Coming to terms with failed revolutions: Historiography in Syria, Germany and France

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 35, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 17-44

  Schaebler, Birgit ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0040886122     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00263209908701254     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Compare for example Imanuel Geiss/Rainer Tamchina, 'Die Revolution in der Weltgeschichte' in Geiss/Tamchina (Hrsg.), Ansichten einer künftigen Geschichtswissenschaft, Band II. Revolution - Ein historischer Längsschnitt (Frankfurt, 1980).
2. E.J. Hobsbawm, 'From Social History to the History of Society' in Daedalus, 100 (1971), 'Historical Studies Today'. This article proved to be a watershed in the development of social history.
3. Readers only interested in Syrian historiography are referred to the relevant sections in this essay.
4. Some new works on the German revolution: Hans-Joachim Bieber, Bürgertum in der Revolution. Bürgerräte und Bürgerstreiks in Deutschland 1918 1920 (Hamburg, 1992) and: Gewerkschaften in Krieg und Revolution. Arbeiterbewegung, Industrie. Staat und Militär in Deutschland 1914-1920, 2 vols. (Hamburg, 1981); Peter Brandt/Reinhard Rürup, Volksbewegungen und demokratische Neuordnung in Baden 1918/19. Zur Vorgeschichte und Geschichte der Revolution (Sigmaringen, 1991); Ulrich Kluge, Die Deutsche Revolution 1918/19 (Frankfurt, 1985).
5. Some new works on the German revolution: Hans-Joachim Bieber, Bürgertum in der Revolution. Bürgerräte und Bürgerstreiks in Deutschland 1918 1920 (Hamburg, 1992) and: Gewerkschaften in Krieg und Revolution. Arbeiterbewegung, Industrie. Staat und Militär in Deutschland 1914-1920, 2 vols. (Hamburg, 1981); Peter Brandt/Reinhard Rürup, Volksbewegungen und demokratische Neuordnung in Baden 1918/19. Zur Vorgeschichte und Geschichte der Revolution (Sigmaringen, 1991); Ulrich Kluge, Die Deutsche Revolution 1918/19 (Frankfurt, 1985).
6. Some new works on the German revolution: Hans-Joachim Bieber, Bürgertum in der Revolution. Bürgerräte und Bürgerstreiks in Deutschland 1918 1920 (Hamburg, 1992) and: Gewerkschaften in Krieg und Revolution. Arbeiterbewegung, Industrie. Staat und Militär in Deutschland 1914-1920, 2 vols. (Hamburg, 1981); Peter Brandt/Reinhard Rürup, Volksbewegungen und demokratische Neuordnung in Baden 1918/19. Zur Vorgeschichte und Geschichte der Revolution (Sigmaringen, 1991); Ulrich Kluge, Die Deutsche Revolution 1918/19 (Frankfurt, 1985).
7. Some new works on the German revolution: Hans-Joachim Bieber, Bürgertum in der Revolution. Bürgerräte und Bürgerstreiks in Deutschland 1918 1920 (Hamburg, 1992) and: Gewerkschaften in Krieg und Revolution. Arbeiterbewegung, Industrie. Staat und Militär in Deutschland 1914-1920, 2 vols. (Hamburg, 1981); Peter Brandt/Reinhard Rürup, Volksbewegungen und demokratische Neuordnung in Baden 1918/19. Zur Vorgeschichte und Geschichte der Revolution (Sigmaringen, 1991); Ulrich Kluge, Die Deutsche Revolution 1918/19 (Frankfurt, 1985).
8. This view was still to be found in the 1950s: Theodor Eschenburg, Die improvisierte Demokratie (Laupheim, 1951).
9. The Wehrmacht had its own research institution which published accounts on 'post-war fighting of German troups and free corps'. Darstellungen aus den Nachkriegskämpfen deutscher Truppen und Freicorps. Im Auftrag des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht bearbeitet und herausgegeben von der kriegsgeschichtlichen Forschungsanstalt des Heeres. The fourth volume for example was on the defeat of the counsels in Bavaria: Die Niederwerfung der Räteherrschaft in Bayern 1919 (Berlin, 1939).
10. The Wehrmacht had its own research institution which published accounts on 'post-war fighting of German troups and free corps'. Darstellungen aus den Nachkriegskämpfen deutscher Truppen und Freicorps. Im Auftrag des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht bearbeitet und herausgegeben von der kriegsgeschichtlichen Forschungsanstalt des Heeres. The fourth volume for example was on the defeat of the counsels in Bavaria: Die Niederwerfung der Räteherrschaft in Bayern 1919 (Berlin, 1939).
11. Karl-Dietrich Erdmann, 'Die Geschichte der Weimarer Republik als Problem der Wissenschaft' in Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Vol.3 (1955), p.7. It is important to note, of course, that new methods and approaches evolved especially after 1945 and German historiography in general 'diversified'. See lately: Dietmar Rothermund, Geschichte als Prozeß und Aussage. Eine Einführung in Theorien des historischen Wandels und der Geschichtsschreibung (München, 1995).
12. Karl-Dietrich Erdmann, 'Die Geschichte der Weimarer Republik als Problem der Wissenschaft' in Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Vol.3 (1955), p.7. It is important to note, of course, that new methods and approaches evolved especially after 1945 and German historiography in general 'diversified'. See lately: Dietmar Rothermund, Geschichte als Prozeß und Aussage. Eine Einführung in Theorien des historischen Wandels und der Geschichtsschreibung (München, 1995).
13. A good example is the volume published at the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the revolution: Lothar Berthold/Helmut Neef, Militarismus und Opportunismus gegen die Novemberrevolution (Berlin [capital of the GDR], 1978).
14. Some examples: Wolfgang Elben, Das Problem der Kontinuität in der Deutschen Revolution (Düsseldorf, 1965); Gerhard A. Ritter/Susanne Miller (Hg.), Die Deutsche Revolution. 1918/19. Dokumente (Frankfurt, 1968); Reinhard Rürup, Probleme der Revolution in Deutschland, 1918/19 (Wiesbaden, 1968); a good example for a less academic and highly enthusiastic, activist approach: Theorie und Praxis der Arbeiterräte (Berlin Ça ira Presse, 1968).
15. Some examples: Wolfgang Elben, Das Problem der Kontinuität in der Deutschen Revolution (Düsseldorf, 1965); Gerhard A. Ritter/Susanne Miller (Hg.), Die Deutsche Revolution. 1918/19. Dokumente (Frankfurt, 1968); Reinhard Rürup, Probleme der Revolution in Deutschland, 1918/19 (Wiesbaden, 1968); a good example for a less academic and highly enthusiastic, activist approach: Theorie und Praxis der Arbeiterräte (Berlin Ça ira Presse, 1968).
16. Some examples: Wolfgang Elben, Das Problem der Kontinuität in der Deutschen Revolution (Düsseldorf, 1965); Gerhard A. Ritter/Susanne Miller (Hg.), Die Deutsche Revolution. 1918/19. Dokumente (Frankfurt, 1968); Reinhard Rürup, Probleme der Revolution in Deutschland, 1918/19 (Wiesbaden, 1968); a good example for a less academic and highly enthusiastic, activist approach: Theorie und Praxis der Arbeiterräte (Berlin Ça ira Presse, 1968).
17. Some examples: Wolfgang Elben, Das Problem der Kontinuität in der Deutschen Revolution (Düsseldorf, 1965); Gerhard A. Ritter/Susanne Miller (Hg.), Die Deutsche Revolution. 1918/19. Dokumente (Frankfurt, 1968); Reinhard Rürup, Probleme der Revolution in Deutschland, 1918/19 (Wiesbaden, 1968); a good example for a less academic and highly enthusiastic, activist approach: Theorie und Praxis der Arbeiterräte (Berlin Ça ira Presse, 1968).
18. Especially the early study of Allan Mitchell, Revolution in Bavaria, 1918/19. The Eisner Regime and the Soviet Republic (Princeton University Press. 1965; German edition: München, 1967); later also: Carsten, Francis Eudwig Masaryk, Revolution in Central Europe, 1918-1919 (Temple Smith London, 1972); very important also on a more popular level: The book of the German-British journalist Sebastian Haffner, 1918/19. Eine deutsche Revolution, 1st ed. (1968).
19. Especially the early study of Allan Mitchell, Revolution in Bavaria, 1918/19. The Eisner Regime and the Soviet Republic (Princeton University Press. 1965; German edition: München, 1967); later also: Carsten, Francis Eudwig Masaryk, Revolution in Central Europe, 1918-1919 (Temple Smith London, 1972); very important also on a more popular level: The book of the German-British journalist Sebastian Haffner, 1918/19. Eine deutsche Revolution, 1st ed. (1968).
20. Especially the early study of Allan Mitchell, Revolution in Bavaria, 1918/19. The Eisner Regime and the Soviet Republic (Princeton University Press. 1965; German edition: München, 1967); later also: Carsten, Francis Eudwig Masaryk, Revolution in Central Europe, 1918-1919 (Temple Smith London, 1972); very important also on a more popular level: The book of the German-British journalist Sebastian Haffner, 1918/19. Eine deutsche Revolution, 1st ed. (1968).
21. Memoirs are usually written much later than contemporary reports; they do, however, belong to the first stage because of their highly personal character, although their views may be influenced by subsequent events.
22. Reinhard Rürup, Die Revolution von, 1918/19 in der Deutschen Geschichte, Vortrag vor dem Gesprächskreis Geschichte der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung in Bonn, 4 November 1993, p.5.
23. For a discussion of these different concepts see Itamar Rabinovich, 'Syria and the Syrian Land' in Thomas Philipp (ed.), The Syrian Land in the 18th and 19th Century (Stuttgart, 1992).
24. Karim Khalil Thabit, al-Duruz wa-l-thaura al-suriyya wa-sirat Sultan Basha al-Atrash (Cairo, 1925). I did not find bibliographical information on the author, who seems also to have written a book on 'Abd al-Karim and the Rif war.
25. Khair al-Din al-Zirikli, muqqadima, in Karim Khalil Thabit, al-Duruz wa-l-thauru al-suriyya wa-sirat Sultan Basha al-Atrash (Cairo, 1925), p.1.
26. Ibid, p.a to d (alif to dal).
27. Nation is in the strict sense of the term not a correct word to be used here, since Islam is by definition universal, supra-national.
28. All biographical information is taken from: Jurj Faris, man huwa fi suriya (Damascus, 1951) (2nd ed.) and 'Abd al-Qadir 'Ayyash, mu'jam al-mu'allifin al-suriyin fi al-qarn al-'ishrin (Damascus, 1985).
29. All biographical information is taken from: Jurj Faris, man huwa fi suriya (Damascus, 1951) (2nd ed.) and 'Abd al-Qadir 'Ayyash, mu'jam al-mu'allifin al-suriyin fi al-qarn al-'ishrin (Damascus, 1985).
30. Amin Sa'id, al-thaura al-'arabiyya al-kubra, tarikh mufassal jami' l-il-qadiyya al-'arabiyya fi rub' qarn (Cairo, 1933).
31. Munir al-Rayyis, al-kitab al-dhahabi l-il-thaurat al-wataniyya fi al-mashriq al-'arabi. al-thaura al-suriyya al-kubra (Beirut, 1936).
32. Muammad Kurd 'Ali, al-mudhakkirat (Damascus, 1949-1951), p.1206; Dimashq, madinat al-sihr wa-l-shi'r (Cairo, 1944).
33. Muammad Kurd 'Ali, al-mudhakkirat (Damascus, 1949-1951), p.1206; Dimashq, madinat al-sihr wa-l-shi'r (Cairo, 1944).
34. Muyi al-Din al-Safarjalani, tarikh al-thaura al-suriyya (Damascus, 1961).
35. Adham al-Jundi, tarikh al-thaurat al-suriyya fi 'ahd al-intidab al-faransi (Damascus, 1960).
36. Zafir al-Qasimi, watha 'iq jadida min al-thaura al-suriyya al-kubra (Beirut, 1965).
37. al-Qasimi, p.5.
38. Ibid.
39. Salama 'Ubayd, al-thaura al-suriyya al-kubra, 1925-27 'ala dan' watha'iq lam tunshar, Beirut, 1971.
40. 'Ubayd, p.251.
41. 'bada' at durziatan fa asbahat suriyyatan 'amman', Yusuf al-Hakim, Suriyya wa-l-intidab al-faransi (Beirut, 1983), p.116.
42. Itamar Rabinovich, 'Historiography and politics in Syria', in Asian Affairs (February 1978), p.59.
43. Ibid., pp.63, 64.
44. Ibid., p.63.
45. Jamil al-'Alawani, nidal sha'b wa sijill julud (Damascus, 1973), muqqadima by Dr Nabih 'Aqil, pp.11-17.
46. Jamil al-'Alawani, nidal sha'b wa sijill julud (Damascus, 1973), muqqadima by Dr Nabih 'Aqil, pp.11-17.
47. Ilyas al-Fadil, Ramiz Mahithawi, sijill al-dhahabi li-l-mujahidin al-suriyyin (Damascus, 1973);
48. decree nr. 48, signed by Hafiz al-Asad, p.11.
49. Ulrike Freitag, Geschichtsschreibung in Syrien (Hamburg, 1991), p.60.
50. Abdul-Karim Rafeq, 'Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft und politische Macht in Syrien, 1918-1925' in Linda Schilcher/Klaus Scharf, Der Nahe Osten in der Zwischenkriegszeit (Stuttgart, 1989), where he concentrates more on the early revolts (1918-21, led by Ibrahim Hananu and Shaykh Salih al-'Ali) in the north-west of Syria than on the 'later ones in the south, triggered by Sultan Pasha al-Atrash's revolt in the Druze Mountain', ibid., p.464.
51. Abdul-Karim Rafeq, 'Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft und politische Macht in Syrien, 1918-1925' in Linda Schilcher/Klaus Scharf, Der Nahe Osten in der Zwischenkriegszeit (Stuttgart, 1989), where he concentrates more on the early revolts (1918-21, led by Ibrahim Hananu and Shaykh Salih al-'Ali) in the north-west of Syria than on the 'later ones in the south, triggered by Sultan Pasha al-Atrash's revolt in the Druze Mountain', ibid., p.464.
52. As the title already suggests, he is also only writing on the extension of the Great Revolt into the north in his 'min tarikh Suriyya al-hadith: al-'alaqat al-suriyya al-turkiyya, 1918-1926', in Dirasat Tarikhiyya, 19/20 (1985), p.56-105.
53. Walid al-Mu'allim, Suriya, 1918-1985, al-tahaddi wa-l-muwajaha (Damascus, 1985), pp.12, 13.
54. Dhuqan Qarqut, tatawwur al-haraka al-wataniyya fi suriyya, 1920-1939 (Beirut, 1975).
55. See, as an example, the works of 'Anwar Yassin' (pseudonym) in the 'series on secret religions': al'aqida al-durziyya; al-ta'lim al-dini al-durzi; al-nabbi Muhammad fi-l-'aqida al-durziyya; al-'ajl wa-l-shaytan fi-l-'aqida al-durziyya.
56. Personal interviews with 'Abbas Abu Salih and Sami Makarim, Beirut, January/February 1992.
57. Hasan Amin al-Bu'aini, Sultan Pasha al-Atrash, masirat qa 'id fi tarikh ummatin, manshurat lajnat al-i'lam/al-idara al-madaniyya fi-1-jabal (Lebanon, 1985);
58. al-Bu'aini is also author of Jabal al-'Arab. Safhat min tarikh al-muwahhidin al-duruz (1685-1927) (Beirut, 1985), which includes three chapters on the Great Revolt.
59. Ibid.
60. For a detailed account see Birgit Schäbler, Aufstaende im Drusenbergland. Ethnizitaet und Integration einer laendlichen Gesellschaft Syriens vom Ende des Osmanischen Reiches bis zur staatlichen Unabhaengigkeit (Gotha, 1996) (Revolts in the Jabal Druze, English version forthcoming).
61. According to participant observation and interviews with Zayd (brother of Sultan) and Mansur (son of Sultan) of the Qurayya branch and 'Abdallah of the Suwayda' branch of the Atrash family, as well as a number of other inhabitants of the Province in, 1990, 1992 and, 1993. Sultan Pasha himself had accordingly planned to hold a great festival at the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the outbreak of the Great Revolt, in 1975, in which all 'revolutionaries' from all over Syria were to be invited. But it was signalled that the President wished 'to postpone' the event, which consequently did not take place.
62. The disciplinary intention of the stone is also made obvious by the fact that the 25th anniversary of the coming into power of the Ba'th was in fact a year earlier, in 1988; a Ba'th commemoration stone in front of Mansur al-Atrash's house is also delicate, because the latter was pushed out of the party after the military wing took over.
63. Robert D. Kaplan, 27Identity crisis'. The Atlantic (February 1993), p.22.
64. I here use Freitag's term. Compare her article on 'historical correctness' in this volume.
65. See for this issue Gregor Voss, 'Alawiya oder Nusairiya? Schiitische Machtelite und sunnitische Opposition in der Syrischen Arabischen Republik (Hamburg, 1987). Prejudice against the Alawites as a group seems to be so ingrained that even secularist intellectuals who vigorously attack Islamistic argumentation, use themselves the very same arguments when addressing an Alawite. This is the case, for example, with the Syrian author Nabil Fayyad. Eckart Wörtz, Traditionelles Selbstbild und Moderne. Grundzüge einer aktuellen Diskussion in Syrien', unpublished MA thesis, Erlangen, 1995.
66. See for this issue Gregor Voss, 'Alawiya oder Nusairiya? Schiitische Machtelite und sunnitische Opposition in der Syrischen Arabischen Republik (Hamburg, 1987). Prejudice against the Alawites as a group seems to be so ingrained that even secularist intellectuals who vigorously attack Islamistic argumentation, use themselves the very same arguments when addressing an Alawite. This is the case, for example, with the Syrian author Nabil Fayyad. Eckart Wörtz, Traditionelles Selbstbild und Moderne. Grundzüge einer aktuellen Diskussion in Syrien', unpublished MA thesis, Erlangen, 1995.
67. See Nikolaos van Dam, The Struggle for Power in Syria. Sectarianism. Regionalism and Tribalism in Politics (London, 1979); van Dam, 'Middle Eastern Political Clichés: 'Takriti' and 'Sunni' rule in Iraq, 'Alawi rule' in Syria', in Orient, 21 (1980), van Dam, The Struggle for Power in Syria. Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba 'Ih Party (London, 1996). But it would be too simple to blame the reluctance of dealing with this issue only to the repression of the regime. How dangerous sectarianism can be Syrians have witnessed with the Lebanese civil war. Even opponents to the regime do acknowledge the merits of the secular outlook of Ba'thist Syria. Syrian passports, for example, do not contain the religion of the bearer; the opposite case in Lebanon proved to be fatal for many Lebaneses during the civil war. The simplistic reduction of the regime to 'Alawi rule' and the accompanying anti-Alawite or rather anti-Shiite religious agitation of the Islamist forces are apt to disquiet other religious-ethnic groups, as the Druzes, as well. Although the Druzes, of course, are not a main target of this propaganda.
68. See Nikolaos van Dam, The Struggle for Power in Syria. Sectarianism. Regionalism and Tribalism in Politics (London, 1979); van Dam, 'Middle Eastern Political Clichés: 'Takriti' and 'Sunni' rule in Iraq, 'Alawi rule' in Syria', in Orient, 21 (1980), van Dam, The Struggle for Power in Syria. Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba 'Ih Party (London, 1996). But it would be too simple to blame the reluctance of dealing with this issue only to the repression of the regime. How dangerous sectarianism can be Syrians have witnessed with the Lebanese civil war. Even opponents to the regime do acknowledge the merits of the secular outlook of Ba'thist Syria. Syrian passports, for example, do not contain the religion of the bearer; the opposite case in Lebanon proved to be fatal for many Lebaneses during the civil war. The simplistic reduction of the regime to 'Alawi rule' and the accompanying anti-Alawite or rather anti-Shiite religious agitation of the Islamist forces are apt to disquiet other religious-ethnic groups, as the Druzes, as well. Although the Druzes, of course, are not a main target of this propaganda.
69. See Nikolaos van Dam, The Struggle for Power in Syria. Sectarianism. Regionalism and Tribalism in Politics (London, 1979); van Dam, 'Middle Eastern Political Clichés: 'Takriti' and 'Sunni' rule in Iraq, 'Alawi rule' in Syria', in Orient, 21 (1980), van Dam, The Struggle for Power in Syria. Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba 'Ih Party (London, 1996). But it would be too simple to blame the reluctance of dealing with this issue only to the repression of the regime. How dangerous sectarianism can be Syrians have witnessed with the Lebanese civil war. Even opponents to the regime do acknowledge the merits of the secular outlook of Ba'thist Syria. Syrian passports, for example, do not contain the religion of the bearer; the opposite case in Lebanon proved to be fatal for many Lebaneses during the civil war. The simplistic reduction of the regime to 'Alawi rule' and the accompanying anti-Alawite or rather anti-Shiite religious agitation of the Islamist forces are apt to disquiet other religious-ethnic groups, as the Druzes, as well. Although the Druzes, of course, are not a main target of this propaganda.
70. This was exactly the course David MacDowall took. David MacDowall, 'The Druze revolt, 1925-27 and its background in the late Ottoman Empire', unpublished B. Litt, thesis, Oxford, 1972.
71. See the contribution of James Reilly in this volume.
72. Sa'id al-Sughayyir, Banu Ma'ruf fi-l-tarikh (al-Qurayya, 1984); Yusuf Salim al-Dubaysi, ahl al-tauhid, 'al-duruz' wa khasa'is madhhabihim al-diniyya wa-l-ijtima'iyya, Lebanon (no exact place), 1992, 5 vols; the book developed out of MA and doctoral studies by the author at Cairo university.
73. Sa'id al-Sughayyir, Banu Ma'ruf fi-l-tarikh (al-Qurayya, 1984); Yusuf Salim al-Dubaysi, ahl al-tauhid, 'al-duruz' wa khasa'is madhhabihim al-diniyya wa-l-ijtima'iyya, Lebanon (no exact place), 1992, 5 vols; the book developed out of MA and doctoral studies by the author at Cairo university.
74. Al-Duruz has in this context traditionally been rejected because it names the sect after al-Darazi, a somewhat contested founder of the madhhab.
75. Dhuqan Qarqut, 'min ma'arik al-thaura al-suriyya al-kubra, 1925-27: ma'rakat al-Kafr', in Dirasat Tarikhiyya, 49 (1994).
76. For example: Général Andréa, La révolte druze et l'insurrection de Damas, 1925-26 (Paris, 1937); Paul Coblentz, Le silence de Sarrail (Paris, 1930); André Laffargue, Le Général Dentz (Paris, 1940-Syrie, 1941) (Paris, 1954); Général Catroux, Deux missions en Moyen Orient, 1919-1922 (Paris, 1958); Dans la bataille de la Méditerranée (Paris, 1949).
77. For example: Général Andréa, La révolte druze et l'insurrection de Damas, 1925-26 (Paris, 1937); Paul Coblentz, Le silence de Sarrail (Paris, 1930); André Laffargue, Le Général Dentz (Paris, 1940-Syrie, 1941) (Paris, 1954); Général Catroux, Deux missions en Moyen Orient, 1919-1922 (Paris, 1958); Dans la bataille de la Méditerranée (Paris, 1949).
78. For example: Général Andréa, La révolte druze et l'insurrection de Damas, 1925-26 (Paris, 1937); Paul Coblentz, Le silence de Sarrail (Paris, 1930); André Laffargue, Le Général Dentz (Paris, 1940-Syrie, 1941) (Paris, 1954); Général Catroux, Deux missions en Moyen Orient, 1919-1922 (Paris, 1958); Dans la bataille de la Méditerranée (Paris, 1949).
79. For example: Général Andréa, La révolte druze et l'insurrection de Damas, 1925-26 (Paris, 1937); Paul Coblentz, Le silence de Sarrail (Paris, 1930); André Laffargue, Le Général Dentz (Paris, 1940-Syrie, 1941) (Paris, 1954); Général Catroux, Deux missions en Moyen Orient, 1919-1922 (Paris, 1958); Dans la bataille de la Méditerranée (Paris, 1949).
80. For example: Général Andréa, La révolte druze et l'insurrection de Damas, 1925-26 (Paris, 1937); Paul Coblentz, Le silence de Sarrail (Paris, 1930); André Laffargue, Le Général Dentz (Paris, 1940-Syrie, 1941) (Paris, 1954); Général Catroux, Deux missions en Moyen Orient, 1919-1922 (Paris, 1958); Dans la bataille de la Méditerranée (Paris, 1949).
81. For example: O. Djabry, La Syrie sous le régime du mandat (Toulouse, 1934); Nadir Kuzbari, La question de la cessation du Mandat français sur la Syrie (Paris, 1937); R. O'Zoux, Les états du Levant sous Mandat français (Paris, 1931); J. Lapierre, Le Mandat français en Syrie (Paris, 1937).
82. For example: O. Djabry, La Syrie sous le régime du mandat (Toulouse, 1934); Nadir Kuzbari, La question de la cessation du Mandat français sur la Syrie (Paris, 1937); R. O'Zoux, Les états du Levant sous Mandat français (Paris, 1931); J. Lapierre, Le Mandat français en Syrie (Paris, 1937).
83. For example: O. Djabry, La Syrie sous le régime du mandat (Toulouse, 1934); Nadir Kuzbari, La question de la cessation du Mandat français sur la Syrie (Paris, 1937); R. O'Zoux, Les états du Levant sous Mandat français (Paris, 1931); J. Lapierre, Le Mandat français en Syrie (Paris, 1937).
84. For example: O. Djabry, La Syrie sous le régime du mandat (Toulouse, 1934); Nadir Kuzbari, La question de la cessation du Mandat français sur la Syrie (Paris, 1937); R. O'Zoux, Les états du Levant sous Mandat français (Paris, 1931); J. Lapierre, Le Mandat français en Syrie (Paris, 1937).
85. Pierre Rondot, 'L'expérience du Mandat français en Syrie et au Liban, 1918-45', in Revue Générale de Droit International Publique, 3-4 (1948).
86. Michel Seurat, 'Le rôle de Lyon dans l'installation du Mandat français en Syrie: intérêts économiques et culturels, luttes d'opinion, 1915-1925', in Bulletin d'Etudes Orientales 31, 1979; Dominique Chevallier, 'Lyon et la Syrie en 1919: les bases d'une intervention' in Villes et travail en Syrie (Paris, 1983). Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique: André Raymond (éd.). La Syrie d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1980).
87. Michel Seurat, 'Le rôle de Lyon dans l'installation du Mandat français en Syrie: intérêts économiques et culturels, luttes d'opinion, 1915-1925', in Bulletin d'Etudes Orientales 31, 1979; Dominique Chevallier, 'Lyon et la Syrie en 1919: les bases d'une intervention' in Villes et travail en Syrie (Paris, 1983). Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique: André Raymond (éd.). La Syrie d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1980).
88. Michel Seurat, 'Le rôle de Lyon dans l'installation du Mandat français en Syrie: intérêts économiques et culturels, luttes d'opinion, 1915-1925', in Bulletin d'Etudes Orientales 31, 1979; Dominique Chevallier, 'Lyon et la Syrie en 1919: les bases d'une intervention' in Villes et travail en Syrie (Paris, 1983). Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique: André Raymond (éd.). La Syrie d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1980).
89. Edmond Rabbath, 'L'insurrection syrienne de, 1925-27', in Revue Historique (1982/2); Edmond Rabbath, a Greek-Orthodox Christian from Aleppo, was a member of the National Bloc and a deputy during the Mandate period. With his book Unité Syrienne et Devenir Arabe (1937) he became one of the founding fathers of a secular pan-Arabist nationalism in Syria.
90. Edmond Rabbath, 'L'insurrection syrienne de, 1925-27', in Revue Historique (1982/2); Edmond Rabbath, a Greek-Orthodox Christian from Aleppo, was a member of the National Bloc and a deputy during the Mandate period. With his book Unité Syrienne et Devenir Arabe (1937) he became one of the founding fathers of a secular pan-Arabist nationalism in Syria.
91. Lenka Bokova, La confrontation franco-syrienne à l'époque du Mandat, 1925-27 (Paris, 1991).
92. Pierre Fournié and Jean-Louis Riccioli, La France et le Proche-Orient, 1916-1946. Une chronique photographique de la présence française en Syrie et au Liban, en Palestine, au Hedjaz et en Cilicie. Les beaux livres du patrimoine, casterman, 1996, chapter four: La révolte druze et le soulèvement nationaliste, pp. 109-21.
93. Gérard Khoury, La France et l'Orient Arabe, 19/4-1920: Naissance' du Liban Moderne (Paris, 1993).
94. Samia Hannachi, 'Les députés français face aux questions du Levant, 1920-1924'; Jalila Sbai, 'La politique musulmane de la France et les pays sous mandat'; Pierre Fournié, 'L'administration mandataire: les structures, les hommes'; Marianne Durand-Lacaze, 'La question des frontières au lendemain de la première guerre mondiale: l'exemple de la Syrie à l'époque du mandat français'; papers delivered at the workshop 'The French Mandate in Syria and Lebanon', organized by the Centre for Lebanese Studies at St Antony's College, Oxford, 8-10 July 1994.
95. Samia Hannachi, 'Les députés français face aux questions du Levant, 1920-1924'; Jalila Sbai, 'La politique musulmane de la France et les pays sous mandat'; Pierre Fournié, 'L'administration mandataire: les structures, les hommes'; Marianne Durand-Lacaze, 'La question des frontières au lendemain de la première guerre mondiale: l'exemple de la Syrie à l'époque du mandat français'; papers delivered at the workshop 'The French Mandate in Syria and Lebanon', organized by the Centre for Lebanese Studies at St Antony's College, Oxford, 8-10 July 1994.
96. Samia Hannachi, 'Les députés français face aux questions du Levant, 1920-1924'; Jalila Sbai, 'La politique musulmane de la France et les pays sous mandat'; Pierre Fournié, 'L'administration mandataire: les structures, les hommes'; Marianne Durand-Lacaze, 'La question des frontières au lendemain de la première guerre mondiale: l'exemple de la Syrie à l'époque du mandat français'; papers delivered at the workshop 'The French Mandate in Syria and Lebanon', organized by the Centre for Lebanese Studies at St Antony's College, Oxford, 8-10 July 1994.
97. Samia Hannachi, 'Les députés français face aux questions du Levant, 1920-1924'; Jalila Sbai, 'La politique musulmane de la France et les pays sous mandat'; Pierre Fournié, 'L'administration mandataire: les structures, les hommes'; Marianne Durand-Lacaze, 'La question des frontières au lendemain de la première guerre mondiale: l'exemple de la Syrie à l'époque du mandat français'; papers delivered at the workshop 'The French Mandate in Syria and Lebanon', organized by the Centre for Lebanese Studies at St Antony's College, Oxford, 8-10 July 1994.
98. Christian Velud, Une expérience d'administration régionale en Syrie durant le Mandat Français. Conquête, colonisation et mise en valeur de la Jazira, 1920-36 (1991).
99. Elizabeth P. MacCallum, The Nationalist Crusade in Syria (New York, 1928), Stephen H. Longrigg, Syria and Lebanon under French Mandate (London, 1958).
100. Elizabeth P. MacCallum, The Nationalist Crusade in Syria (New York, 1928), Stephen H. Longrigg, Syria and Lebanon under French Mandate (London, 1958).
101. Philip S. Khoury, Syria and the French Mandate. The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920-1945, London, 1987
102. President Chirac's speech was made at the 43rd anniversary of the rafle du Vel 'd'hiv, the Vélodrome d'hiver, where French police had arrested and camped 12.000 Jews before having them transported into the concentration camps of Nazi Germany. While Mitterand had always strictly denied any responsibility of la France and ceremoniously laid down wreaths on the grave of Marshal Pétain, chef d'état of Vichy France, Chirac admitted that 'ces heures noires souillent à jamais notre histoire et sont une injure à notre passé et à nos traditions'. See the article of Jean-Baptiste de Montvalon, 'M. Chirac reconnaît la "faute collective" commise envers les juifs'. Le Monde, 18 July 1995, including extracts of Chirac's speech.
103. Khoury (1987), p.45f., footnote 4.
104. S.H. Roberts, A History of French Colonial Policy (London, 1929), p.602.
105. Raymond, p.85.
106. Henri Blet, France d'Outre-Mer: L'oeuvre coloniale de la Troisième République, tôme 3 (Paris, 1950), p.261.
107. Pierre Bonardi, L'imbroglio syrien (Paris, 1927), pp.101-2.
108. Compare Christian Simon, Staat und Geschichtswissenschaft in Deutschland und Frankreich 1871 -1914 (Bern, 1988), p.553.
109. Yves Bouthillier, Le drame de Vichy (Paris, 1950), p.7.
110. Paul Coblentz, Le silence de Sarrail (Paris, 1930), p.289.
111. Ibid.
112. Bonardi, p.63 (translation B.M.S.).
113. Longrigg, p.314.
114. Général André Laffargue, Le Général Dentz, Paris. 1940 Syrie, 1941. Préface par Weygand, Paris (?).
115. FO E 7099/357/89, Smart to Chamberlain, 2 November 1925.
116. Général Catroux, Dans la bataille de la Méditerranée (Paris, 1949), pp. 194 and 198.
117. David Hull, Science as a Process. An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science (Chicago, 1988); for an excellent discussion of Hull's theory see Dietmar Rothermund, Geschichte als Prozeß und Aussage. Eine Einführung in Theorien des historischen Wandels und der Geschichtsschreibung (Munich, 1995), pp.130-6.
118. David Hull, Science as a Process. An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science (Chicago, 1988); for an excellent discussion of Hull's theory see Dietmar Rothermund, Geschichte als Prozeß und Aussage. Eine Einführung in Theorien des historischen Wandels und der Geschichtsschreibung (Munich, 1995), pp.130-6.
119. Although Kant, who coined this term, was eurocentric in that he saw it as the duty of the enlightened part of the world to give its laws to the rest. Immanuel Kant, 'Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht', in Immanuel Kant, Ausgewählte kleine Schriften (Leipzig, 1942), pp.23-38; here p.37.
120. Compare Rothermund, pp.202-13.
121. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983), p.15; Anderson used for this definition Ernest Renan, 'Qu'estce qu'une nation?' in Oeuvres Complètes, Vol.1 (Paris, 1947), p.892
122. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983), p.15; Anderson used for this definition Ernest Renan, 'Qu'estce qu'une nation?' in Oeuvres Complètes, Vol.1 (Paris, 1947), p.892
123. Hobsbawm and Ranger, p.13.