International shoe and the legacy of legal realism

Supreme Court Review

Volumn 2001, Issue , 2001, Pages 347-373

  Rutherglen, George ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0040746576     PISSN: 00819557     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1086/scr.2001.3109692     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. 326 US 310 (1945).
2. 95 US 714 (1877).
3. See id at 722 (citing Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Conflict of Laws (Little, Brown, 2d ed 1841)).
4. Pennoyer, 95 US at 722.
5. 326 US at 316.
6. Burnkam v Superior Court, 495 US 604 (1990).
7. Ronald Dworkin, Dissent on Douglas, New York Review of Books at 6 (Feb 19, 1981).
8. The realists' agenda for empirical studies quickly split off from their agenda for reform and never fulfilled their ambitious goals for an empirical form of legal science. See Henry Schlegel, American Legal Realism and Empirical Social Science 8-11 (North Carolina, 1995). Perhaps for this reason, another great reformist project, the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, has never been regarded as a product of Legal Realism. The principal drafter of the rules, Charles H. Clark, was a realist, but his work on the rules began just as his empirical studies of procedure abruptly left off. Id at 113-14.
9. Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law 1870-1960: The Crisis of Legal Orthodoxy 208-10, 269-71 (Oxford, 1992).
10. Philip B. Kurland, The Supreme Court, the Due Process Clause and the In Personam Jurisdiction of State Courts: From Pennoyer to Denckla: A Review, 25 U Chi L Rev 569 (1958); Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr., A General Theory of State-Court Jurisdiction, 1965 Supreme Court Review 241.
11. Philip B. Kurland, The Supreme Court, the Due Process Clause and the In Personam Jurisdiction of State Courts: From Pennoyer to Denckla: A Review, 25 U Chi L Rev 569 (1958); Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr., A General Theory of State-Court Jurisdiction, 1965 Supreme Court Review 241.
12. Arthur T. von Mehren and Donald T. Trautman, Jurisdiction to Adjudicate: A Suggested Analysis, 79 Harv L Rev 1121 (1966).
13. Hazard, 1965 Supreme Court Review at 283 (cited in note 10).
14. Von Mehren and Trautman, 79 Harv L Rev at 1175-76 (cited in note 11).
15. Roswell Magill and James H. Chadbourn, Cases in Civil Procedure 599-678 (Foundation, 3d ed 1939); Austin Wakeman Scott and Sidney Post Simpson, Cases and Other Materials on Judicial Remedies: From the Forms of Action and the Classical Equity Practice to the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 519-50 (Harvard Law School, 1938).
16. Roswell Magill and James H. Chadbourn, Cases in Civil Procedure 599-678 (Foundation, 3d ed 1939); Austin Wakeman Scott and Sidney Post Simpson, Cases and Other Materials on Judicial Remedies: From the Forms of Action and the Classical Equity Practice to the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 519-50 (Harvard Law School, 1938).
17. James P. McBaine, Introduction to Civil Procedure: Common Law Actions and Pleading (West, 1950); Paul R. Hays, Cases and Materials on Civil Procedure (Foundation, 1947).
18. James P. McBaine, Introduction to Civil Procedure: Common Law Actions and Pleading (West, 1950); Paul R. Hays, Cases and Materials on Civil Procedure (Foundation, 1947).
19. Thomas E. Atkinson and James H. Chadbourn, Cases and Other Materials on Civil Procedure 168 (Foundation, 1948).
20. Richard H. Field and Benjamin Kaplan, Materials for a Basic Course on Civil Procedure (Foundation, 1953). The "temporary edition" of this casebook was published in 1952. Id at viii.
21. Id at 795-817.
22. E.g., Stephen C. Yeazell, Civil Procedure 104 (Aspen, 5th ed 2000).
23. Gerard Carl Henderson, The Position of Foreign Corporations in American Constitutional Law: A Contribution to the History and Theory of Juristic Persons in Anglo-American Law 94-95 (Harvard, 1918); Note, What Constitutes Doing Business by a Foreign Corporation for Purposes of Jurisdiction, 29 Colum L Rev 187 (1929).
24. Gerard Carl Henderson, The Position of Foreign Corporations in American Constitutional Law: A Contribution to the History and Theory of Juristic Persons in Anglo-American Law 94-95 (Harvard, 1918); Note, What Constitutes Doing Business by a Foreign Corporation for Purposes of Jurisdiction, 29 Colum L Rev 187 (1929).
25. Restatement of the Law of Conflict of Laws §§ 87-93, 167 (1934).
26. Id § 90, Comment a. Consent could be "by acts as well as words," id, and also encompassed appointment of an agent for service of process. Id § 91, Comment a.
27. Id §§ 87, 89, 92-93. Jurisdiction could also be asserted over a corporation, to the same extent as over a natural person, if the corporation entered a general appearance in a case or filed a claim as a plaintiff. Id §§ 82, 83, 88.
28. Joseph H. Beale, A Treatise on the Conflict of Laws 382-90 (Baker, Voorhis, 1935).
29. Id at 388.
30. Id at 388-89.
31. Walter Wheeler Cook, The Logical and Legal Bases of the Conflict of Laws ix (Harvard, 1942) (quoting Gilbert Lewis).
32. Id at 207-08. For a similarly muted criticism of the sections on jurisdiction, despite overall hostility to the Restatement as a whole, see Ernest G. Lorenzen and Raymond J. Heilman, The Restatement of the Conflict of Laws, 83 U Pa L Rev 555, 566-68 (1935).
33. Id at 207-08. For a similarly muted criticism of the sections on jurisdiction, despite overall hostility to the Restatement as a whole, see Ernest G. Lorenzen and Raymond J. Heilman, The Restatement of the Conflict of Laws, 83 U Pa L Rev 555, 566-68 (1935).
34. 35 Colum L Rev 809, 809-12 (1935).
35. Cook at 209 n 30 (cited in note 27).
36. Id at 833.
37. Id at 812.
38. See 326 US at 312, 314; Brief of the Appellant at 14-20; Brief of the Appellee at 32-41.
39. Id at 319.
40. St. Louis S.W. Ry. v Alexander, 227 US 218, 228 (1913) (finding personal jurisdiction based on "transaction of business"); International Harvester v Kentucky, 234 US 576, 587 (1914) (finding personal jurisdiction based on "doing business" that was "something more than mere solicitation"). The argument in the briefs in International Shoe closely followed these precedents. See note 32.
41. Restatement of the Conflict of Laws § 167; see also id § 92 (applying this concept to corporations).
42. Id § 167, Illustrations 3, 4, 5.
43. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law at 182 (cited in note 9).
44. Alaska Packers Ass'n v Industrial Accident Comm'n, 294 US 532 (1935); Pacific Employers Ins. Co. v Industrial Accident Comm'n, 306 US 493 (1939). For this assessment of these decisions, see Brainerd Currie, The Constitution and the Choice of Law: Governmental Interests and the Judicial Function, in his Selected Essays on the Conflict of Laws 201-14 (Duke, 1963).
45. Brief of Appellants at 18-19, 26.
46. Alpheus Mason, Harlan Fiske Stone: Pillar of the Law 128-30 (Viking, 1956). The disputes were tied up with Stone's own disagreement with the president of Columbia, Nicholas Murray Butler. Id at 131-35; Schlegel, American Legal Realism at 15-16 (cited in note 8).
47. Alpheus Mason, Harlan Fiske Stone: Pillar of the Law 128-30 (Viking, 1956). The disputes were tied up with Stone's own disagreement with the president of Columbia, Nicholas Murray Butler. Id at 131-35; Schlegel, American Legal Realism at 15-16 (cited in note 8).
48. Alpheus Mason, Harlan Fiske Stone: Pillar of the Law 128-30 (Viking, 1956). The disputes were tied up with Stone's own disagreement with the president of Columbia, Nicholas Murray Butler. Id at 131-35; Schlegel, American Legal Realism at 15-16 (cited in note 8).
49. Id at 129-30, quoting a letter to Charles P. Howland (Dec 9, 1927).
50. John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes, eds, American National Biography 389 (Oxford, 1999).
51. Cook at x (cited in note 27). Cook started writing his articles on conflicts of laws in 1923. Id.
52. Papers of Harlan Fiske Stone, Library of Congress, Box 10, General Correspondence, Folder on Cook, Walter Wheeler 1928-43.
53. Id letter from Stone to Cook, March 16, 1943.
54. Id letter from Stone to Cook, June 28, 1943.
55. E.g., id letter from Stone to Cook, Feb 2, 1933 (on Bradford v Elec. Light Co. v Clapper, 286 US 145 (1932)); letter from Stone to Cook, March 16, 1934 (on Yarborough v Yarborough, 290 US 202 (1933)).
56. 268 US 552 (1925).
57. Papers of Harlan Fiske Stone, Letter from Stone to Cook, May 27, 1925; letter from Cook to Stone, June 1, 1925 (cited in note 45). The decision in Second Russian Insurance was handed down also on June 1.
58. John A. Garraty, ed, Dictionary of American Biography 119 (Charles Scribner's Sons, Supp V 1977).
59. Mason, Harlan Fiske Stone at 646 (cited in note 41).
60. For instance, Herbert Wechsler, who was a contemporary of Cohen's at Columbia, and Harold Levanthal, the editor-in-chief of the Columbia Law Review when Transcendental Nonsense was published.
61. For a discussion of the controversy, neglect, and subsequent revival of the article, see Jeremy Waldron, "Transcendental Nonsense" and System in the Law, 100 Colum L Rev 16, 17-18 n 13 (2000). For the central role of this article in denning Legal Realism, see Laura Kalman, Legal Realism at Yale 1927-1960 3-5 (North Carolina, 1986).
62. For a discussion of the controversy, neglect, and subsequent revival of the article, see Jeremy Waldron, "Transcendental Nonsense" and System in the Law, 100 Colum L Rev 16, 17-18 n 13 (2000). For the central role of this article in denning Legal Realism, see Laura Kalman, Legal Realism at Yale 1927-1960 3-5 (North Carolina, 1986).
63. Note, 29 Colum L Rev at 187-95 (cited in note 20).
64. 326 US at 323-25 (opinion of Black, J); see Dennis J. Hutchinson, Decisionmaking in the Supreme Court, 1948-1958, 68 Georgetown L J 1, 48 (1979).
65. 311 US 457, 463 (1940).
66. "See Holmes, J." was added in the final version of the opinion to the citation of McDonald v Mabee, 243 US 90 (1917). Papers of Harlan Fiske Stone, Box 72, 1945 Term, International Shoe Co. v State of Washington, No. 107, Memorandum for the Court by Chief Justice Stone, Nov 27, 1945 (cited in note 45); Draft opinion of Nov 24, 1945, p. 5. Stone also deleted a "compare" citation to Pennoyer v Neff, 95 US 714 (1877). Id.
67. Papers of Harlan Fiske Stone, Box 72, 1945 Term, International Shoe Co. v State of Washington, No. 107, Memorandum of Justice Black to the Members of the Conference, Nov 28, 1945 (cited in note 45); International Shoe, 326 US at 324 (opinion of Black, J).
68. Even Pennoyer v Neff, 95 US 714 (1877), is distinguished, with the bland statement that there is no jurisdiction over a defendant "with which the state has no contacts, ties, or relations." 326 US at 319. This statement is followed by a "cf." citation to Pennoyer and to case holding that a corporation was not doing business in the forum state, despite advertising and solicitation there. Minnesota Commercial Men's Ass'n v Benn, 261 US 140 (1923). Neither case, of course, fits the description of one in which the defendant had "no contacts, ties, or relations" with the forum state.
69. Nor did he not succeed in satisfying Justice Black, who filed a separate opinion making public his objections to the standard of "traditional notions of fair play and substantial justice" and expressing his willingness to dismiss the appeal as insubstantial. 326 US at 322-26. See note 56. In a deconstructive vein himself, Justice Black offered no alternative justification for this conclusion.
70. Fowler V. Harper, Charles W. Taintor II, Charles Wendell Carnahan, and Ralph S. Brown, Jr., Conflict of Laws: Cases and Materials 687-718 (Bobbs-Merrill, 1950); Elliott E. Cheatham, Herbert F. Goodrich, Erwin N. Griswold, and Willis L. M. Reese, Cases and Materials on Conflict of Laws 118-32 (Foundation, 3d ed 1951); Herbert F. Goodrich, Handbook of the Conflict of Laws 215-16 (West, 3d ed 1949). The last two sources strike a slightly adventurous note by assimilating minimum contacts of corporations to acts of an individual inside the state sufficient for jurisdiction.
71. Fowler V. Harper, Charles W. Taintor II, Charles Wendell Carnahan, and Ralph S. Brown, Jr., Conflict of Laws: Cases and Materials 687-718 (Bobbs-Merrill, 1950); Elliott E. Cheatham, Herbert F. Goodrich, Erwin N. Griswold, and Willis L. M. Reese, Cases and Materials on Conflict of Laws 118-32 (Foundation, 3d ed 1951); Herbert F. Goodrich, Handbook of the Conflict of Laws 215-16 (West, 3d ed 1949). The last two sources strike a slightly adventurous note by assimilating minimum contacts of corporations to acts of an individual inside the state sufficient for jurisdiction.
72. Fowler V. Harper, Charles W. Taintor II, Charles Wendell Carnahan, and Ralph S. Brown, Jr., Conflict of Laws: Cases and Materials 687-718 (Bobbs-Merrill, 1950); Elliott E. Cheatham, Herbert F. Goodrich, Erwin N. Griswold, and Willis L. M. Reese, Cases and Materials on Conflict of Laws 118-32 (Foundation, 3d ed 1951); Herbert F. Goodrich, Handbook of the Conflict of Laws 215-16 (West, 3d ed 1949). The last two sources strike a slightly adventurous note by assimilating minimum contacts of corporations to acts of an individual inside the state sufficient for jurisdiction.
73. E.g., J. P. McBaine, Jurisdiction Over Foreign Corporations: Actions Arising Out of Acts Done Within the Forum, 34 Cal L Rev 331, 340-43 (1946); Note, The Growth of the International Shoe Doctrine, 16 U Chi L Rev 523 (1949); Comment, Foreign Corporations - State Boundaries for National Business, 59 Yale L J 737 (1950).
74. E.g., J. P. McBaine, Jurisdiction Over Foreign Corporations: Actions Arising Out of Acts Done Within the Forum, 34 Cal L Rev 331, 340-43 (1946); Note, The Growth of the International Shoe Doctrine, 16 U Chi L Rev 523 (1949); Comment, Foreign Corporations - State Boundaries for National Business, 59 Yale L J 737 (1950).
75. E.g., J. P. McBaine, Jurisdiction Over Foreign Corporations: Actions Arising Out of Acts Done Within the Forum, 34 Cal L Rev 331, 340-43 (1946); Note, The Growth of the International Shoe Doctrine, 16 U Chi L Rev 523 (1949); Comment, Foreign Corporations - State Boundaries for National Business, 59 Yale L J 737 (1950).
76. Herbert F. Goodrich, Yielding Place to New: Rest versus Motion in the Conflict of Laws, 50 Colum L Rev 881, 886-89 (1950). See note 62.
77. Von Mehren and Trautman, 79 Harv L Rev at 1136-63, 1168 (cited in note 11). The comparative perspective was more fully developed in their casebook. Arthur Taylor von Mehren and Donald Theodore Trautman, The Law of Multistate Problems 587-747 (Little, Brown, 1965).
78. Von Mehren and Trautman, 79 Harv L Rev at 1136-63, 1168 (cited in note 11). The comparative perspective was more fully developed in their casebook. Arthur Taylor von Mehren and Donald Theodore Trautman, The Law of Multistate Problems 587-747 (Little, Brown, 1965).
79. Id at 1175-76.
80. Arthur Taylor von Mehren, Adjudicatory Jurisdiction: General Theories Compared and Evaluated, 63 BU L Rev 279, 311-13 (1983).
81. Arthur Taylor von Mehren, American Conflicts Law at the Dawn of the 21st Century, 37 Williamette L Rev 133 (2001).
82. 357 US 235 (1958).
83. 444 US 286 (1980).
84. Hanson, 357 US at 253; World-Wide Volkswagen, 444 US at 297. For these critics, it only added insult to injury to find International Shoe cited to support the quoted phrase.
85. E.g., Russell J. Weintraub, Due Process Limitations on the Personal Jurisdiction of State Courts: Time for Change, 63 Or L Rev 485, 522-27 (1984); Martin H. Redish, Due Process, Federalism, and Personal Jurisdiction: A Theoretical Evaluation, 1981 Nw U L Rev 1112, 1137-42; Hazard, Interstate Venue, 74 Nw U L Rev 711 (1979); Albert Ehrenzweig, The Transient Rule of Personal Jurisdiction, 65 Yale L J 289, 311-13 (1956). While acknowledging the force of both strands of interpretation, von Mehren seems to be partial to this one. Von Mehren, 63 BU L Rev at 337-40 (cited in note 67).
86. E.g., Russell J. Weintraub, Due Process Limitations on the Personal Jurisdiction of State Courts: Time for Change, 63 Or L Rev 485, 522-27 (1984); Martin H. Redish, Due Process, Federalism, and Personal Jurisdiction: A Theoretical Evaluation, 1981 Nw U L Rev 1112, 1137-42; Hazard, Interstate Venue, 74 Nw U L Rev 711 (1979); Albert Ehrenzweig, The Transient Rule of Personal Jurisdiction, 65 Yale L J 289, 311-13 (1956). While acknowledging the force of both strands of interpretation, von Mehren seems to be partial to this one. Von Mehren, 63 BU L Rev at 337-40 (cited in note 67).
87. E.g., Russell J. Weintraub, Due Process Limitations on the Personal Jurisdiction of State Courts: Time for Change, 63 Or L Rev 485, 522-27 (1984); Martin H. Redish, Due Process, Federalism, and Personal Jurisdiction: A Theoretical Evaluation, 1981 Nw U L Rev 1112, 1137-42; Hazard, Interstate Venue, 74 Nw U L Rev 711 (1979); Albert Ehrenzweig, The Transient Rule of Personal Jurisdiction, 65 Yale L J 289, 311-13 (1956). While acknowledging the force of both strands of interpretation, von Mehren seems to be partial to this one. Von Mehren, 63 BU L Rev at 337-40 (cited in note 67).
88. E.g., Russell J. Weintraub, Due Process Limitations on the Personal Jurisdiction of State Courts: Time for Change, 63 Or L Rev 485, 522-27 (1984); Martin H. Redish, Due Process, Federalism, and Personal Jurisdiction: A Theoretical Evaluation, 1981 Nw U L Rev 1112, 1137-42; Hazard, Interstate Venue, 74 Nw U L Rev 711 (1979); Albert Ehrenzweig, The Transient Rule of Personal Jurisdiction, 65 Yale L J 289, 311-13 (1956). While acknowledging the force of both strands of interpretation, von Mehren seems to be partial to this one. Von Mehren, 63 BU L Rev at 337-40 (cited in note 67).
89. E.g., Russell J. Weintraub, Due Process Limitations on the Personal Jurisdiction of State Courts: Time for Change, 63 Or L Rev 485, 522-27 (1984); Martin H. Redish, Due Process, Federalism, and Personal Jurisdiction: A Theoretical Evaluation, 1981 Nw U L Rev 1112, 1137-42; Hazard, Interstate Venue, 74 Nw U L Rev 711 (1979); Albert Ehrenzweig, The Transient Rule of Personal Jurisdiction, 65 Yale L J 289, 311-13 (1956). While acknowledging the force of both strands of interpretation, von Mehren seems to be partial to this one. Von Mehren, 63 BU L Rev at 337-40 (cited in note 67).
90. Weintraub, 63 Or L Rev at 523 (cited in note 72); Redish, 1981 Nw U L Rev at 1138 (cited in note 72).
91. Weintraub, 63 Or L Rev at 523 (cited in note 72); Redish, 1981 Nw U L Rev at 1138 (cited in note 72).
92. 480 US 102 (1987).
93. Id at 116.
94. Russell J. Weintraub, Asahi Sends Personal Jurisdiction Down the Tubes, 23 Tex Intl L J 55 (1988).
95. Hanson, 357 US at 251. For a similar passage in World-Wide Volkswagen, see 444 US at 293.
96. World-Wide Volkswagen, 444 US at 293 ("The sovereignty of each State, in turn, implied a limitation on the sovereignty of all of its sister States - a limitation express or implicit in both the original scheme of the Constitution and the Fourteenth Amendment."); Insurance Corp. of Ireland, Ltd. v Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinee, 456 US 694, 702 (1982) ("The personal jurisdiction requirement recognizes and protects an individual liberty interest. It represents a restriction on judicial power not as a matter of sovereignty, but as a matter of individual liberty."). A footnote following the latter quotation seeks to reconcile it with the former. Id n 10.
97. Lea Brilmayer, How Contacts Count: Due Process Limitations on State Court Jurisdiction, 1980 Supreme Court Review 77; Allan R. Stein, Styles of Argument and Interstate Federalism in the Law of Personal Jurisdiction, 65 Tex L Rev 689, 733-65 (1987).
98. Lea Brilmayer, How Contacts Count: Due Process Limitations on State Court Jurisdiction, 1980 Supreme Court Review 77; Allan R. Stein, Styles of Argument and Interstate Federalism in the Law of Personal Jurisdiction, 65 Tex L Rev 689, 733-65 (1987).
99. E.g., Piper Aircraft v Reyno, 454 US 235 (1981); see Peter Hay, The Interrelation of Jurisdiction and Choice-of-Law in United States Conflicts Law, 28 Intl & Comp L Q 161 (1979);
100. Earl Maltz, Visions of Fairness - the Relationship Between Jurisdiction and Choice-of-Law, 30 Ariz L Rev 751 (1988).
101. E.g., Phillips Petroleum Co. v Shutts, 472 US 797, 821-22 (1985).
102. Restatement (Second) of the Conflict of Laws § 27(k) (1970).
103. 433 US 186, 207 (1977).
104. Id at 212.
105. Restatement (Second) of the Conflict of Laws § 6 (1970).
106. For a candid, if deliberately overstated, description, see Perry Dane, Conflict of Laws, in Dennis Patterson, ed, A Companion to Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory (Blackwell, 1996) ("choice of law has sometimes resembled the law's psychiatric ward").
107. David P. Currie, The Growth of the Long Arm: Eight Years of Extended Jurisdiction in Illinois, 1963 U Ill L F 533, 537.
108. See Anthony L. Ryan, Principles of Forum Selection, 103 W Va L Rev 167, 172 (2000); Jack H. Friedenthal, Mary Kay Kane, and Arthur R. Miller, Civil Procedure 141-44 (West, 3d ed 1999).
109. See Anthony L. Ryan, Principles of Forum Selection, 103 W Va L Rev 167, 172 (2000); Jack H. Friedenthal, Mary Kay Kane, and Arthur R. Miller, Civil Procedure 141-44 (West, 3d ed 1999).
110. FRCP 4(k).
111. Friedenthal, Kane, and Miller, Civil Procedure at 80 (cited in note 88).
112. 28 USC § 1391(a)-(c) (1994).
113. 28 USC § 1404(a) (1994). See, e.g., Piper Aircraft Co. v Reyno, 454 US 235 (1981).
114. See id at 252.
115. Grant Gilmore, The Good Faith Purchase Idea and the Uniform Commercial Code: Confessions of a Repentant Draftsman, 15 Ga L Rev 605, 625-28 (1981). Another chapter in this story appears in Grant Gilmore and Charles L. Black, Jr., The Law of Admiralty 114-20 (Foundation, 2d ed 1975).
116. Grant Gilmore, The Good Faith Purchase Idea and the Uniform Commercial Code: Confessions of a Repentant Draftsman, 15 Ga L Rev 605, 625-28 (1981). Another chapter in this story appears in Grant Gilmore and Charles L. Black, Jr., The Law of Admiralty 114-20 (Foundation, 2d ed 1975).
117. Robert E. Scott, The Uniformity Norm in Commercial Law. A Comparative Analysis of Common Law and Code Methodologies, in Jody Kraus and Steven D. Walt, eds, Jurisprudential Foundations of Corporate and Commercial Law 149, 166, and 185 n 65 (Cambridge, 2000).
118. Id at 170-74.
119. H. L. A. Hart, The Concept of Law 136-41 (Oxford, 2d ed 1994); Waldron, 100 Colum L Rev 16 (cited in note 54).
120. H. L. A. Hart, The Concept of Law 136-41 (Oxford, 2d ed 1994); Waldron, 100 Colum L Rev 16 (cited in note 54).
121. Stephen B. Burbank, Jurisdiction to Adjudicate: End of the Century or Beginning of the Millennium, 7 Tulane J Intl & Comp L 111, 113-14 (1999); Kevin M. Clermont, Jurisdictional Salvation and the Hague Treaty, 85 Cornell L Rev 89, 107-08 (1999). For a general sense of the unease surrounding the status quo, see Symposium, Fifty Years of International Shoe: The Past and Future of Personal Jurisdiction, 28 UC Davis L Rev 513 (1995).
122. Stephen B. Burbank, Jurisdiction to Adjudicate: End of the Century or Beginning of the Millennium, 7 Tulane J Intl & Comp L 111, 113-14 (1999); Kevin M. Clermont, Jurisdictional Salvation and the Hague Treaty, 85 Cornell L Rev 89, 107-08 (1999). For a general sense of the unease surrounding the status quo, see Symposium, Fifty Years of International Shoe: The Past and Future of Personal Jurisdiction, 28 UC Davis L Rev 513 (1995).
123. Stephen B. Burbank, Jurisdiction to Adjudicate: End of the Century or Beginning of the Millennium, 7 Tulane J Intl & Comp L 111, 113-14 (1999); Kevin M. Clermont, Jurisdictional Salvation and the Hague Treaty, 85 Cornell L Rev 89, 107-08 (1999). For a general sense of the unease surrounding the status quo, see Symposium, Fifty Years of International Shoe: The Past and Future of Personal Jurisdiction, 28 UC Davis L Rev 513 (1995).
124. Brainerd Currie, On the Displacement of the Law of the Forum, in Selected Essays at 6 (cited in note 39).
125. See, e.g., International Harvester v Kentucky, 234 US 579, 588 (1914).
126. E.g, Hess v Pawloski, 274 US 352, 357 (1927).
127. McGee v International Life Ins. Co., 355 US 220, 222-23 (1957); Hanson v Denckla, 357 US 235, 250-51 (1958); World-Wide Volkswagen Corp. v Woodson, 444 US 286, 292-93 (1980).
128. Stephen Gardbaum, New Deal Constitutionalism and the Unshackling of the States, 64 U Chi L Rev 483, 485-91 (1997).
129. Margaret Stewart, Forum Non Conveniens: A Doctrine in Search of a Role, 74 Cal L Rev 1259, 1321 (1986).
130. Lea Brilmayer, Conflict of Laws: Foundations and Future Directions 155-75 (Little, Brown, 1991); Larry Kramer, Rethinking Choice of Law, 90 Colum L Rev 277, 319-44 (1990).
131. Lea Brilmayer, Conflict of Laws: Foundations and Future Directions 155-75 (Little, Brown, 1991); Larry Kramer, Rethinking Choice of Law, 90 Colum L Rev 277, 319-44 (1990).
132. These are the facts, respectively, of Asahi Metal Industry Co. v Superior Court, 480 US 102, 114 (1987), and World-Wide Volkswagen Corp. v Woodson, 444 US 286, 299 (1980).
133. Clermont, 85 Cornell L Rev at 96 (cited in note 98); Linda J. Silberman and Andreas F. Lowenfeld, A Different Challenge for the ALI: Herein of Foreign Country Judgments, an International Treaty, and an American Statute, 75 Ind L J 635, 640-41 (2000).
134. Clermont, 85 Cornell L Rev at 96 (cited in note 98); Linda J. Silberman and Andreas F. Lowenfeld, A Different Challenge for the ALI: Herein of Foreign Country Judgments, an International Treaty, and an American Statute, 75 Ind L J 635, 640-41 (2000).
135. Denning, J, Master of the Rolls, in Smith, Kline and French Laboratories Ltd v Bloch, 1980 S No 6514 (CA May 13, 1982).
136. Hague Conference on Private International Law, Preliminary Draft Convention on Jurisdiction and Foreign Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters (Oct 30, 1999).
137. Sept 27, 1968, 1990 O J (C 189) 2 (consolidated). The convention applies to the twelve states that were members of the European Community (now the European Union) before January 1, 1995.
138. Silberman and Lowenfeld, 75 Ind L J at 638-41 (cited in note 107).
139. Preliminary Draft, arts 6, 10 (cited in note 109).
140. Clermont, 85 Cornell L Rev at 111-14 (cited in note 98); Burbank, 7 Tulane J Intl L at 116-19 (cited in note 98).
141. Clermont, 85 Cornell L Rev at 111-14 (cited in note 98); Burbank, 7 Tulane J Intl L at 116-19 (cited in note 98).
142. Clermont, 85 Cornell L Rev at 91-95 (cited in note 98).
143. Louisville Gas and Elec. Co. v Coleman, 277 US 32, 41-42 (1928) (Holmes, J, dissenting).