Negotiating power at the bedside: Historical perspectives on nineteenth-century patients and their gynecologists

Feminist Studies

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 287-309

  Morantz Sanchez, Regina ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040807625     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3178534     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Brooklyn Eagle, 3 May 1889. This incident and the career of Mary Dixon Jones is analyzed in detail in my recently published book, Conduct Unbecoming a Woman: Medicine on Trial in Turn-of-the-Century Brooklyn (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). Reflex theory still dominated medical thinking in the latter half of the nineteenth century, although there were numerous challenges to it. "Reflex irritation" as Glover meant it was that the nervous connections between the pelvic region and the brain could well have generated Hunt's headaches in spite of the fact that the original and primary locus of irritation was inflammation of the uterine or ovarian region. Radical surgeons took pelvic inflammation seriously and advised the surgical removal of the source of irritation, perhaps a diseased ovary or fallopian tube. Conservative physicians sanctioned operations only in the most extreme and obvious cases of diseased organs, while psychiatrists tended to reject surgery altogether as an effective solution. See Edward Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era (New York: Free Press, 1992), 40-68, for a summary of reflex theory; and Nancy Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse: A Step toward Deconstructing Science," Signs 19 (Autumn 1993): 1-31, for disagreements between surgeons and psychiatrists.
2. Brooklyn Eagle, 3 May 1889. This incident and the career of Mary Dixon Jones is analyzed in detail in my recently published book, Conduct Unbecoming a Woman: Medicine on Trial in Turn-of-the-Century Brooklyn (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). Reflex theory still dominated medical thinking in the latter half of the nineteenth century, although there were numerous challenges to it. "Reflex irritation" as Glover meant it was that the nervous connections between the pelvic region and the brain could well have generated Hunt's headaches in spite of the fact that the original and primary locus of irritation was inflammation of the uterine or ovarian region. Radical surgeons took pelvic inflammation seriously and advised the surgical removal of the source of irritation, perhaps a diseased ovary or fallopian tube. Conservative physicians sanctioned operations only in the most extreme and obvious cases of diseased organs, while psychiatrists tended to reject surgery altogether as an effective solution. See Edward Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era (New York: Free Press, 1992), 40-68, for a summary of reflex theory; and Nancy Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse: A Step toward Deconstructing Science," Signs 19 (Autumn 1993): 1-31, for disagreements between surgeons and psychiatrists.
3. Brooklyn Eagle, 3 May 1889. This incident and the career of Mary Dixon Jones is analyzed in detail in my recently published book, Conduct Unbecoming a Woman: Medicine on Trial in Turn-of-the-Century Brooklyn (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). Reflex theory still dominated medical thinking in the latter half of the nineteenth century, although there were numerous challenges to it. "Reflex irritation" as Glover meant it was that the nervous connections between the pelvic region and the brain could well have generated Hunt's headaches in spite of the fact that the original and primary locus of irritation was inflammation of the uterine or ovarian region. Radical surgeons took pelvic inflammation seriously and advised the surgical removal of the source of irritation, perhaps a diseased ovary or fallopian tube. Conservative physicians sanctioned operations only in the most extreme and obvious cases of diseased organs, while psychiatrists tended to reject surgery altogether as an effective solution. See Edward Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era (New York: Free Press, 1992), 40-68, for a summary of reflex theory; and Nancy Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse: A Step toward Deconstructing Science," Signs 19 (Autumn 1993): 1-31, for disagreements between surgeons and psychiatrists.
4. Brooklyn Eagle, 3 May 1889.
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
7. See Brooklyn Eagle and Brooklyn Citizen, 19 Feb. 1890.
8. See Morantz-Sanchez, Conduct Unbecoming, for a thorough investigation of the larger issues of the trial.
9. C.E.A. Winslow's classic work, The Conquest of Epidemic Disease: A Chapter in the History of Ideas (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1943), for example, does not have even a category entitled "patients" in the index.
10. We think of Jane Todd Crawford, memorialized for traveling sixty miles on horseback to allow American surgeon Ephraim McDowell attempt the successful removal of a diseased ovary, or Alexis St. Martin, the unfortunate victim of a shooting accident whose permanent fistula allowed William Beaumont to perform a range of innovative experiments on the physiology of digestion. And who can forget the brave stoicism of the slave Anarcha, who endured repeated experimental operations without anesthesia in support of J. Marion Sims's obsessive quest to find a cure for vesico-vaginal fistula? See John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979), 135-39, 140-42, 143-46.
11. See Richard Shryock, Medicine America: Historical Essays (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966), esp. "The American Physician in 1846 and 1946: A Study in Professional Contrast," 149-76, and "Sylvester Graham and the Popular Health Movement," 111-25. For a recent elaboration of the concept of the medical market, see Anne Digby, Making a Medical Living: Doctors and Patients in the English Market of Medicine, 1720-1911 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 2ff.
12. See Richard Shryock, Medicine America: Historical Essays (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966), esp. "The American Physician in 1846 and 1946: A Study in Professional Contrast," 149-76, and "Sylvester Graham and the Popular Health Movement," 111-25. For a recent elaboration of the concept of the medical market, see Anne Digby, Making a Medical Living: Doctors and Patients in the English Market of Medicine, 1720-1911 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 2ff.
13. See Richard Shryock, Medicine America: Historical Essays (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966), esp. "The American Physician in 1846 and 1946: A Study in Professional Contrast," 149-76, and "Sylvester Graham and the Popular Health Movement," 111-25. For a recent elaboration of the concept of the medical market, see Anne Digby, Making a Medical Living: Doctors and Patients in the English Market of Medicine, 1720-1911 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 2ff.
14. See Richard Shryock, Medicine America: Historical Essays (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966), esp. "The American Physician in 1846 and 1946: A Study in Professional Contrast," 149-76, and "Sylvester Graham and the Popular Health Movement," 111-25. For a recent elaboration of the concept of the medical market, see Anne Digby, Making a Medical Living: Doctors and Patients in the English Market of Medicine, 1720-1911 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 2ff.
15. A representative example of this work can be found in the essays collected in Medicine without Doctors, edited by Guenter B. Risse, Ronald Numbers, and Judith Walzer Leavitt (New York: Science History Publications, 1977).
16. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic (New York: Vintage Books, 1973).
17. Roy Porter, ed., Patients and Practitioners: Lay Perceptions of Medicine in Preindustrial Society (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 2. Much of Porter's subsequent work has attempted to remedy the situation. See also Edward Shorter, Bedside Manners: The Troubled History of Doctors and Patients (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985) for a similar attempt to bring the patient back into the equation. For a later work on self-dosing, see Lamar R. Murphy, Enter the Physician: The Transformation of Domestic Medicine, 1760-1860 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991).
18. Roy Porter, ed., Patients and Practitioners: Lay Perceptions of Medicine in Preindustrial Society (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 2. Much of Porter's subsequent work has attempted to remedy the situation. See also Edward Shorter, Bedside Manners: The Troubled History of Doctors and Patients (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985) for a similar attempt to bring the patient back into the equation. For a later work on self-dosing, see Lamar R. Murphy, Enter the Physician: The Transformation of Domestic Medicine, 1760-1860 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991).
19. Roy Porter, ed., Patients and Practitioners: Lay Perceptions of Medicine in Preindustrial Society (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 2. Much of Porter's subsequent work has attempted to remedy the situation. See also Edward Shorter, Bedside Manners: The Troubled History of Doctors and Patients (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985) for a similar attempt to bring the patient back into the equation. For a later work on self-dosing, see Lamar R. Murphy, Enter the Physician: The Transformation of Domestic Medicine, 1760-1860 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991).
20. Shorter, Bedside Manners, 110-12. See also Digby, 254, 254-79.
21. Shorter, Bedside Manners, 110-12. See also Digby, 254, 254-79.
22. For what is still one of the best discussions of the value of prescriptive literature for the historian-especially what it can and cannot tell us-see Ron Walters, ed., Primers for Prudery: Sexual Advice to Victorian America (Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice-Hall, 1974), 1-18.
23. In "The Hysterical Woman: Sex Roles and Role Conflict in Nineteenth-Century America," Social Research 39 (winter 1972): 652-78, Carroll Smith-Rosenberg attempted to move away from a strict dependence on the prescriptive literature to look at personal, professional, family, and gender dynamics.
24. See, for example, John S. and Robin M. Haller, The Physician and Sexuality in Victorian America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974); Ann Douglas Wood, "'The Fashionable Diseases': Women's Complaints and Their Treatment in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 4 (summer 1973): 25-52; Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses (New York: Feminist Press, 1971), and For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Experts' Advice to Women (New York: Anchor Books, 1978); Virginia Drachman, "Women Doctors and the Women's Medical Movement: Feminism and Medicine, 1850-1895" (Ph.D. diss., SUNY Buffalo, 1976); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "Puberty to Menopause: The Cycle of Femininity in Nineteenth-Century America," Feminist Studies 1 (winter-spring 1973): 58-72; and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg and Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Female Animal: Medical and Biological Views of Woman and Her Role in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of American History 60 (spring 1973): 332-56.
25. See, for example, John S. and Robin M. Haller, The Physician and Sexuality in Victorian America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974); Ann Douglas Wood, "'The Fashionable Diseases': Women's Complaints and Their Treatment in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 4 (summer 1973): 25-52; Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses (New York: Feminist Press, 1971), and For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Experts' Advice to Women (New York: Anchor Books, 1978); Virginia Drachman, "Women Doctors and the Women's Medical Movement: Feminism and Medicine, 1850-1895" (Ph.D. diss., SUNY Buffalo, 1976); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "Puberty to Menopause: The Cycle of Femininity in Nineteenth-Century America," Feminist Studies 1 (winter-spring 1973): 58-72; and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg and Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Female Animal: Medical and Biological Views of Woman and Her Role in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of American History 60 (spring 1973): 332-56.
26. See, for example, John S. and Robin M. Haller, The Physician and Sexuality in Victorian America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974); Ann Douglas Wood, "'The Fashionable Diseases': Women's Complaints and Their Treatment in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 4 (summer 1973): 25-52; Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses (New York: Feminist Press, 1971), and For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Experts' Advice to Women (New York: Anchor Books, 1978); Virginia Drachman, "Women Doctors and the Women's Medical Movement: Feminism and Medicine, 1850-1895" (Ph.D. diss., SUNY Buffalo, 1976); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "Puberty to Menopause: The Cycle of Femininity in Nineteenth-Century America," Feminist Studies 1 (winter-spring 1973): 58-72; and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg and Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Female Animal: Medical and Biological Views of Woman and Her Role in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of American History 60 (spring 1973): 332-56.
27. See, for example, John S. and Robin M. Haller, The Physician and Sexuality in Victorian America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974); Ann Douglas Wood, "'The Fashionable Diseases': Women's Complaints and Their Treatment in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 4 (summer 1973): 25-52; Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses (New York: Feminist Press, 1971), and For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Experts' Advice to Women (New York: Anchor Books, 1978); Virginia Drachman, "Women Doctors and the Women's Medical Movement: Feminism and Medicine, 1850-1895" (Ph.D. diss., SUNY Buffalo, 1976); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "Puberty to Menopause: The Cycle of Femininity in Nineteenth-Century America," Feminist Studies 1 (winter-spring 1973): 58-72; and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg and Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Female Animal: Medical and Biological Views of Woman and Her Role in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of American History 60 (spring 1973): 332-56.
28. See, for example, John S. and Robin M. Haller, The Physician and Sexuality in Victorian America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974); Ann Douglas Wood, "'The Fashionable Diseases': Women's Complaints and Their Treatment in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 4 (summer 1973): 25-52; Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses (New York: Feminist Press, 1971), and For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Experts' Advice to Women (New York: Anchor Books, 1978); Virginia Drachman, "Women Doctors and the Women's Medical Movement: Feminism and Medicine, 1850-1895" (Ph.D. diss., SUNY Buffalo, 1976); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "Puberty to Menopause: The Cycle of Femininity in Nineteenth-Century America," Feminist Studies 1 (winter-spring 1973): 58-72; and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg and Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Female Animal: Medical and Biological Views of Woman and Her Role in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of American History 60 (spring 1973): 332-56.
29. See, for example, John S. and Robin M. Haller, The Physician and Sexuality in Victorian America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974); Ann Douglas Wood, "'The Fashionable Diseases': Women's Complaints and Their Treatment in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 4 (summer 1973): 25-52; Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses (New York: Feminist Press, 1971), and For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Experts' Advice to Women (New York: Anchor Books, 1978); Virginia Drachman, "Women Doctors and the Women's Medical Movement: Feminism and Medicine, 1850-1895" (Ph.D. diss., SUNY Buffalo, 1976); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "Puberty to Menopause: The Cycle of Femininity in Nineteenth-Century America," Feminist Studies 1 (winter-spring 1973): 58-72; and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg and Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Female Animal: Medical and Biological Views of Woman and Her Role in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of American History 60 (spring 1973): 332-56.
30. See, for example, John S. and Robin M. Haller, The Physician and Sexuality in Victorian America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974); Ann Douglas Wood, "'The Fashionable Diseases': Women's Complaints and Their Treatment in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 4 (summer 1973): 25-52; Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses (New York: Feminist Press, 1971), and For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Experts' Advice to Women (New York: Anchor Books, 1978); Virginia Drachman, "Women Doctors and the Women's Medical Movement: Feminism and Medicine, 1850-1895" (Ph.D. diss., SUNY Buffalo, 1976); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "Puberty to Menopause: The Cycle of Femininity in Nineteenth-Century America," Feminist Studies 1 (winter-spring 1973): 58-72; and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg and Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Female Animal: Medical and Biological Views of Woman and Her Role in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of American History 60 (spring 1973): 332-56.
31. See Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985); and Mary Poovey, "'Scenes of an Indelicate Character': The Medical Treatment of Victorian Women," Representations 14 (spring 1986): 137-68.
32. See Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985); and Mary Poovey, "'Scenes of an Indelicate Character': The Medical Treatment of Victorian Women," Representations 14 (spring 1986): 137-68.
33. See Regina Morantz, "The Lady and Her Physician," in Clio's Consciousness Raised: New Perspectives on the History of Women, ed. Lois Banner and Mary Hartmann (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 38-53, and Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science; Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 203-31. Two articles that looked at treatment of men also contributed to these debates. Gail Pat Parsons, in "Equal Treatment for All: American Medical Remedies of Male Sexual Problems, 1850-1900," Journal of the History of Medicine 32 (January 1977): 55-71, showed that male patients were also victimized by harsh medical therapies applied to their genitals for sexual ailments. Also interesting is Arthur M. Gilbert, "Doctor, Patient, and Onanist Diseases in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of the History of Medicine 30 (July 1975): 217-34. Gilbert pointed out that, in spite of the barbaric nature of some of the therapies used to treat the condition, doctor and patient were in agreement that onanism was a disease and had to be cured by medical intervention. See also, Shorter, Bedside Manners.
34. See Regina Morantz, "The Lady and Her Physician," in Clio's Consciousness Raised: New Perspectives on the History of Women, ed. Lois Banner and Mary Hartmann (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 38-53, and Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science; Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 203-31. Two articles that looked at treatment of men also contributed to these debates. Gail Pat Parsons, in "Equal Treatment for All: American Medical Remedies of Male Sexual Problems, 1850-1900," Journal of the History of Medicine 32 (January 1977): 55-71, showed that male patients were also victimized by harsh medical therapies applied to their genitals for sexual ailments. Also interesting is Arthur M. Gilbert, "Doctor, Patient, and Onanist Diseases in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of the History of Medicine 30 (July 1975): 217-34. Gilbert pointed out that, in spite of the barbaric nature of some of the therapies used to treat the condition, doctor and patient were in agreement that onanism was a disease and had to be cured by medical intervention. See also, Shorter, Bedside Manners.
35. See Regina Morantz, "The Lady and Her Physician," in Clio's Consciousness Raised: New Perspectives on the History of Women, ed. Lois Banner and Mary Hartmann (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 38-53, and Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science; Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 203-31. Two articles that looked at treatment of men also contributed to these debates. Gail Pat Parsons, in "Equal Treatment for All: American Medical Remedies of Male Sexual Problems, 1850-1900," Journal of the History of Medicine 32 (January 1977): 55-71, showed that male patients were also victimized by harsh medical therapies applied to their genitals for sexual ailments. Also interesting is Arthur M. Gilbert, "Doctor, Patient, and Onanist Diseases in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of the History of Medicine 30 (July 1975): 217-34. Gilbert pointed out that, in spite of the barbaric nature of some of the therapies used to treat the condition, doctor and patient were in agreement that onanism was a disease and had to be cured by medical intervention. See also, Shorter, Bedside Manners.
36. See Regina Morantz, "The Lady and Her Physician," in Clio's Consciousness Raised: New Perspectives on the History of Women, ed. Lois Banner and Mary Hartmann (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 38-53, and Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science; Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 203-31. Two articles that looked at treatment of men also contributed to these debates. Gail Pat Parsons, in "Equal Treatment for All: American Medical Remedies of Male Sexual Problems, 1850-1900," Journal of the History of Medicine 32 (January 1977): 55-71, showed that male patients were also victimized by harsh medical therapies applied to their genitals for sexual ailments. Also interesting is Arthur M. Gilbert, "Doctor, Patient, and Onanist Diseases in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of the History of Medicine 30 (July 1975): 217-34. Gilbert pointed out that, in spite of the barbaric nature of some of the therapies used to treat the condition, doctor and patient were in agreement that onanism was a disease and had to be cured by medical intervention. See also, Shorter, Bedside Manners.
37. See Regina Morantz, "The Lady and Her Physician," in Clio's Consciousness Raised: New Perspectives on the History of Women, ed. Lois Banner and Mary Hartmann (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 38-53, and Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science; Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 203-31. Two articles that looked at treatment of men also contributed to these debates. Gail Pat Parsons, in "Equal Treatment for All: American Medical Remedies of Male Sexual Problems, 1850-1900," Journal of the History of Medicine 32 (January 1977): 55-71, showed that male patients were also victimized by harsh medical therapies applied to their genitals for sexual ailments. Also interesting is Arthur M. Gilbert, "Doctor, Patient, and Onanist Diseases in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of the History of Medicine 30 (July 1975): 217-34. Gilbert pointed out that, in spite of the barbaric nature of some of the therapies used to treat the condition, doctor and patient were in agreement that onanism was a disease and had to be cured by medical intervention. See also, Shorter, Bedside Manners.
38. Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Therapeutic Revolution: Medicine, Meaning, and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Charles Rosenberg and Morris Vogel (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), 3-26.
39. See Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), 170-94.
40. See Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Vintage Books, 1980), 101.
41. For a discussion of reverse discourse and nineteenth-century feminism, see Irene Diamond and Lee Quinby's introduction to Feminism and Foucault (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988), xi. For women physicians' critiques of prevailing theories of women's health, see Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science, 203-31.
42. For a discussion of reverse discourse and nineteenth-century feminism, see Irene Diamond and Lee Quinby's introduction to Feminism and Foucault (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988), xi. For women physicians' critiques of prevailing theories of women's health, see Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science, 203-31.
43. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
44. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
45. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
46. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
47. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
48. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
49. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
50. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
51. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
52. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
53. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
54. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
55. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
56. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by
57. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of AsylumKeeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). This narrative of oppression was launched in the 1970s from a number of sources both within the academy and without. Most, although not all, were feminist. An important and stimulating article which was widely influential was Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (fall 1966): 350-63. Other influential works were Witches, Midwives, and Nurses; Joan M. Jensen, "Politics and the American Midwife Controversy," Frontiers 1 (spring 1976): 19-33; Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: Norton, 1976); Ann Oakley, "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth," in The Rights and Wrongs of Women, ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell (Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin, 1976); Ann H. Sablowsky, "The Power of the Forceps: A Comparative Analysis of the Midwife-Historically and Today," Women and Health 1 (January-February 1976): 10-13; Catherine M. Scholten, "'On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art': Changing Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760-1825," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (July 1977): 426-45; Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: Free Press, 1977). Important studies of midwifery which paid more attention to the role of professionalization and the exercise of choice by laywomen were Jane B. Donegan, Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America (Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Jean Donnison, Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women's Rights (New York: Schocken Books, 1977); and Judith Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1978). For a good essay on the history of midwifery, see Judith Barrett Litoff, "Midwives and History" (443-58), and for a good overview of the professionalization of obstetrical practice see Charlotte Borst, "The Professionalization of Obstetrics: Childbirth Becomes a Medical Specialty (197-216), both in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland Press, 1990).
58. See, for example, the introduction to Nicholas Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sherry B. Ortner, eds., Culture/Power/History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), and a number of the essays in the volume, including those by Pierre Bourdieu, Dirks, Ortner, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and Marshall Sahlins. See also, James Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990). In medicine the work of Arthur Kleinman and Howard Waitzkin has been significant. See Kleinman's Social Origins of Distress and Disease: Depression, Neurasthenia, and Pain in Modern China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), and Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980). See also Howard Waitzkin and Bruce Waterman, The Exploitation of Illness in Capitalist Society (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1974).
59. See, for example, the introduction to Nicholas Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sherry B. Ortner, eds., Culture/Power/History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), and a number of the essays in the volume, including those by Pierre Bourdieu, Dirks, Ortner, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and Marshall Sahlins. See also, James Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990). In medicine the work of Arthur Kleinman and Howard Waitzkin has been significant. See Kleinman's Social Origins of Distress and Disease: Depression, Neurasthenia, and Pain in Modern China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), and Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980). See also Howard Waitzkin and Bruce Waterman, The Exploitation of Illness in Capitalist Society (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1974).
60. See, for example, the introduction to Nicholas Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sherry B. Ortner, eds., Culture/Power/History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), and a number of the essays in the volume, including those by Pierre Bourdieu, Dirks, Ortner, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and Marshall Sahlins. See also, James Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990). In medicine the work of Arthur Kleinman and Howard Waitzkin has been significant. See Kleinman's Social Origins of Distress and Disease: Depression, Neurasthenia, and Pain in Modern China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), and Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980). See also Howard Waitzkin and Bruce Waterman, The Exploitation of Illness in Capitalist Society (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1974).
61. See, for example, the introduction to Nicholas Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sherry B. Ortner, eds., Culture/Power/History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), and a number of the essays in the volume, including those by Pierre Bourdieu, Dirks, Ortner, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and Marshall Sahlins. See also, James Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990). In medicine the work of Arthur Kleinman and Howard Waitzkin has been significant. See Kleinman's Social Origins of Distress and Disease: Depression, Neurasthenia, and Pain in Modern China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), and Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980). See also Howard Waitzkin and Bruce Waterman, The Exploitation of Illness in Capitalist Society (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1974).
62. See, for example, the introduction to Nicholas Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sherry B. Ortner, eds., Culture/Power/History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), and a number of the essays in the volume, including those by Pierre Bourdieu, Dirks, Ortner, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and Marshall Sahlins. See also, James Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990). In medicine the work of Arthur Kleinman and Howard Waitzkin has been significant. See Kleinman's Social Origins of Distress and Disease: Depression, Neurasthenia, and Pain in Modern China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), and Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980). See also Howard Waitzkin and Bruce Waterman, The Exploitation of Illness in Capitalist Society (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1974).
63. See Leslie J. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867-1973 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Elizabeth Lunbeck, The Psychiatric Persuasion: Knowledge, Gender, and Power in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
64. See Leslie J. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867-1973 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Elizabeth Lunbeck, The Psychiatric Persuasion: Knowledge, Gender, and Power in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
65. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994). See Roy Porter, "The Patient's View: Doing Medical History from Below," Theory and Society 14 (fall 1985): 175-98, and, with Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London, U.K.: Fourth Estate Press, 1988). Also significant are Barbara Duden, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse." Also see Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992); Michael McVaugh, Medicine before the Plague: Practitioners and Their Patients in the Crown of Aragon, 1285-1345 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Unversity Press, 1993); Digby, and Mary E. Fissell, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rachel P. Maines, The Technology of the Orgasm: "Hysteria," the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
66. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994). See Roy Porter, "The Patient's View: Doing Medical History from Below," Theory and Society 14 (fall 1985): 175-98, and, with Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London, U.K.: Fourth Estate Press, 1988). Also significant are Barbara Duden, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse." Also see Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992); Michael McVaugh, Medicine before the Plague: Practitioners and Their Patients in the Crown of Aragon, 1285-1345 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Unversity Press, 1993); Digby, and Mary E. Fissell, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rachel P. Maines, The Technology of the Orgasm: "Hysteria," the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
67. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994). See Roy Porter, "The Patient's View: Doing Medical History from Below," Theory and Society 14 (fall 1985): 175-98, and, with Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London, U.K.: Fourth Estate Press, 1988). Also significant are Barbara Duden, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse." Also see Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992); Michael McVaugh, Medicine before the Plague: Practitioners and Their Patients in the Crown of Aragon, 1285-1345 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Unversity Press, 1993); Digby, and Mary E. Fissell, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rachel P. Maines, The Technology of the Orgasm: "Hysteria," the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
68. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994). See Roy Porter, "The Patient's View: Doing Medical History from Below," Theory and Society 14 (fall 1985): 175-98, and, with Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London, U.K.: Fourth Estate Press, 1988). Also significant are Barbara Duden, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse." Also see Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992); Michael McVaugh, Medicine before the Plague: Practitioners and Their Patients in the Crown of Aragon, 1285-1345 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Unversity Press, 1993); Digby, and Mary E. Fissell, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rachel P. Maines, The Technology of the Orgasm: "Hysteria," the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
69. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994). See Roy Porter, "The Patient's View: Doing Medical History from Below," Theory and Society 14 (fall 1985): 175-98, and, with Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London, U.K.: Fourth Estate Press, 1988). Also significant are Barbara Duden, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse." Also see Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992); Michael McVaugh, Medicine before the Plague: Practitioners and Their Patients in the Crown of Aragon, 1285-1345 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Unversity Press, 1993); Digby, and Mary E. Fissell, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rachel P. Maines, The Technology of the Orgasm: "Hysteria," the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
70. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994). See Roy Porter, "The Patient's View: Doing Medical History from Below," Theory and Society 14 (fall 1985): 175-98, and, with Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London, U.K.: Fourth Estate Press, 1988). Also significant are Barbara Duden, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse." Also see Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992); Michael McVaugh, Medicine before the Plague: Practitioners and Their Patients in the Crown of Aragon, 1285-1345 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Unversity Press, 1993); Digby, and Mary E. Fissell, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rachel P. Maines, The Technology of the Orgasm: "Hysteria," the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
71. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994). See Roy Porter, "The Patient's View: Doing Medical History from Below," Theory and Society 14 (fall 1985): 175-98, and, with Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London, U.K.: Fourth Estate Press, 1988). Also significant are Barbara Duden, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse." Also see Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992); Michael McVaugh, Medicine before the Plague: Practitioners and Their Patients in the Crown of Aragon, 1285-1345 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Unversity Press, 1993); Digby, and Mary E. Fissell, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rachel P. Maines, The Technology of the Orgasm: "Hysteria," the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
72. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994). See Roy Porter, "The Patient's View: Doing Medical History from Below," Theory and Society 14 (fall 1985): 175-98, and, with Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London, U.K.: Fourth Estate Press, 1988). Also significant are Barbara Duden, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse." Also see Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992); Michael McVaugh, Medicine before the Plague: Practitioners and Their Patients in the Crown of Aragon, 1285-1345 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Unversity Press, 1993); Digby, and Mary E. Fissell, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rachel P. Maines, The Technology of the Orgasm: "Hysteria," the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
73. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994). See Roy Porter, "The Patient's View: Doing Medical History from Below," Theory and Society 14 (fall 1985): 175-98, and, with Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London, U.K.: Fourth Estate Press, 1988). Also significant are Barbara Duden, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse." Also see Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992); Michael McVaugh, Medicine before the Plague: Practitioners and Their Patients in the Crown of Aragon, 1285-1345 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Unversity Press, 1993); Digby, and Mary E. Fissell, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rachel P. Maines, The Technology of the Orgasm: "Hysteria," the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
74. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994). See Roy Porter, "The Patient's View: Doing Medical History from Below," Theory and Society 14 (fall 1985): 175-98, and, with Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London, U.K.: Fourth Estate Press, 1988). Also significant are Barbara Duden, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse." Also see Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992); Michael McVaugh, Medicine before the Plague: Practitioners and Their Patients in the Crown of Aragon, 1285-1345 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Unversity Press, 1993); Digby, and Mary E. Fissell, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rachel P. Maines, The Technology of the Orgasm: "Hysteria," the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
75. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994). See Roy Porter, "The Patient's View: Doing Medical History from Below," Theory and Society 14 (fall 1985): 175-98, and, with Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London, U.K.: Fourth Estate Press, 1988). Also significant are Barbara Duden, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse." Also see Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992); Michael McVaugh, Medicine before the Plague: Practitioners and Their Patients in the Crown of Aragon, 1285-1345 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Unversity Press, 1993); Digby, and Mary E. Fissell, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rachel P. Maines, The Technology of the Orgasm: "Hysteria," the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
76. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994). See Roy Porter, "The Patient's View: Doing Medical History from Below," Theory and Society 14 (fall 1985): 175-98, and, with Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London, U.K.: Fourth Estate Press, 1988). Also significant are Barbara Duden, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Theriot, "Women's Voices in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse." Also see Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992); Michael McVaugh, Medicine before the Plague: Practitioners and Their Patients in the Crown of Aragon, 1285-1345 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Unversity Press, 1993); Digby, and Mary E. Fissell, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rachel P. Maines, The Technology of the Orgasm: "Hysteria," the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
77. See, for example, Emily Martin, The Woman in the Body: A Cultural History of Reproduction (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Duden, Theriot, and Sue Fisher, In the Patient's Best Interest: Women and the Politics of Medical Decisions (New Brunswick, N. J. : Rutgers University Press, 1986).
78. See, for example, Emily Martin, The Woman in the Body: A Cultural History of Reproduction (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Duden, Theriot, and Sue Fisher, In the Patient's Best Interest: Women and the Politics of Medical Decisions (New Brunswick, N. J. : Rutgers University Press, 1986).
79. Examples of the former are Fanny Burney's remarkable account of breast cancer, "A Mastectomy," The Journals and Letters of Fanny Burney, vol. 7, ed. Joyce Hemlow (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1975), 596-617; Clifford Beers, The Mind That Found Itself (New York, Longmans, Green, & Co, 1908); and, more recently, Jeffrey L. Geller and Maxine Harris, Women of the Asylum: Voices from behind the Walls, 1840-1945 (New York: Doubleday, 1994).
80. Examples of the former are Fanny Burney's remarkable account of breast cancer, "A Mastectomy," The Journals and Letters of Fanny Burney, vol. 7, ed. Joyce Hemlow (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1975), 596-617; Clifford Beers, The Mind That Found Itself (New York, Longmans, Green, & Co, 1908); and, more recently, Jeffrey L. Geller and Maxine Harris, Women of the Asylum: Voices from behind the Walls, 1840-1945 (New York: Doubleday, 1994).
81. Examples of the former are Fanny Burney's remarkable account of breast cancer, "A Mastectomy," The Journals and Letters of Fanny Burney, vol. 7, ed. Joyce Hemlow (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1975), 596-617; Clifford Beers, The Mind That Found Itself (New York, Longmans, Green, & Co, 1908); and, more recently, Jeffrey L. Geller and Maxine Harris, Women of the Asylum: Voices from behind the Walls, 1840-1945 (New York: Doubleday, 1994).
82. Barbara Duden's study of women patients in eighteenth-century Germany is an exception.
83. Smith-Rosenberg, "The Hysterical Woman," 208.
84. Brumberg, 140-63.
85. Poovey, 148, 152, 153.
86. This is not to say that husbands and fathers are totally absent, but their presence is decidedly less pervasive than past histories would have us believe. For participation of husbands, fathers, and parents, see Mary Dixon Jones, "Personal Experiences in Laparotomy," Medical Record 52 (7 Aug. 1897): 182-91, especially the following cases on the chart: nos. 1, 69, 4, and 55, and "Diagnosis and Some of the Clinical Aspects of Gyroma and Endothelioma of the Ovary," Buffalo Medical and Surgical Journal 32 (November 1892): 196-215, 200, 205, 207, 208.
87. This is not to say that husbands and fathers are totally absent, but their presence is decidedly less pervasive than past histories would have us believe. For participation of husbands, fathers, and parents, see Mary Dixon Jones, "Personal Experiences in Laparotomy," Medical Record 52 (7 Aug. 1897): 182-91, especially the following cases on the chart: nos. 1, 69, 4, and 55, and "Diagnosis and Some of the Clinical Aspects of Gyroma and Endothelioma of the Ovary," Buffalo Medical and Surgical Journal 32 (November 1892): 196-215, 200, 205, 207, 208.
88. See Ornella Moscucci, The Science of Woman: Gynecology and Gender in England, 1800-1929 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Jane E. Sewall, "Bountiful Bodies: Spencer Wells, Lawson Tait, and the Birth of British Gynaecology" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1991); Ann Dally, Women under the Knife: A History of Surgery (New York: Routledge, 1991); and Morantz-Sanchez, Conduct Unbecoming, chap. 4.
89. See Ornella Moscucci, The Science of Woman: Gynecology and Gender in England, 1800-1929 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Jane E. Sewall, "Bountiful Bodies: Spencer Wells, Lawson Tait, and the Birth of British Gynaecology" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1991); Ann Dally, Women under the Knife: A History of Surgery (New York: Routledge, 1991); and Morantz-Sanchez, Conduct Unbecoming, chap. 4.
90. See Ornella Moscucci, The Science of Woman: Gynecology and Gender in England, 1800-1929 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Jane E. Sewall, "Bountiful Bodies: Spencer Wells, Lawson Tait, and the Birth of British Gynaecology" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1991); Ann Dally, Women under the Knife: A History of Surgery (New York: Routledge, 1991); and Morantz-Sanchez, Conduct Unbecoming, chap. 4.
91. See Ornella Moscucci, The Science of Woman: Gynecology and Gender in England, 1800-1929 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Jane E. Sewall, "Bountiful Bodies: Spencer Wells, Lawson Tait, and the Birth of British Gynaecology" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1991); Ann Dally, Women under the Knife: A History of Surgery (New York: Routledge, 1991); and Morantz-Sanchez, Conduct Unbecoming, chap. 4.
92. Dixon Jones's case records abound with reports of other physicians' therapies and diagnoses. Given my reading of the gynecological literature, these treatments are perfectly plausible. All were used. See Dixon Jones, "Removal of the Uterine Appendages: Nine Consecutive Cases," Medical Record 30 (August 1886): 200. See also her "Removal of the Uterine Appendages-Recovery," Medical Record 27 (April 1885): 399-402. Nancy Theriot argues that daughters coming of age in the 1880s were less resigned than their mothers' generation to the pain and suffering expected to accompany the female reproductive lifecycle as a matter of course. See her Mothers and Daughters in Nineteenth-Century America: A Biosocial Construction of Femininity (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1996), 80-82. Her findings underscore Edward Shorter's argument that, in contrast to the traditional patient, who had a high pain threshold and greater tolerance for chronic illness, the modern patient displayed greater sensitivity to the body's vicissitudes and sought advice from experts more quickly. See Shorter, Bedside Manners, 61. In addition, the fact that women moved from doctor to doctor would not surprise modern medical sociologists, who have found that, although women may appear passive in the doctor's office, they took a more active role in managing their health outside the formal clinical setting. Apparently, even today women are likely to change their doctors more often than men. Some scholars argue that they also turn more readily to "unconventional methods of healing." In short, writes Alexandra Dundas Todd of present-day female attitudes, "Women use medical care more than men, perhaps because of a more help-oriented socialization and their need of health services for reproductive care as well as disease. The literature . . . illustrates that in seeking this care, women report many dissatisfactions. There is no evidence, however, that these dissatisfactions are voiced to doctors. In fact, women's complaints, in general, seem to take the form of silent rebellion, such as noncompliance and changing practitioners, rather than direct confrontation." See her Intimate Adversaries: Cultural Conflict between Doctors and Women Patients (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 40-41.
93. Dixon Jones's case records abound with reports of other physicians' therapies and diagnoses. Given my reading of the gynecological literature, these treatments are perfectly plausible. All were used. See Dixon Jones, "Removal of the Uterine Appendages: Nine Consecutive Cases," Medical Record 30 (August 1886): 200. See also her "Removal of the Uterine Appendages-Recovery," Medical Record 27 (April 1885): 399-402. Nancy Theriot argues that daughters coming of age in the 1880s were less resigned than their mothers' generation to the pain and suffering expected to accompany the female reproductive lifecycle as a matter of course. See her Mothers and Daughters in Nineteenth-Century America: A Biosocial Construction of Femininity (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1996), 80-82. Her findings underscore Edward Shorter's argument that, in contrast to the traditional patient, who had a high pain threshold and greater tolerance for chronic illness, the modern patient displayed greater sensitivity to the body's vicissitudes and sought advice from experts more quickly. See Shorter, Bedside Manners, 61. In addition, the fact that women moved from doctor to doctor would not surprise modern medical sociologists, who have found that, although women may appear passive in the doctor's office, they took a more active role in managing their health outside the formal clinical setting. Apparently, even today women are likely to change their doctors more often than men. Some scholars argue that they also turn more readily to "unconventional methods of healing." In short, writes Alexandra Dundas Todd of present-day female attitudes, "Women use medical care more than men, perhaps because of a more help-oriented socialization and their need of health services for reproductive care as well as disease. The literature . . . illustrates that in seeking this care, women report many dissatisfactions. There is no evidence, however, that these dissatisfactions are voiced to doctors. In fact, women's complaints, in general, seem to take the form of silent rebellion, such as noncompliance and changing practitioners, rather than direct confrontation." See her Intimate Adversaries: Cultural Conflict between Doctors and Women Patients (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 40-41.
94. Dixon Jones's case records abound with reports of other physicians' therapies and diagnoses. Given my reading of the gynecological literature, these treatments are perfectly plausible. All were used. See Dixon Jones, "Removal of the Uterine Appendages: Nine Consecutive Cases," Medical Record 30 (August 1886): 200. See also her "Removal of the Uterine Appendages-Recovery," Medical Record 27 (April 1885): 399-402. Nancy Theriot argues that daughters coming of age in the 1880s were less resigned than their mothers' generation to the pain and suffering expected to accompany the female reproductive lifecycle as a matter of course. See her Mothers and Daughters in Nineteenth-Century America: A Biosocial Construction of Femininity (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1996), 80-82. Her findings underscore Edward Shorter's argument that, in contrast to the traditional patient, who had a high pain threshold and greater tolerance for chronic illness, the modern patient displayed greater sensitivity to the body's vicissitudes and sought advice from experts more quickly. See Shorter, Bedside Manners, 61. In addition, the fact that women moved from doctor to doctor would not surprise modern medical sociologists, who have found that, although women may appear passive in the doctor's office, they took a more active role in managing their health outside the formal clinical setting. Apparently, even today women are likely to change their doctors more often than men. Some scholars argue that they also turn more readily to "unconventional methods of healing." In short, writes Alexandra Dundas Todd of present-day female attitudes, "Women use medical care more than men, perhaps because of a more help-oriented socialization and their need of health services for reproductive care as well as disease. The literature . . . illustrates that in seeking this care, women report many dissatisfactions. There is no evidence, however, that these dissatisfactions are voiced to doctors. In fact, women's complaints, in general, seem to take the form of silent rebellion, such as noncompliance and changing practitioners, rather than direct confrontation." See her Intimate Adversaries: Cultural Conflict between Doctors and Women Patients (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 40-41.
95. Dixon Jones's case records abound with reports of other physicians' therapies and diagnoses. Given my reading of the gynecological literature, these treatments are perfectly plausible. All were used. See Dixon Jones, "Removal of the Uterine Appendages: Nine Consecutive Cases," Medical Record 30 (August 1886): 200. See also her "Removal of the Uterine Appendages-Recovery," Medical Record 27 (April 1885): 399-402. Nancy Theriot argues that daughters coming of age in the 1880s were less resigned than their mothers' generation to the pain and suffering expected to accompany the female reproductive lifecycle as a matter of course. See her Mothers and Daughters in Nineteenth-Century America: A Biosocial Construction of Femininity (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1996), 80-82. Her findings underscore Edward Shorter's argument that, in contrast to the traditional patient, who had a high pain threshold and greater tolerance for chronic illness, the modern patient displayed greater sensitivity to the body's vicissitudes and sought advice from experts more quickly. See Shorter, Bedside Manners, 61. In addition, the fact that women moved from doctor to doctor would not surprise modern medical sociologists, who have found that, although women may appear passive in the doctor's office, they took a more active role in managing their health outside the formal clinical setting. Apparently, even today women are likely to change their doctors more often than men. Some scholars argue that they also turn more readily to "unconventional methods of healing." In short, writes Alexandra Dundas Todd of present-day female attitudes, "Women use medical care more than men, perhaps because of a more help-oriented socialization and their need of health services for reproductive care as well as disease. The literature . . . illustrates that in seeking this care, women report many dissatisfactions. There is no evidence, however, that these dissatisfactions are voiced to doctors. In fact, women's complaints, in general, seem to take the form of silent rebellion, such as noncompliance and changing practitioners, rather than direct confrontation." See her Intimate Adversaries: Cultural Conflict between Doctors and Women Patients (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 40-41.
96. Dixon Jones's case records abound with reports of other physicians' therapies and diagnoses. Given my reading of the gynecological literature, these treatments are perfectly plausible. All were used. See Dixon Jones, "Removal of the Uterine Appendages: Nine Consecutive Cases," Medical Record 30 (August 1886): 200. See also her "Removal of the Uterine Appendages-Recovery," Medical Record 27 (April 1885): 399-402. Nancy Theriot argues that daughters coming of age in the 1880s were less resigned than their mothers' generation to the pain and suffering expected to accompany the female reproductive lifecycle as a matter of course. See her Mothers and Daughters in Nineteenth-Century America: A Biosocial Construction of Femininity (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1996), 80-82. Her findings underscore Edward Shorter's argument that, in contrast to the traditional patient, who had a high pain threshold and greater tolerance for chronic illness, the modern patient displayed greater sensitivity to the body's vicissitudes and sought advice from experts more quickly. See Shorter, Bedside Manners, 61. In addition, the fact that women moved from doctor to doctor would not surprise modern medical sociologists, who have found that, although women may appear passive in the doctor's office, they took a more active role in managing their health outside the formal clinical setting. Apparently, even today women are likely to change their doctors more often than men. Some scholars argue that they also turn more readily to "unconventional methods of healing." In short, writes Alexandra Dundas Todd of present-day female attitudes, "Women use medical care more than men, perhaps because of a more help-oriented socialization and their need of health services for reproductive care as well as disease. The literature . . . illustrates that in seeking this care, women report many dissatisfactions. There is no evidence, however, that these dissatisfactions are voiced to doctors. In fact, women's complaints, in general, seem to take the form of silent rebellion, such as noncompliance and changing practitioners, rather than direct confrontation." See her Intimate Adversaries: Cultural Conflict between Doctors and Women Patients (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 40-41.
97. There is an extensive literature on women and shopping. For a representative example, see Elaine Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
98. Mary Dixon Jones, "Another Hitherto Undescribed Disease of the Ovaries: Anomalous Menstrual Bodies," New York Medical Journal 51 (10 May, 1890): 511-51, 515.
99. Nancy Theriot's insights into the revelations of the case study have been very important in guiding my analysis in this section. See "The Case within the Case Study: Uncovering the Voices of Nineteenth-Century Women Patients" (Paper given at the History of Science Society Meetings, New Orleans, October 1994).
100. Dixon Jones, "A Hitherto Undescribed Disease," 305, 306. 307.
101. See, for example, Dixon Jones, "The Fourth Hitherto Undescribed Disease of the Ovary; Colloid Degeneration," Medical Record 56 (November 1899): 657-67, 661. Dixon Jones, "Removal of the Uterine Appendages," 206.
102. See, for example, Dixon Jones, "The Fourth Hitherto Undescribed Disease of the Ovary; Colloid Degeneration," Medical Record 56 (November 1899): 657-67, 661. Dixon Jones, "Removal of the Uterine Appendages," 206.
103. For example, see Dixon Jones, "Fibroid Tumors of the Uterus, Their Relation to Diseased Adnexae. Origin of Fibroid Tumors, When is the Proper Time for Their Removal?" Annals of Gynecology and Pediatry 14 (April 1901): 469, for mention of a patient, Mrs. E, who, from the case record description, is Mina Emerich. According to Dixon Jones's report, the patient begged for an operation. Emerich corroborated this characterization of her behavior in the Brooklyn Citizen, 10 June 1889.
104. See Smith-Rosenberg, "The Hysterical Woman"; and Theriot, "The Case within the Case Study."
105. See Smith-Rosenberg, "The Hysterical Woman"; and Theriot, "The Case within the Case Study."
106. See, for example, James A. Trostle, "Medical Compliance as an Ideology," Social Science and Medicine 27 (June, 1988): 1299-1316.
107. In a recent paper, Kathy Powderly has found the same variation of approach to patients in the medical practice of A.J.C. Skene, a prominent gynecologist in Brooklyn. In an examination of his relations with patients, she learned that Skene sometimes privileged the patient's wishes and judgment and sometimes behaved paternalistically, with the doctor being the final decisionmaking authority. See her "Patient Consent and Negotiation in the Brooklyn Gynecological Practice of Alexander J.C. Skene: 1863-1900" (Paper presented to the New York Consortium on the History of Medicine, fall 1998).
108. For a discussion of debates between radicals and conservatives, see Morantz-Sanchez, Conduct Unbecoming, 88-116. For Blackwell on gynecological surgery, see Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science, 180-202.
109. For a discussion of debates between radicals and conservatives, see Morantz-Sanchez, Conduct Unbecoming, 88-116. For Blackwell on gynecological surgery, see Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science, 180-202.
110. On new notions of the right to female health, see Theriot, Mothers and Daughters, 77-100.
111. For an extended discussion of the ways Dixon Jones's gender did matter, see Morantz-Sanchez, Conduct Unbecoming, chaps. 5 and 6.
112. For a thorough discussion of these issues, see Brian Turner, Regulating Bodies: Essays in Medical Sociology (London: Routledge, 1992), esp. the introduction.
113. For a particularly interesting contemporary example of this phenomenon see Emily K. Abel and Nancy Reifel, "Interactions between Public Health Nurses and Clients on American Indian Reservations during the 1930s," Social History of Medicine 9 (April 1996): 89-108.
114. The argument in this paragraph, as well as the quotation, is drawn from Gregory Pappas's helpful article, "Some Implications for the Study of the Doctor-Patient Interactions: Power, Structure, and Agency in the Works of Howard Waitzkin and Arthur Kleinman," Social Science and Medicine 30, no. 2 (1990): 199-204, 200.
115. For more on this point see Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science, esp. chaps. 7-10.