhrc.gov/, accessed June 24, 2000.
183. Edward A. McKinney, "The Crisis of Medical Care in the United States: Implications of a Canadian Type Health Plan for African Americans," Urban League Review, vol. 16, no. 1 (1993): 57.