Workplace alcohol-testing programs: Prevalence and trends

Monthly Labor Review

Volumn 121, Issue 6, 1998, Pages 27-34

  Hartwell, Tyler D ^a   Steele, Paul D ^b   Rodman, Nathaniel F ^a  

^a RTI INTERNATIONAL   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040874166     PISSN: 00981818     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (44)

1. J. Normand, R. O. Lempert, and C. P. O'Brien, eds., Under the Influence: Drugs and the American Workforce (Washington, National Academy Press, 1994), p. 191.
2. B. C. Alleyne, P. Stuart, and R. Copes, "Alcohol and other drug use in occupational fatalities," Journal of Occupational Medicine, vol. 33, 1991, pp. 496-500; R. W. Hingson, R. I. Lederman, and D.C. Walsh, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury: a study of four New England states," Journal of Studies on Alcohol, vol. 46, 1985, pp. 298-303; R. J. Lewis and S. P. Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs, and fatal work-related injuries," Journal of Occupational Medicine, vol. 31, 1989, pp. 23-28; and H. M. Trice and P. M. Roman, Spirits and Demons at Work (Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1972).
3. B. C. Alleyne, P. Stuart, and R. Copes, "Alcohol and other drug use in occupational fatalities," Journal of Occupational Medicine, vol. 33, 1991, pp. 496-500; R. W. Hingson, R. I. Lederman, and D.C. Walsh, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury: a study of four New England states," Journal of Studies on Alcohol, vol. 46, 1985, pp. 298-303; R. J. Lewis and S. P. Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs, and fatal work-related injuries," Journal of Occupational Medicine, vol. 31, 1989, pp. 23-28; and H. M. Trice and P. M. Roman, Spirits and Demons at Work (Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1972).
4. B. C. Alleyne, P. Stuart, and R. Copes, "Alcohol and other drug use in occupational fatalities," Journal of Occupational Medicine, vol. 33, 1991, pp. 496-500; R. W. Hingson, R. I. Lederman, and D.C. Walsh, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury: a study of four New England states," Journal of Studies on Alcohol, vol. 46, 1985, pp. 298-303; R. J. Lewis and S. P. Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs, and fatal work-related injuries," Journal of Occupational Medicine, vol. 31, 1989, pp. 23-28; and H. M. Trice and P. M. Roman, Spirits and Demons at Work (Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1972).
5. B. C. Alleyne, P. Stuart, and R. Copes, "Alcohol and other drug use in occupational fatalities," Journal of Occupational Medicine, vol. 33, 1991, pp. 496-500; R. W. Hingson, R. I. Lederman, and D.C. Walsh, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury: a study of four New England states," Journal of Studies on Alcohol, vol. 46, 1985, pp. 298-303; R. J. Lewis and S. P. Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs, and fatal work-related injuries," Journal of Occupational Medicine, vol. 31, 1989, pp. 23-28; and H. M. Trice and P. M. Roman, Spirits and Demons at Work (Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1972).
6. For example, see Howard V. Hayghe, "Anti-drug programs in the workplace: are they here to stay?" Monthly Labor Review, April 1991, pp. 26-29.
7. W. E. K. Lehman, M. L. Holcom, and D. D. Simpson, "Employee health and performance in the workplace: a survey of municipal employees in a large southwest city" (Fort Worth, TX, Institute of Behavioral Research, Texas Christian University, 1990), unpublished; J. Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence; and A. L. Rosenbaum, W. E. K. Lehman, K. E. Olson, and M. L. Holcom, "Prevalence of substance use and its association with performance among municipal workers in a southwestern city" (Fort Worth, TX, Institute of Behavioral Research, Texas Christian University, 1992), unpublished.
8. W. E. K. Lehman, M. L. Holcom, and D. D. Simpson, "Employee health and performance in the workplace: a survey of municipal employees in a large southwest city" (Fort Worth, TX, Institute of Behavioral Research, Texas Christian University, 1990), unpublished; J. Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence; and A. L. Rosenbaum, W. E. K. Lehman, K. E. Olson, and M. L. Holcom, "Prevalence of substance use and its association with performance among municipal workers in a southwestern city" (Fort Worth, TX, Institute of Behavioral Research, Texas Christian University, 1992), unpublished.
9. W. E. K. Lehman, M. L. Holcom, and D. D. Simpson, "Employee health and performance in the workplace: a survey of municipal employees in a large southwest city" (Fort Worth, TX, Institute of Behavioral Research, Texas Christian University, 1990), unpublished; J. Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence; and A. L. Rosenbaum, W. E. K. Lehman, K. E. Olson, and M. L. Holcom, "Prevalence of substance use and its association with performance among municipal workers in a southwestern city" (Fort Worth, TX, Institute of Behavioral Research, Texas Christian University, 1992), unpublished.
10. D. B. Kandel, and K. Yamaguchi, "Job mobility and drug use: an event history analysis," American Journal of Sociology, 1987, vol. 92, pp. 836-78.
11. Alleyne and others, "Alcohol and other drug use," 1991; J. C. Fell, and T. Klein, The nature of the reduction in alcohol in U.S. fatal crashes, SAE technical paper 860038 (Warrensdale, PA, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1986); Hingson and others, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury; M. L Holcom, W. E. K. Lehman, and D. D. Simpson, "Employee accidents: influences of personal characteristics, job characteristics, and substance use," Journal of Safety Research, 1993; T. Klein, A Method for Estimating Posterior BAC Distributions for Persons Involved in Fatal Traffic Accidents (Washington, Sigmastat, 1986); J. J. Kuhlman, B. Levine, M. L. Smith, and J. R. Hordinsky, "Toxicological findings in Federal Aviation Administration general aviation accidents" Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 36, 1991; pp. 1121-28; Lewis and Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs;" D. M. Andrenyak, R. P. Smith, D. G. Wilkins, A. M. Hoffman, and D. E. Rollins, "Mandatory post accident drug and alcohol testing for the Federal Railroad Administration" in S. W. Gust, J. M. Walsh, L. B. Thomas, and D. J. Crouch, eds., Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data, vol. II, NIDA Research Monograph No. 100 (Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1990); Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence; Transportation Research Board, Zero Alcohol and Other Options: Limits for Truck and Bus Drivers, Special report 216 (Washington, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 1987).
12. Alleyne and others, "Alcohol and other drug use," 1991; J. C. Fell, and T. Klein, The nature of the reduction in alcohol in U.S. fatal crashes, SAE technical paper 860038 (Warrensdale, PA, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1986); Hingson and others, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury; M. L Holcom, W. E. K. Lehman, and D. D. Simpson, "Employee accidents: influences of personal characteristics, job characteristics, and substance use," Journal of Safety Research, 1993; T. Klein, A Method for Estimating Posterior BAC Distributions for Persons Involved in Fatal Traffic Accidents (Washington, Sigmastat, 1986); J. J. Kuhlman, B. Levine, M. L. Smith, and J. R. Hordinsky, "Toxicological findings in Federal Aviation Administration general aviation accidents" Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 36, 1991; pp. 1121-28; Lewis and Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs;" D. M. Andrenyak, R. P. Smith, D. G. Wilkins, A. M. Hoffman, and D. E. Rollins, "Mandatory post accident drug and alcohol testing for the Federal Railroad Administration" in S. W. Gust, J. M. Walsh, L. B. Thomas, and D. J. Crouch, eds., Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data, vol. II, NIDA Research Monograph No. 100 (Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1990); Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence; Transportation Research Board, Zero Alcohol and Other Options: Limits for Truck and Bus Drivers, Special report 216 (Washington, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 1987).
13. Alleyne and others, "Alcohol and other drug use," 1991; J. C. Fell, and T. Klein, The nature of the reduction in alcohol in U.S. fatal crashes, SAE technical paper 860038 (Warrensdale, PA, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1986); Hingson and others, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury; M. L Holcom, W. E. K. Lehman, and D. D. Simpson, "Employee accidents: influences of personal characteristics, job characteristics, and substance use," Journal of Safety Research, 1993; T. Klein, A Method for Estimating Posterior BAC Distributions for Persons Involved in Fatal Traffic Accidents (Washington, Sigmastat, 1986); J. J. Kuhlman, B. Levine, M. L. Smith, and J. R. Hordinsky, "Toxicological findings in Federal Aviation Administration general aviation accidents" Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 36, 1991; pp. 1121-28; Lewis and Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs;" D. M. Andrenyak, R. P. Smith, D. G. Wilkins, A. M. Hoffman, and D. E. Rollins, "Mandatory post accident drug and alcohol testing for the Federal Railroad Administration" in S. W. Gust, J. M. Walsh, L. B. Thomas, and D. J. Crouch, eds., Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data, vol. II, NIDA Research Monograph No. 100 (Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1990); Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence; Transportation Research Board, Zero Alcohol and Other Options: Limits for Truck and Bus Drivers, Special report 216 (Washington, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 1987).
14. Alleyne and others, "Alcohol and other drug use," 1991; J. C. Fell, and T. Klein, The nature of the reduction in alcohol in U.S. fatal crashes, SAE technical paper 860038 (Warrensdale, PA, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1986); Hingson and others, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury; M. L Holcom, W. E. K. Lehman, and D. D. Simpson, "Employee accidents: influences of personal characteristics, job characteristics, and substance use," Journal of Safety Research, 1993; T. Klein, A Method for Estimating Posterior BAC Distributions for Persons Involved in Fatal Traffic Accidents (Washington, Sigmastat, 1986); J. J. Kuhlman, B. Levine, M. L. Smith, and J. R. Hordinsky, "Toxicological findings in Federal Aviation Administration general aviation accidents" Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 36, 1991; pp. 1121-28; Lewis and Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs;" D. M. Andrenyak, R. P. Smith, D. G. Wilkins, A. M. Hoffman, and D. E. Rollins, "Mandatory post accident drug and alcohol testing for the Federal Railroad Administration" in S. W. Gust, J. M. Walsh, L. B. Thomas, and D. J. Crouch, eds., Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data, vol. II, NIDA Research Monograph No. 100 (Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1990); Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence; Transportation Research Board, Zero Alcohol and Other Options: Limits for Truck and Bus Drivers, Special report 216 (Washington, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 1987).
15. Alleyne and others, "Alcohol and other drug use," 1991; J. C. Fell, and T. Klein, The nature of the reduction in alcohol in U.S. fatal crashes, SAE technical paper 860038 (Warrensdale, PA, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1986); Hingson and others, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury; M. L Holcom, W. E. K. Lehman, and D. D. Simpson, "Employee accidents: influences of personal characteristics, job characteristics, and substance use," Journal of Safety Research, 1993; T. Klein, A Method for Estimating Posterior BAC Distributions for Persons Involved in Fatal Traffic Accidents (Washington, Sigmastat, 1986); J. J. Kuhlman, B. Levine, M. L. Smith, and J. R. Hordinsky, "Toxicological findings in Federal Aviation Administration general aviation accidents" Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 36, 1991; pp. 1121-28; Lewis and Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs;" D. M. Andrenyak, R. P. Smith, D. G. Wilkins, A. M. Hoffman, and D. E. Rollins, "Mandatory post accident drug and alcohol testing for the Federal Railroad Administration" in S. W. Gust, J. M. Walsh, L. B. Thomas, and D. J. Crouch, eds., Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data, vol. II, NIDA Research Monograph No. 100 (Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1990); Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence; Transportation Research Board, Zero Alcohol and Other Options: Limits for Truck and Bus Drivers, Special report 216 (Washington, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 1987).
16. Alleyne and others, "Alcohol and other drug use," 1991; J. C. Fell, and T. Klein, The nature of the reduction in alcohol in U.S. fatal crashes, SAE technical paper 860038 (Warrensdale, PA, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1986); Hingson and others, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury; M. L Holcom, W. E. K. Lehman, and D. D. Simpson, "Employee accidents: influences of personal characteristics, job characteristics, and substance use," Journal of Safety Research, 1993; T. Klein, A Method for Estimating Posterior BAC Distributions for Persons Involved in Fatal Traffic Accidents (Washington, Sigmastat, 1986); J. J. Kuhlman, B. Levine, M. L. Smith, and J. R. Hordinsky, "Toxicological findings in Federal Aviation Administration general aviation accidents" Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 36, 1991; pp. 1121-28; Lewis and Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs;" D. M. Andrenyak, R. P. Smith, D. G. Wilkins, A. M. Hoffman, and D. E. Rollins, "Mandatory post accident drug and alcohol testing for the Federal Railroad Administration" in S. W. Gust, J. M. Walsh, L. B. Thomas, and D. J. Crouch, eds., Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data, vol. II, NIDA Research Monograph No. 100 (Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1990); Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence; Transportation Research Board, Zero Alcohol and Other Options: Limits for Truck and Bus Drivers, Special report 216 (Washington, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 1987).
17. Alleyne and others, "Alcohol and other drug use," 1991; J. C. Fell, and T. Klein, The nature of the reduction in alcohol in U.S. fatal crashes, SAE technical paper 860038 (Warrensdale, PA, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1986); Hingson and others, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury; M. L Holcom, W. E. K. Lehman, and D. D. Simpson, "Employee accidents: influences of personal characteristics, job characteristics, and substance use," Journal of Safety Research, 1993; T. Klein, A Method for Estimating Posterior BAC Distributions for Persons Involved in Fatal Traffic Accidents (Washington, Sigmastat, 1986); J. J. Kuhlman, B. Levine, M. L. Smith, and J. R. Hordinsky, "Toxicological findings in Federal Aviation Administration general aviation accidents" Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 36, 1991; pp. 1121-28; Lewis and Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs;" D. M. Andrenyak, R. P. Smith, D. G. Wilkins, A. M. Hoffman, and D. E. Rollins, "Mandatory post accident drug and alcohol testing for the Federal Railroad Administration" in S. W. Gust, J. M. Walsh, L. B. Thomas, and D. J. Crouch, eds., Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data, vol. II, NIDA Research Monograph No. 100 (Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1990); Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence; Transportation Research Board, Zero Alcohol and Other Options: Limits for Truck and Bus Drivers, Special report 216 (Washington, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 1987).
18. Alleyne and others, "Alcohol and other drug use," 1991; J. C. Fell, and T. Klein, The nature of the reduction in alcohol in U.S. fatal crashes, SAE technical paper 860038 (Warrensdale, PA, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1986); Hingson and others, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury; M. L Holcom, W. E. K. Lehman, and D. D. Simpson, "Employee accidents: influences of personal characteristics, job characteristics, and substance use," Journal of Safety Research, 1993; T. Klein, A Method for Estimating Posterior BAC Distributions for Persons Involved in Fatal Traffic Accidents (Washington, Sigmastat, 1986); J. J. Kuhlman, B. Levine, M. L. Smith, and J. R. Hordinsky, "Toxicological findings in Federal Aviation Administration general aviation accidents" Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 36, 1991; pp. 1121-28; Lewis and Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs;" D. M. Andrenyak, R. P. Smith, D. G. Wilkins, A. M. Hoffman, and D. E. Rollins, "Mandatory post accident drug and alcohol testing for the Federal Railroad Administration" in S. W. Gust, J. M. Walsh, L. B. Thomas, and D. J. Crouch, eds., Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data, vol. II, NIDA Research Monograph No. 100 (Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1990); Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence; Transportation Research Board, Zero Alcohol and Other Options: Limits for Truck and Bus Drivers, Special report 216 (Washington, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 1987).
19. Alleyne and others, "Alcohol and other drug use," 1991; J. C. Fell, and T. Klein, The nature of the reduction in alcohol in U.S. fatal crashes, SAE technical paper 860038 (Warrensdale, PA, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1986); Hingson and others, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury; M. L Holcom, W. E. K. Lehman, and D. D. Simpson, "Employee accidents: influences of personal characteristics, job characteristics, and substance use," Journal of Safety Research, 1993; T. Klein, A Method for Estimating Posterior BAC Distributions for Persons Involved in Fatal Traffic Accidents (Washington, Sigmastat, 1986); J. J. Kuhlman, B. Levine, M. L. Smith, and J. R. Hordinsky, "Toxicological findings in Federal Aviation Administration general aviation accidents" Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 36, 1991; pp. 1121-28; Lewis and Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs;" D. M. Andrenyak, R. P. Smith, D. G. Wilkins, A. M. Hoffman, and D. E. Rollins, "Mandatory post accident drug and alcohol testing for the Federal Railroad Administration" in S. W. Gust, J. M. Walsh, L. B. Thomas, and D. J. Crouch, eds., Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data, vol. II, NIDA Research Monograph No. 100 (Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1990); Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence; Transportation Research Board, Zero Alcohol and Other Options: Limits for Truck and Bus Drivers, Special report 216 (Washington, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 1987).
20. Alleyne and others, "Alcohol and other drug use," 1991; J. C. Fell, and T. Klein, The nature of the reduction in alcohol in U.S. fatal crashes, SAE technical paper 860038 (Warrensdale, PA, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1986); Hingson and others, "Employee drinking patterns and accidental injury; M. L Holcom, W. E. K. Lehman, and D. D. Simpson, "Employee accidents: influences of personal characteristics, job characteristics, and substance use," Journal of Safety Research, 1993; T. Klein, A Method for Estimating Posterior BAC Distributions for Persons Involved in Fatal Traffic Accidents (Washington, Sigmastat, 1986); J. J. Kuhlman, B. Levine, M. L. Smith, and J. R. Hordinsky, "Toxicological findings in Federal Aviation Administration general aviation accidents" Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 36, 1991; pp. 1121-28; Lewis and Cooper, "Alcohol, other drugs;" D. M. Andrenyak, R. P. Smith, D. G. Wilkins, A. M. Hoffman, and D. E. Rollins, "Mandatory post accident drug and alcohol testing for the Federal Railroad Administration" in S. W. Gust, J. M. Walsh, L. B. Thomas, and D. J. Crouch, eds., Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data, vol. II, NIDA Research Monograph No. 100 (Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1990); Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence; Transportation Research Board, Zero Alcohol and Other Options: Limits for Truck and Bus Drivers, Special report 216 (Washington, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 1987).
21. T. C. Blum, P. M. Roman, and J. K. Martin, "Alcohol consumption and work performance," Journal of Studies on Alcohol, vol. 44,1993, pp. 61-70.
22. R. C. Hollinger, "Working under the influence (WUI): correlates of employees' use of alcohol and other drugs," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science vol. 24, 1988, pp. 439-54; and W. E. K. Lehman, D. J. Farabee, M. L. Holcom, and D. D. Simpson, "Prediction of substance use in the workplace: unique contributions of demographic and work environment variables" (Fort Worth, TX, Institute of Behavioral Research, Texas Christian University, 1991), unpublished.
23. R. C. Hollinger, "Working under the influence (WUI): correlates of employees' use of alcohol and other drugs," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science vol. 24, 1988, pp. 439-54; and W. E. K. Lehman, D. J. Farabee, M. L. Holcom, and D. D. Simpson, "Prediction of substance use in the workplace: unique contributions of demographic and work environment variables" (Fort Worth, TX, Institute of Behavioral Research, Texas Christian University, 1991), unpublished.
24. M. D. Newcomb, Drug Use in the Workplace: Risk Factors for Disruptive Substance Use Among Young Adults (Dover, MD, Auburn House, 1988); and Rosenbaum and others, "Prevalence of substance use."
25. M. D. Newcomb, Drug Use in the Workplace: Risk Factors for Disruptive Substance Use Among Young Adults (Dover, MD, Auburn House, 1988); and Rosenbaum and others, "Prevalence of substance use."
26. W. Reichman, D. W. Young, and L. Gracin, "Identification of alcoholics in the workplace," Recent Developments in Alcoholism vol. 6, 1988, pp. 171-79; and Trice and Roman, Sprits and Demons at Work.
27. W. Reichman, D. W. Young, and L. Gracin, "Identification of alcoholics in the workplace," Recent Developments in Alcoholism vol. 6, 1988, pp. 171-79; and Trice and Roman, Sprits and Demons at Work.
28. W. J. Sonnenstuhl and H. M. Trice, Strategies for Employee Assistance Programs: the Crucial Balance, Revised edition (Ithaca, NY, ILR Press, 1990.)
29. W. J. Sonnenstuhl, Working Sober: The Transformation of an Occupational Drinking Culture (Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1996).
30. H. M. Trice and P. D. Steele, "Impairment testing issues and convergence with employee assistance," Journal of Drug Issues, vol. 25, 1995, pp. 471-503.
31. Blum, and others, "Alcohol consumption;" and T. D. Hartwell, P. D. Steele, M. T. French, and N. F. Rodman, "Prevalence of drug testing in the workplace," Monthly Labor Review, November 1996, pp. 35-42.
32. Blum, and others, "Alcohol consumption;" and T. D. Hartwell, P. D. Steele, M. T. French, and N. F. Rodman, "Prevalence of drug testing in the workplace," Monthly Labor Review, November 1996, pp. 35-42.
33. H. M. Trice, and P. D. Steele, "Impairment testing issues and convergence with employee assistance," Journal of Drug Issues, vol. 25 no. 2, 1995, pp. 471-503.
34. Normand and others, eds., Under the Influence, p. 191.
35. Hartwell and others, "Prevalence of drug testing."
36. While we do not have definitive information to explain why urinalysis is the preferred method of detecting excessive alcohol consumption, two explanations are possible. First, because alcohol testing is most likely to occur in worksites that also test for illicit drugs, it could be that alcohol ingestion is merely added to the urinalysis drug-test battery. The implementation of breathalyzer testing that would provide immediate estimates of blood alcohol content would be a cost added to those of current testing procedures in these worksites. Second, some employers could feel that much of the deterrent effect of breathalyzer testing (that is, causing fewer workers to arrive at work with excessive blood alcohol content levels, and allowing for the immediate removal of impaired employees from the workplace when detected with high levels) can be achieved by urinalysis. Specifically, if employees are aware that they are being tested for alcohol impairment, and that coming to work with excessively high blood alcohol content levels is likely to be negatively sanctioned (regardless of the relative time delay in management detecting the employee's impairment caused by the urinalysis testing procedure), employers might believe that workers would be deterred from arriving at work under the influence of alcohol.
37. W. P. Delaney and G. Ames, "Work team attitudes, drinking norms, and workplace drinking," Journal of Drug Issues, vol. 25, 1995, pp. 275-90; and Sonnenstuhl and Trice, Strategies for Employee Assistance Programs.
38. W. P. Delaney and G. Ames, "Work team attitudes, drinking norms, and workplace drinking," Journal of Drug Issues, vol. 25, 1995, pp. 275- 90; and Sonnenstuhl and Trice, Strategies for Employee Assistance Programs.
39. For example, see T. C. Blum, P. M. Roman, and J. K. Martin, "Alcohol consumption and work performance," Journal of Studies on Alcohol, vol. 44, 1993, pp. 61-70; and Hartwell and others, "Prevalence of drug testing."
40. For example, see T. C. Blum, P. M. Roman, and J. K. Martin, "Alcohol consumption and work performance," Journal of Studies on Alcohol, vol. 44, 1993, pp. 61-70; and Hartwell and others, "Prevalence of drug testing."
41. Normand, and others, eds., Under the Influence; and Trice and Steele, "Impairment testing issues."
42. Normand, and others, eds., Under the Influence; and Trice and Steele, "Impairment testing issues."
43. Hartwell, and others, "Prevalence of drug testing."
44. Trice and Steele, "Impairment testing issues."