Institutional choice and the failure of democracy: The case of interwar Poland

East European Politics and Societies

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 34-69

  Bernhard, Michael ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040737605     PISSN: 08883254     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0888325499013001002     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Arend Lijphart, "Presidential and Majoritarian Democracy: Theoretical Observations," in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); Juan J. Linz, "Presidential or Parliamentary Democracy: Does It Make a Difference?" in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); Fred Riggs, "Fragility of the Third World's Regimes," International Social Science Journal 45 (1993): 199-243; and Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skatch, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (1993): 1-22.
2. Arend Lijphart, "Presidential and Majoritarian Democracy: Theoretical Observations," in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); Juan J. Linz, "Presidential or Parliamentary Democracy: Does It Make a Difference?" in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); Fred Riggs, "Fragility of the Third World's Regimes," International Social Science Journal 45 (1993): 199-243; and Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skatch, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (1993): 1-22.
3. Arend Lijphart, "Presidential and Majoritarian Democracy: Theoretical Observations," in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); Juan J. Linz, "Presidential or Parliamentary Democracy: Does It Make a Difference?" in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); Fred Riggs, "Fragility of the Third World's Regimes," International Social Science Journal 45 (1993): 199-243; and Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skatch, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (1993): 1-22.
4. Arend Lijphart, "Presidential and Majoritarian Democracy: Theoretical Observations," in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); Juan J. Linz, "Presidential or Parliamentary Democracy: Does It Make a Difference?" in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); Fred Riggs, "Fragility of the Third World's Regimes," International Social Science Journal 45 (1993): 199-243; and Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skatch, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (1993): 1-22.
5. Stepan and Skatch, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation," 14-15.
6. Skatch and Stepan's set, ("Constitutional") 14-15 less India, is distributed in the following fashion: Population n Countries × ≤ 9,999 1 Tuvalu 10,000 ≤ × ≤ 99,999 3 Dominica, Kiribati, Nauru 100,000 ≤ × ≤ 249,999 2 St. Vincent, St. Lucia 250,000 ≤ × ≤ 449,999 3 Barbados, Bahamas, Solomon Islands 500,000 ≤ × ≤ 999,999 0 1,000,000 ≤ × ≤ 5,400,000 5 Botswana, Israel, Jamaica, Papua New Guinea, Trinidad and Tobago Only one of these 14 states (Israel) has a population of more than 5 million. The nine smallest states have a mean population of less than 150,000. Source: Encyclopedia Britannica On-Line.
7. Michael Bernhard, "Semipresidentialism, Charisma, and Democratic Institutions in Poland," in Kurt von Mettenheim, ed., Presidential Institutions and Democratic Politics, Comparing Regional and National Contexts (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 280, n. 11.
8. Matthew Soberg Shugart and John M. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 38-43.
9. Recent studies include Thomas A. Baylis, "Presidents Versus Prime Ministers, Shaping Executive Authority in Eastern Europe," World Politics 48 (1996): 297-323; Josep M. Colomer, "Strategies and Outcomes in Eastern Europe," Journal of Democracy 6 (1995): 74-85; Jon Elster, "Constitution-Making in Eastern Europe: Rebuilding the Boat in the Open Sea," Public Administration 71 (1993): 169-217; Barbara Geddes, "A Comparative Perspective on the Leninist Legacy in Eastern Europe," Comparative Political Studies 28 (1995): 239-274; and Arend Lijphart, "Democratization and Constitutional Choices in Czecho-Slovakia, Hungary, and Poland, 1989-1991," Journal of Theoretical Politics 4 (1992): 207-23.
10. Recent studies include Thomas A. Baylis, "Presidents Versus Prime Ministers, Shaping Executive Authority in Eastern Europe," World Politics 48 (1996): 297-323; Josep M. Colomer, "Strategies and Outcomes in Eastern Europe," Journal of Democracy 6 (1995): 74-85; Jon Elster, "Constitution-Making in Eastern Europe: Rebuilding the Boat in the Open Sea," Public Administration 71 (1993): 169-217; Barbara Geddes, "A Comparative Perspective on the Leninist Legacy in Eastern Europe," Comparative Political Studies 28 (1995): 239-274; and Arend Lijphart, "Democratization and Constitutional Choices in Czecho-Slovakia, Hungary, and Poland, 1989-1991," Journal of Theoretical Politics 4 (1992): 207-23.
11. Recent studies include Thomas A. Baylis, "Presidents Versus Prime Ministers, Shaping Executive Authority in Eastern Europe," World Politics 48 (1996): 297-323; Josep M. Colomer, "Strategies and Outcomes in Eastern Europe," Journal of Democracy 6 (1995): 74-85; Jon Elster, "Constitution-Making in Eastern Europe: Rebuilding the Boat in the Open Sea," Public Administration 71 (1993): 169-217; Barbara Geddes, "A Comparative Perspective on the Leninist Legacy in Eastern Europe," Comparative Political Studies 28 (1995): 239-274; and Arend Lijphart, "Democratization and Constitutional Choices in Czecho-Slovakia, Hungary, and Poland, 1989-1991," Journal of Theoretical Politics 4 (1992): 207-23.
12. Recent studies include Thomas A. Baylis, "Presidents Versus Prime Ministers, Shaping Executive Authority in Eastern Europe," World Politics 48 (1996): 297-323; Josep M. Colomer, "Strategies and Outcomes in Eastern Europe," Journal of Democracy 6 (1995): 74-85; Jon Elster, "Constitution-Making in Eastern Europe: Rebuilding the Boat in the Open Sea," Public Administration 71 (1993): 169-217; Barbara Geddes, "A Comparative Perspective on the Leninist Legacy in Eastern Europe," Comparative Political Studies 28 (1995): 239-274; and Arend Lijphart, "Democratization and Constitutional Choices in Czecho-Slovakia, Hungary, and Poland, 1989-1991," Journal of Theoretical Politics 4 (1992): 207-23.
13. Recent studies include Thomas A. Baylis, "Presidents Versus Prime Ministers, Shaping Executive Authority in Eastern Europe," World Politics 48 (1996): 297-323; Josep M. Colomer, "Strategies and Outcomes in Eastern Europe," Journal of Democracy 6 (1995): 74-85; Jon Elster, "Constitution-Making in Eastern Europe: Rebuilding the Boat in the Open Sea," Public Administration 71 (1993): 169-217; Barbara Geddes, "A Comparative Perspective on the Leninist Legacy in Eastern Europe," Comparative Political Studies 28 (1995): 239-274; and Arend Lijphart, "Democratization and Constitutional Choices in Czecho-Slovakia, Hungary, and Poland, 1989-1991," Journal of Theoretical Politics 4 (1992): 207-23.
14. Geddes, "A Comparative Perspective," 239-40.
15. Elster, "Constitution-Making," 181 ff.
16. See Michael Bernhard, "Institutional Choice After Communism: A Critique of Theory-Building in an Empirical Wasteland," Program on Central and Eastern Europe Working Paper Series, 47, Minda DeGunzberg Center for European Studies, Harvard University (1998).
17. Robert Machray, Poland, 1914-31 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1932), 74.
18. Machray, Poland, 86-90.
19. Andrzej Albert (pseudonym for Wojciech Roszkowski), Najnowsza historia Polski, 1914-1993 (Recent Polish history), 2 vols (London: Puls, 1993): 43-44; and Machray, Poland, 96. The Regency Council was supported in its efforts by the Miȩdzypartyjne Koło Polityczne (Interparty Political Circle), which grouped together the National Democrats, the Christian Democrats, and the Party of Constructive Politics (Stronnictwo Politykiǒ Realnej).
20. Andrzej Albert (pseudonym for Wojciech Roszkowski), Najnowsza historia Polski, 1914-1993 (Recent Polish history), 2 vols (London: Puls, 1993): 43-44; and Machray, Poland, 96. The Regency Council was supported in its efforts by the Miȩdzypartyjne Koło Polityczne (Interparty Political Circle), which grouped together the National Democrats, the Christian Democrats, and the Party of Constructive Politics (Stronnictwo Politykiǒ Realnej).
21. Andrzej Ajnenkiel, "Ustrój i Prawo Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej" (The system and laws of the Second Republic), in Jan Tomicki, ed., Polska Odrodzona 1918-1939 (Poland reborn, 1918-1939) (Warsaw: Wiedza Powszechna, 1988), 62; and Paweł Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia (1918-1939) (The history of two decades, 1918-1939) (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1981), 49.
22. Andrzej Ajnenkiel, "Ustrój i Prawo Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej" (The system and laws of the Second Republic), in Jan Tomicki, ed., Polska Odrodzona 1918-1939 (Poland reborn, 1918-1939) (Warsaw: Wiedza Powszechna, 1988), 62; and Paweł Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia (1918-1939) (The history of two decades, 1918-1939) (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1981), 49.
23. Machray, Poland, 77-81; and Ajnenkiel, "Ustrój i Prawo," 62.
24. Machray, Poland, 77-81; and Ajnenkiel, "Ustrój i Prawo," 62.
25. Albert, Najnowsza, 48.
26. Machray, Poland, 95; and Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 45-46.
27. Machray, Poland, 95; and Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 45-46.
28. "Dekret Rady Regencyjnej o przekazaniu władzy wojskowej Józefowi Piłsudskiemu" (Decree of the Regency Council on the transfer of Military Authority to Józef Piłsudski), 11 XI 1918, in Zbigniew Jerzy Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita (The Second Republic), (Białystok: Temida 2, 1994), 7.
29. "Pismo Rady Regencyjnej do Naczelnego Dowódcy Wojsk Polskich Józefa Piłsudskiego w sprawie przekazania mu władzy państwowej" (Letter of the Regency Council to Józef Piłsudski, Commander in Chief of the Polish Armies, in the matter of transferring state authority to him), 14 XI 1918, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita, 7.
30. Ajnenkiel, "Ustrój i Prawo," 70; and
31. "Dekret Tymczasowego Naczelnika Państwa o powierzeniu misji tworzenia rza̧du Ignacemu Daszyńskiemu" (Decree of the Provisional Head of State on entrusting the mission of forming a government to Ignacy Daszyński), 14 XI 1918, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita, 8.
32. Albert, Najnowsza, 54.
33. "Dekret Tymczasowego Naczelnika Państwa o ordynacji wyborczej do Sejmu Ustawodawczego" (Decree of the Provisional Head of State on the electoral ordinance to the Constituent Sejm), 28 XI 1918, in Hirsz, II Rzeczpospolita, 13-17, and " Dekret Tymczasowego Naczelnika Państwa o wyborach do Sejmu Ustawodawczego" (Decree of the Provisional Head of State on elections to the Constituent Sejm), 28 XI 1918, in Hirsz, II Rzeczpospolita, 17-20.
34. "Dekret Tymczasowego Naczelnika Państwa o ordynacji wyborczej do Sejmu Ustawodawczego" (Decree of the Provisional Head of State on the electoral ordinance to the Constituent Sejm), 28 XI 1918, in Hirsz, II Rzeczpospolita, 13-17, and " Dekret Tymczasowego Naczelnika Państwa o wyborach do Sejmu Ustawodawczego" (Decree of the Provisional Head of State on elections to the Constituent Sejm), 28 XI 1918, in Hirsz, II Rzeczpospolita, 17-20.
35. Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia, 46.
36. Andrzej Ajnenkiel, Spór o model parlamentaryzmu polskiego do roku 1926 (The controversy over the model of Polish parliamentarism until 1926) (Warsaw: Ksia̧żka i Wiedza 1972), 179; and Andrzej Ajnenkiel, "Sejm jako czynnik integracji narodu i państwa" (The Sejm as an agent of national and state integration), in Andrzej Zakrzewski, ed., Sejmy drugiej rzeczypospolitiej (Sejms of the Second Republic) (Warsaw: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1990), 21-22. In the elections in Western Galicia (26 January 1919), where it was strongest, "Piast" won a plurality, taking 34 percent of the vote (Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 60). Assuming that parties would not have created electoral blocs, an SMD System would have given "Piast" a larger number of seats. After the passage of the PR statute, the party became more strident in its attacks on the electoral system. At a meeting of its Supreme Council, "Piast" passed a resolution that favored granting the right to vote only to those "citizens who swear allegiance to the Polish state and are considered Poles" (my emphasis) (Ajnenkiel, Spór o model parlamentaryzmu polskiego, 183). This was clearly directed against Poland's minority populations.
37. Andrzej Ajnenkiel, Spór o model parlamentaryzmu polskiego do roku 1926 (The controversy over the model of Polish parliamentarism until 1926) (Warsaw: Ksia̧żka i Wiedza 1972), 179; and Andrzej Ajnenkiel, "Sejm jako czynnik integracji narodu i państwa" (The Sejm as an agent of national and state integration), in Andrzej Zakrzewski, ed., Sejmy drugiej rzeczypospolitiej (Sejms of the Second Republic) (Warsaw: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1990), 21-22. In the elections in Western Galicia (26 January 1919), where it was strongest, "Piast" won a plurality, taking 34 percent of the vote (Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 60). Assuming that parties would not have created electoral blocs, an SMD System would have given "Piast" a larger number of seats. After the passage of the PR statute, the party became more strident in its attacks on the electoral system. At a meeting of its Supreme Council, "Piast" passed a resolution that favored granting the right to vote only to those "citizens who swear allegiance to the Polish state and are considered Poles" (my emphasis) (Ajnenkiel, Spór o model parlamentaryzmu polskiego, 183). This was clearly directed against Poland's minority populations.
38. Andrzej Ajnenkiel, Spór o model parlamentaryzmu polskiego do roku 1926 (The controversy over the model of Polish parliamentarism until 1926) (Warsaw: Ksia̧żka i Wiedza 1972), 179; and Andrzej Ajnenkiel, "Sejm jako czynnik integracji narodu i państwa" (The Sejm as an agent of national and state integration), in Andrzej Zakrzewski, ed., Sejmy drugiej rzeczypospolitiej (Sejms of the Second Republic) (Warsaw: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1990), 21-22. In the elections in Western Galicia (26 January 1919), where it was strongest, "Piast" won a plurality, taking 34 percent of the vote (Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 60). Assuming that parties would not have created electoral blocs, an SMD System would have given "Piast" a larger number of seats. After the passage of the PR statute, the party became more strident in its attacks on the electoral system. At a meeting of its Supreme Council, "Piast" passed a resolution that favored granting the right to vote only to those "citizens who swear allegiance to the Polish state and are considered Poles" (my emphasis) (Ajnenkiel, Spór o model parlamentaryzmu polskiego, 183). This was clearly directed against Poland's minority populations.
39. Andrzej Ajnenkiel, Spór o model parlamentaryzmu polskiego do roku 1926 (The controversy over the model of Polish parliamentarism until 1926) (Warsaw: Ksia̧żka i Wiedza 1972), 179; and Andrzej Ajnenkiel, "Sejm jako czynnik integracji narodu i państwa" (The Sejm as an agent of national and state integration), in Andrzej Zakrzewski, ed., Sejmy drugiej rzeczypospolitiej (Sejms of the Second Republic) (Warsaw: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1990), 21-22. In the elections in Western Galicia (26 January 1919), where it was strongest, "Piast" won a plurality, taking 34 percent of the vote (Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 60). Assuming that parties would not have created electoral blocs, an SMD System would have given "Piast" a larger number of seats. After the passage of the PR statute, the party became more strident in its attacks on the electoral system. At a meeting of its Supreme Council, "Piast" passed a resolution that favored granting the right to vote only to those "citizens who swear allegiance to the Polish state and are considered Poles" (my emphasis) (Ajnenkiel, Spór o model parlamentaryzmu polskiego, 183). This was clearly directed against Poland's minority populations.
40. Ajnenkiel, "Sejm jako czynnik integracji narodu i państwa," 19-20; and
41. Andrzej Gwiźdź, "Formy pracy sejmów Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej" (The forms of work of the sejms of the Second Republic), in Andrzej Zakrzewski, ed., Sejmy drugiej rzeczypospolitiej (Sejms of the Second Republic) (Warsaw: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza 1990), 119.
42. R. F. Leslie, Antony Polonsky, Jan M. Ciechanowski, and Z. A. Pełczynski, The History of Poland Since 1863 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 128.
43. At the end of 1918 the Moraczewski government controlled the Congress Kingdom with the exception of the area around Suwałki. Several other areas under Polish control recognized the authority of the Moraczewski government, including Cieszyn Silesia, Przemyśl, and Galicia around Lwów. This was an area of 140 thousand square kilometers, with a population of 14.5 million (Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski 56-57).
44. Joseph Rothschild, Eastern Europe Between the Two World Wars. A History of East Central Europe, vol. 9 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974), 46-47.
45. Ajnenkiel, "Ustrój i Prawo," 75.
46. Piłsudski issued a decree (17 February 1919) incorporating all Polish deputies from the German Reichstag and the Austrian Reichsrat into the Sejm. Thus Galicia was represented by 77 elected and 28 appointed deputies, and Poznania was represented by 42 elected and 7 appointed deputies. Two deputies were also appointed to represent Upper Silesia (also claimed by the Germans) and 20 to represent Wilno and environs (also claimed by the Lithuanians) (Machray, Poland, 113).
47. See "Uchwała Sejmu Ustawodawczego o powierzeniu J. Piłsudskiemu urzȩdu Naczelnika Państwa, zwana̧ Mała̧ Konstytucja̧" (Resolution of the Constituent Sejm entrusting J. Piłsudski with the Office of Head of State, known as the Small Constitution), 20 II 1919, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita, 27.
48. For the full Polish names of the parties, see Table 1.
49. Andrzej Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje (Polish Constitutions) (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne I Pedagogiczne, 1991), 223; and Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia, 32.
50. Andrzej Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje (Polish Constitutions) (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne I Pedagogiczne, 1991), 223; and Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia, 32.
51. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 223.
52. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 226-27; and Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia, 32.
53. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 226-27; and Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia, 32.
54. Ajnenkiel, "Ustrój i Prawo," 63.
55. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 226-27; and Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia, 31.
56. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 226-27; and Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia, 31.
57. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 227-28; and Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia, 31.
58. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 227-28; and Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia, 31.
59. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 228; Malbone W. Graham, Jr., The New Governments of Eastern Europe (New York: Henry Holt, 1927), 463; "Deklaracja konstytucyjna z 3 maja 1919" (Constitutional declaration of 3 May 1919), in Maria Groń-Drozdowska and Marian Marek Drozdowski, eds., Stanisław Wojciechowski, President RP, Wspomnienia, Orȩdzia, Artykuły (Stanisław Wojciechowski, President of the Polish Republic, memoirs, proclamations, articles) (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Bellona, 1995), 348-55; and Stanisław Wojciechowski, "Moje wspomnienia" tom II (nie publikowany) (Memoirs, vol. 2, unpublished), in Groń-Drozdowska and Drozdowski eds., Stanisław Wojciechowski, 201-6.
60. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 228; Malbone W. Graham, Jr., The New Governments of Eastern Europe (New York: Henry Holt, 1927), 463; "Deklaracja konstytucyjna z 3 maja 1919" (Constitutional declaration of 3 May 1919), in Maria Groń-Drozdowska and Marian Marek Drozdowski, eds., Stanisław Wojciechowski, President RP, Wspomnienia, Orȩdzia, Artykuły (Stanisław Wojciechowski, President of the Polish Republic, memoirs, proclamations, articles) (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Bellona, 1995), 348-55; and Stanisław Wojciechowski, "Moje wspomnienia" tom II (nie publikowany) (Memoirs, vol. 2, unpublished), in Groń-Drozdowska and Drozdowski eds., Stanisław Wojciechowski, 201-6.
61. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 228; Malbone W. Graham, Jr., The New Governments of Eastern Europe (New York: Henry Holt, 1927), 463; "Deklaracja konstytucyjna z 3 maja 1919" (Constitutional declaration of 3 May 1919), in Maria Groń-Drozdowska and Marian Marek Drozdowski, eds., Stanisław Wojciechowski, President RP, Wspomnienia, Orȩdzia, Artykuły (Stanisław Wojciechowski, President of the Polish Republic, memoirs, proclamations, articles) (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Bellona, 1995), 348-55; and Stanisław Wojciechowski, "Moje wspomnienia" tom II (nie publikowany) (Memoirs, vol. 2, unpublished), in Groń-Drozdowska and Drozdowski eds., Stanisław Wojciechowski, 201-6.
62. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 228; Malbone W. Graham, Jr., The New Governments of Eastern Europe (New York: Henry Holt, 1927), 463; "Deklaracja konstytucyjna z 3 maja 1919" (Constitutional declaration of 3 May 1919), in Maria Groń-Drozdowska and Marian Marek Drozdowski, eds., Stanisław Wojciechowski, President RP, Wspomnienia, Orȩdzia, Artykuły (Stanisław Wojciechowski, President of the Polish Republic, memoirs, proclamations, articles) (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Bellona, 1995), 348-55; and Stanisław Wojciechowski, "Moje wspomnienia" tom II (nie publikowany) (Memoirs, vol. 2, unpublished), in Groń-Drozdowska and Drozdowski eds., Stanisław Wojciechowski, 201-6.
63. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 228-30; and Janusz Żarnowski, "Polska Partia Socjalistyczna" (The Polish Socialist Party), in Janusz Żarnowski, ed., Życie polityczne w Polsce 1918-1939 (Political life in Poland, 1918-1939) Wrocław: Ossolineum, 1985), 69.
64. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 228-30; and Janusz Żarnowski, "Polska Partia Socjalistyczna" (The Polish Socialist Party), in Janusz Żarnowski, ed., Życie polityczne w Polsce 1918-1939 (Political life in Poland, 1918-1939) Wrocław: Ossolineum, 1985), 69.
65. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 229.
66. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 229.
67. Ajnekiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 230.
68. Machray, Poland, 133; Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 463; and Wojciechowski, "Moje wspomnienia," 207.
69. Machray, Poland, 133; Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 463; and Wojciechowski, "Moje wspomnienia," 207.
70. Machray, Poland, 133; Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 463; and Wojciechowski, "Moje wspomnienia," 207.
71. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 230-31.
72. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 231.
73. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 231-32; and Leslie et al., The History of Poland Since 1863, 151.
74. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 231-32; and Leslie et al., The History of Poland Since 1863, 151.
75. Richard M. Watt, Bitter Glory: Poland and Its Fate, 1918-1939 (New York: Touchstone, 1982), 188.
76. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 236.
77. Ajnenkiel, "Ustrój i Prawo," 84; and Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 232.
78. Ajnenkiel, "Ustrój i Prawo," 84; and Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 232.
79. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 232; Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 100; and Machray, Poland, 1914-31, 173.
80. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 232; Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 100; and Machray, Poland, 1914-31, 173.
81. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 232; Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 100; and Machray, Poland, 1914-31, 173.
82. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 235.
83. Ajnekiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 235.
84. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 236; and Machray, Poland, 193.
85. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 236; and Machray, Poland, 193.
86. On the ROP and its powers, see "Ustawa o utworzeniu Rady Obrony Państwa" (Statute on the creation of the Council for the Defense of the State), 1 VII 1920, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita, 40.
87. I use the appellations American type and French type in this discussion because they were employed by the participants in the debate. I do not do so in the spirit of certain constitutional scholars, who literally see American or French influence in the advocacy or adoption of such institutions. I see these terms as part of the attempts of self-interested political actors to justify their choices to each other and to the public.
88. Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia, 32-33.
89. Joseph Rothschild, Piłsudski's Coup D'état (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966), 8.
90. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 231.
91. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 231.
92. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 472-73; Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje 242-43; Watt, Bitter Glory, 188; Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 102; and "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej" (Constitution of the Polish Republic), 17 III 1921, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita 80.
93. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 472-73; Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje 242-43; Watt, Bitter Glory, 188; Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 102; and "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej" (Constitution of the Polish Republic), 17 III 1921, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita 80.
94. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 472-73; Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje 242-43; Watt, Bitter Glory, 188; Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 102; and "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej" (Constitution of the Polish Republic), 17 III 1921, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita 80.
95. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 472-73; Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje 242-43; Watt, Bitter Glory, 188; Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 102; and "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej" (Constitution of the Polish Republic), 17 III 1921, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita 80.
96. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 472-73; Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje 242-43; Watt, Bitter Glory, 188; Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 102; and "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej" (Constitution of the Polish Republic), 17 III 1921, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita 80.
97. Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia, 31-32.
98. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 463; and W. F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson, O. Halecki, and R. Dyboski, The Cambridge History of Poland: From Augustus to Piłsudski (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1941), 571.
99. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 463; and W. F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson, O. Halecki, and R. Dyboski, The Cambridge History of Poland: From Augustus to Piłsudski (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1941), 571.
100. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 463-6 4; and Żarnowski, "Polska Partia Socjalistyczna," 70.
101. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 463-6 4; and Żarnowski, "Polska Partia Socjalistyczna," 70.
102. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 233.
103. Machray, Poland 173.
104. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 233. Tensions emerged between the PSL "Liberation" and other parties opposing the Senat over its position on elections. "Liberation" favored holding new elections in the shortest possible time because it had lost over one half of its deputies to "Piast." Other anti-Senat deputies were in no rush to hold new elections.
105. Machray, Poland 188.
106. Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia, 36; and Ajnenkiel, "Ustrój i Prawo," 85.
107. Zaremba, Historia Dwudziestolecia, 36; and Ajnenkiel, "Ustrój i Prawo," 85.
108. Ajnenkiel "Ustrój i Prawo," 85.
109. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 254-55, and Graham, The New Governments of Eastem Europe, 485.
110. Ajnenkiel, Polskie Konstytucje, 254-55, and Graham, The New Governments of Eastem Europe, 485.
111. See "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej"; "Ordynacja wyborcza do Sejmu" (Electoral statute for the Sejm), 28 VII 1922, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita 108-24; and "Ordynacja wyborcza do Senatu" (Electoral statute for the Senat), 28 VII 1922, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita, 124-25.
112. See "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej"; "Ordynacja wyborcza do Sejmu" (Electoral statute for the Sejm), 28 VII 1922, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita 108-24; and "Ordynacja wyborcza do Senatu" (Electoral statute for the Senat), 28 VII 1922, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita, 124-25.
113. See "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej"; "Ordynacja wyborcza do Sejmu" (Electoral statute for the Sejm), 28 VII 1922, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita 108-24; and "Ordynacja wyborcza do Senatu" (Electoral statute for the Senat), 28 VII 1922, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita, 124-25.
114. "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej," 77, 79.
115. "Konstytucja," 77, 79.
116. "Dekret Tymczasowego Naczelnika Państwa o ordynacji wyborczej," 13-14.
117. "Konstytucja" 79.
118. "Ustawa przechodnia do ustawy Konstytucyjnej z dn. 17 marca 1921 r. w sprawie organizacji władzy zwierzchniej w okresie Sejmu ustawodawczego" (Transitional statute to the constitutional statute of 17 March 1921 on the matter of the organization of supreme authority in the period of the Constituent Sejm), 18 V 1921, in Hirsz, ed., II Rzeczpospolita, 89.
119. Ajnenkiel, Spór o model parlamentaryzmu polskiego, 251-52; and Andrzej Ajnenkiel, Historia Sejmu Polskiego (History of the Polish Sejm), vol. 2, part 2, " Druga Rzeczpospolita" (The Second Republic) (Warsaw: PWN 1989), 78.
120. Ajnenkiel, Spór o model parlamentaryzmu polskiego, 251-52; and Andrzej Ajnenkiel, Historia Sejmu Polskiego (History of the Polish Sejm), vol. 2, part 2, " Druga Rzeczpospolita" (The Second Republic) (Warsaw: PWN 1989), 78.
121. Ajnenkiel, Spór o model parlamentaryzmu polskiego, 251-52; and Andrzej Ajnenkiel, Historia Sejmu Polskiego (History of the Polish Sejm), vol. 2, part 2, " Druga Rzeczpospolita" (The Second Republic) (Warsaw: PWN 1989), 78.
122. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 467-68; Antony Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972), 46; and Stanisław Krukowski, "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z 1921 r" (The Constitution of the Polish Republic of 1921), in Marian Kallas, ed., Konstytucje Polski (The Constitutions of Poland) (Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1990), 75.
123. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 467-68; Antony Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972), 46; and Stanisław Krukowski, "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z 1921 r" (The Constitution of the Polish Republic of 1921), in Marian Kallas, ed., Konstytucje Polski (The Constitutions of Poland) (Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1990), 75.
124. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 467-68; Antony Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972), 46; and Stanisław Krukowski, "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z 1921 r" (The Constitution of the Polish Republic of 1921), in Marian Kallas, ed., Konstytucje Polski (The Constitutions of Poland) (Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1990), 75.
125. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 495-96; and Krukowski, "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej," 75.
126. Graham, The New Governments of Eastern Europe, 495-96; and Krukowski, "Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej," 75.
127. The interpretation of the camps presented in this table is open to challenge. The Chjena list included the Christian Democrats, who were certainly more moderate than the ZL-N. Thus one could argue that this table overstates the power of the right at the expense of the center. Under the terms of their electoral alliance, the Christian Democrats received 44 seats. Categorizing them as "center" would cause a shift of 10 percent the right.
128. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, vii.
129. Ajnenkiel, Historia Sejmu Polskiego, 327-28.
130. Machray, Poland, 251.
131. Albert, Najnowsza historia Polski, 155-56.
132. Albert, Najnowsza, 149.
133. Machray, Poland, 251.
134. Albert, Najnowsza, 150 and Machray, Poland, 252-53.
135. Albert, Najnowsza, 150 and Machray, Poland, 252-53.
136. Leslie, et al. The History of Poland Since 1863, 155-56.
137. Rothschild, Piłsudski's Coup D'etat, 29-31.