Black housing, white finance: African American housing and home ownership in Evanston, Illinois, before 1940

Journal of Social History

Volumn 33, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 428-460

  Wiese, Andrew ^a  

^a Department of History ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040716090     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.1999.0079     Document Type: Article

References (160)

1. Caldonia Martin interview by Angela Jackson, 1972, transcript (Evanston Historical Society [EHS], Evanston, Illinois).
2. Roger Simon, "Housing and Services in an Immigrant Neighborhood: Milwaukee's 14th Ward," Journal of Urban History 2 (Aug. 1976): 435-458; Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago, 1982); Henry L. Taylor Jr., "The Building of a Black Industrial Suburb: The Lincoln Heights, Ohio, Story," (PhD. diss., State University of New York at Buffalo, 1979); Richard Harris, "Working Class Home Ownership in the American Metropolis," Journal of Urban History 17 (Nov. 1990): 46-69; Richard Harris, "Self-Building in the Urban Housing Market," Economic Geography 67 (Jan. 1991): 1-21; Richard Harris, "American Suburbs: A Sketch of a New Interpretation," Journal of Urban History 15 (1988): 98-103.
3. Roger Simon, "Housing and Services in an Immigrant Neighborhood: Milwaukee's 14th Ward," Journal of Urban History 2 (Aug. 1976): 435-458; Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago, 1982); Henry L. Taylor Jr., "The Building of a Black Industrial Suburb: The Lincoln Heights, Ohio, Story," (PhD. diss., State University of New York at Buffalo, 1979); Richard Harris, "Working Class Home Ownership in the American Metropolis," Journal of Urban History 17 (Nov. 1990): 46-69; Richard Harris, "Self-Building in the Urban Housing Market," Economic Geography 67 (Jan. 1991): 1-21; Richard Harris, "American Suburbs: A Sketch of a New Interpretation," Journal of Urban History 15 (1988): 98-103.
4. Roger Simon, "Housing and Services in an Immigrant Neighborhood: Milwaukee's 14th Ward," Journal of Urban History 2 (Aug. 1976): 435-458; Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago, 1982); Henry L. Taylor Jr., "The Building of a Black Industrial Suburb: The Lincoln Heights, Ohio, Story," (PhD. diss., State University of New York at Buffalo, 1979); Richard Harris, "Working Class Home Ownership in the American Metropolis," Journal of Urban History 17 (Nov. 1990): 46-69; Richard Harris, "Self-Building in the Urban Housing Market," Economic Geography 67 (Jan. 1991): 1-21; Richard Harris, "American Suburbs: A Sketch of a New Interpretation," Journal of Urban History 15 (1988): 98-103.
5. Roger Simon, "Housing and Services in an Immigrant Neighborhood: Milwaukee's 14th Ward," Journal of Urban History 2 (Aug. 1976): 435-458; Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago, 1982); Henry L. Taylor Jr., "The Building of a Black Industrial Suburb: The Lincoln Heights, Ohio, Story," (PhD. diss., State University of New York at Buffalo, 1979); Richard Harris, "Working Class Home Ownership in the American Metropolis," Journal of Urban History 17 (Nov. 1990): 46-69; Richard Harris, "Self-Building in the Urban Housing Market," Economic Geography 67 (Jan. 1991): 1-21; Richard Harris, "American Suburbs: A Sketch of a New Interpretation," Journal of Urban History 15 (1988): 98-103.
6. Roger Simon, "Housing and Services in an Immigrant Neighborhood: Milwaukee's 14th Ward," Journal of Urban History 2 (Aug. 1976): 435-458; Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago, 1982); Henry L. Taylor Jr., "The Building of a Black Industrial Suburb: The Lincoln Heights, Ohio, Story," (PhD. diss., State University of New York at Buffalo, 1979); Richard Harris, "Working Class Home Ownership in the American Metropolis," Journal of Urban History 17 (Nov. 1990): 46-69; Richard Harris, "Self-Building in the Urban Housing Market," Economic Geography 67 (Jan. 1991): 1-21; Richard Harris, "American Suburbs: A Sketch of a New Interpretation," Journal of Urban History 15 (1988): 98-103.
7. Roger Simon, "Housing and Services in an Immigrant Neighborhood: Milwaukee's 14th Ward," Journal of Urban History 2 (Aug. 1976): 435-458; Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago, 1982); Henry L. Taylor Jr., "The Building of a Black Industrial Suburb: The Lincoln Heights, Ohio, Story," (PhD. diss., State University of New York at Buffalo, 1979); Richard Harris, "Working Class Home Ownership in the American Metropolis," Journal of Urban History 17 (Nov. 1990): 46-69; Richard Harris, "Self-Building in the Urban Housing Market," Economic Geography 67 (Jan. 1991): 1-21; Richard Harris, "American Suburbs: A Sketch of a New Interpretation," Journal of Urban History 15 (1988): 98-103.
8. In 1940, the U.S. Bureau of the Census defined suburbs as the "thickly settled" districts adjacent to a central city or cities of 50,000 or more; however, the census bureau drew "metropolitan" limits using county boundaries. By this definition, there were 982,000 African Americans in southern suburbs in 1940, 468,000 in the North, and 32,000 in suburbs in the West. By contrast to 1,482,000 in suburbs, 4.4 million African Americans lived in central cities. Eighteenth Census of the United States: 1960, Selected Area Reports, SMSA's, Final Report PC(3)-1D (Washington, 1963), 3.
9. Non-white home ownership, 1940 (city vs. suburban ring): Chicago 7 percent: 25 percent; Kansas City 15:49; St. Louis, 7:43; Los Angeles, 24:34; Detroit, 15:49; Philadelphia, 10:28. 16th Census of the United States: 1940, Housing, volume II, General Characteristics (Washington, 1943).
10. For socio-economic characteristics of early black suburbanites, see Reynolds Farley, "The Changing Distribution of Negroes within Metropolitan Areas: The Emergence of Black Suburbs," American Journal of Sociology 75 (Jan. 1970): 333-351; Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, General Characteristics of the Population, by States (Washington, 1943), 621.
11. For socio-economic characteristics of early black suburbanites, see Reynolds Farley, "The Changing Distribution of Negroes within Metropolitan Areas: The Emergence of Black Suburbs," American Journal of Sociology 75 (Jan. 1970): 333-351; Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, General Characteristics of the Population, by States (Washington, 1943), 621.
12. Harold Connolly, "Black Movement into the Suburbs: Suburbs Doubling Their Black Populations during the 1960's," Urban Affairs Quarterly 9 (Sept. 1973): 93.
13. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, vol. III, Composition and Characteristics of the Population by States (Washington, 1923); Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930, General Characteristics of the Population, by States (Washington, 1932). For diversity in early commuter suburbs, see Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York, 1985), 99-102.
14. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, vol. III, Composition and Characteristics of the Population by States (Washington, 1923); Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930, General Characteristics of the Population, by States (Washington, 1932). For diversity in early commuter suburbs, see Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York, 1985), 99-102.
15. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, vol. III, Composition and Characteristics of the Population by States (Washington, 1923); Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930, General Characteristics of the Population, by States (Washington, 1932). For diversity in early commuter suburbs, see Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York, 1985), 99-102.
16. Sixteenth Census of the U.S: 1940, Housing, Volume II, General Characteristics (Washington, 1943), tables 1 and 22.
17. Statistics for 1920 are based on a total sample of black households listed in manuscript census schedules on 28 blocks in Evanston's west side, including 229 households, and 684 individuals (27% of Evanston's total black population). "Non-white" home ownership in 1920: 31 percent, 1930: 33 percent, 1940: 26 percent. 30 percent of Evanston whites were home owners in 1940. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules, Evanston Township, Illinois, Reel 358.
18. For home ownership among long-term residents see David Bruner, "A General Survey of the Negro Population of Evanston," (Senior thesis, Northwestern University, 1924), 26, 33;
19. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Housing: volume II, General Characteristics (Washington, 1943), 763;
20. ibid,
21. Block Statistics, Evanston, Illinois (Washington, 1943), 8-9;
22. Seventeenth Census of the United States: 1950, Housing, vol. III, Block Statistics, Evanston, Illinois, (Washington, 1952), 6-7.
23. Sixteenth Census of the U.S: 1940, Housing, tables 1 and 22
24. Kevin Barry Leonard, "Paternalism and the Rise of a Black Community in Evanston, Illinois: 1870-1930," (Masters Thesis, Northwestern University, 1982).
25. Michael Ebner, Creating Chicago's North Shore: A Suburban History (Chicago, 1988).
26. Leonard, "Paternalism and the Rise of a Black Community"; Thirteenth Census of the United States: 1910, Population, Vol. II, General Characteristics (Washington, 1912). In 1920, approximately 84 percent of African American adults in Evanston were southern born - 66 percent from the deep South. Natives of Illinois made up 4 percent. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; for chain migration from Abbeville, South Carolina see Bruner, "A General Survey." For Evanston and the North Shore, see Ebner, Creating Chicago's North Shore, 234-236.
27. Leonard, "Paternalism and the Rise of a Black Community"; Thirteenth Census of the United States: 1910, Population, Vol. II, General Characteristics (Washington, 1912). In 1920, approximately 84 percent of African American adults in Evanston were southern born - 66 percent from the deep South. Natives of Illinois made up 4 percent. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; for chain migration from Abbeville, South Carolina see Bruner, "A General Survey." For Evanston and the North Shore, see Ebner, Creating Chicago's North Shore, 234-236.
28. Leonard, "Paternalism and the Rise of a Black Community"; Thirteenth Census of the United States: 1910, Population, Vol. II, General Characteristics (Washington, 1912). In 1920, approximately 84 percent of African American adults in Evanston were southern born - 66 percent from the deep South. Natives of Illinois made up 4 percent. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; for chain migration from Abbeville, South Carolina see Bruner, "A General Survey." For Evanston and the North Shore, see Ebner, Creating Chicago's North Shore, 234-236.
29. Leonard, "Paternalism and the Rise of a Black Community"; Thirteenth Census of the United States: 1910, Population, Vol. II, General Characteristics (Washington, 1912). In 1920, approximately 84 percent of African American adults in Evanston were southern born - 66 percent from the deep South. Natives of Illinois made up 4 percent. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; for chain migration from Abbeville, South Carolina see Bruner, "A General Survey." For Evanston and the North Shore, see Ebner, Creating Chicago's North Shore, 234-236.
30. Leonard, "Paternalism and the Rise of a Black Community"; Thirteenth Census of the United States: 1910, Population, Vol. II, General Characteristics (Washington, 1912). In 1920, approximately 84 percent of African American adults in Evanston were southern born - 66 percent from the deep South. Natives of Illinois made up 4 percent. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; for chain migration from Abbeville, South Carolina see Bruner, "A General Survey." For Evanston and the North Shore, see Ebner, Creating Chicago's North Shore, 234-236.
31. Leonard, "Paternalism and the Rise of a Black Community"; Thirteenth Census of the United States: 1910, Population, Vol. II, General Characteristics (Washington, 1912). In 1920, approximately 84 percent of African American adults in Evanston were southern born - 66 percent from the deep South. Natives of Illinois made up 4 percent. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; for chain migration from Abbeville, South Carolina see Bruner, "A General Survey." For Evanston and the North Shore, see Ebner, Creating Chicago's North Shore, 234-236.
32. In 1940, almost 6,000 domestic and kindred service workers lived in Evanston. At least 1,600 were African American, based on a low estimate of three quarters of gainfully employed black women (1,153) and one quarter of employed black men (456). Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Volume II, General Characteristics of the Population, table 33, 631-32, 636.
33. In 1920, 54 percent of black women in Evanston listed a paid occupation compared to 44 percent in Chicago. 81 percent worked in a service occupation, compared to 64 percent in Chicago. In 1940, 56 percent of African American women in Evanston worked outside the home, compared to 35 percent in Chicago. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, from Slavery to the Present (New York, 1985), 164. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, vol. IV, Occupations (Washington, 1922), 367, 370; Ibid., vol. III, Composition and Characteristics of the Population by States (Washington, 1922), 249; Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, vol. II, Characteristics of the Population, (Washington, 1943), 631-632, 636.
34. In 1920, 54 percent of black women in Evanston listed a paid occupation compared to 44 percent in Chicago. 81 percent worked in a service occupation, compared to 64 percent in Chicago. In 1940, 56 percent of African American women in Evanston worked outside the home, compared to 35 percent in Chicago. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, from Slavery to the Present (New York, 1985), 164. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, vol. IV, Occupations (Washington, 1922), 367, 370; Ibid., vol. III, Composition and Characteristics of the Population by States (Washington, 1922), 249; Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, vol. II, Characteristics of the Population, (Washington, 1943), 631-632, 636.
35. In 1920, 54 percent of black women in Evanston listed a paid occupation compared to 44 percent in Chicago. 81 percent worked in a service occupation, compared to 64 percent in Chicago. In 1940, 56 percent of African American women in Evanston worked outside the home, compared to 35 percent in Chicago. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, from Slavery to the Present (New York, 1985), 164. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, vol. IV, Occupations (Washington, 1922), 367, 370; Ibid., vol. III, Composition and Characteristics of the Population by States (Washington, 1922), 249; Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, vol. II, Characteristics of the Population, (Washington, 1943), 631-632, 636.
36. In 1920, 54 percent of black women in Evanston listed a paid occupation compared to 44 percent in Chicago. 81 percent worked in a service occupation, compared to 64 percent in Chicago. In 1940, 56 percent of African American women in Evanston worked outside the home, compared to 35 percent in Chicago. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, from Slavery to the Present (New York, 1985), 164. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, vol. IV, Occupations (Washington, 1922), 367, 370; Ibid., vol. III, Composition and Characteristics of the Population by States (Washington, 1922), 249; Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, vol. II, Characteristics of the Population, (Washington, 1943), 631-632, 636.
37. In 1920, 54 percent of black women in Evanston listed a paid occupation compared to 44 percent in Chicago. 81 percent worked in a service occupation, compared to 64 percent in Chicago. In 1940, 56 percent of African American women in Evanston worked outside the home, compared to 35 percent in Chicago. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, from Slavery to the Present (New York, 1985), 164. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, vol. IV, Occupations (Washington, 1922), 367, 370; Ibid., vol. III, Composition and Characteristics of the Population by States (Washington, 1922), 249; Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, vol. II, Characteristics of the Population, (Washington, 1943), 631-632, 636.
38. In 1920, 41 percent of African American men worked in domestic and kindred services (compared to 28 percent in Chicago). "Chauffeur" and "janitor" topped the list of men's occupations. Approximately 8 percent of black men worked in professional or proprietary occupations. 6 percent were clerical workers, and 19 percent held skilled jobs. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; Allan Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto (Chicago, 1967), 153.
39. In 1920, 41 percent of African American men worked in domestic and kindred services (compared to 28 percent in Chicago). "Chauffeur" and "janitor" topped the list of men's occupations. Approximately 8 percent of black men worked in professional or proprietary occupations. 6 percent were clerical workers, and 19 percent held skilled jobs. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; Allan Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto (Chicago, 1967), 153.
40. Peter Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way: Southern Blacks' Migration to Pittsburgh, 1916-1930 (Urbana, 1987) 76,183, 209-10; Carol Stack, Call to Home: African Americans Reclaim the Rural South (New York, 1996), 17-44.
41. Peter Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way: Southern Blacks' Migration to Pittsburgh, 1916-1930 (Urbana, 1987) 76,183, 209-10; Carol Stack, Call to Home: African Americans Reclaim the Rural South (New York, 1996), 17-44.
42. Bruner, "A General Survey," 35; Louvenia Bell interview by S.F. Patton, April 23, 1974, transcript, (EHS).
43. Bruner, "A General Survey," 35; Louvenia Bell interview by S.F. Patton, April 23, 1974, transcript, (EHS).
44. Lessie G. Smith interview by Andrew Wiese, June, 1990, notes (in Andrew Wiese's possession); Milton Harper, Interview, April 26, 1974, transcript (EHS); Tom Kees interview, April 25, 1974, transcript (EHS); Gussie Booker interview by T. Welliver, May 4, 1983, transcript (EHS); Mrs. John J. Spencer interview by Wayne Watson, no date, transcript, tape #3 (EHS); Sam Butler interview by Carol Butler, July 6, 1971, transcript (EHS); Henrietta Taylor interview by S.F. Patton, May 10, 1974, transcript (EHS); Cora Watson interview by S.F. Patton, May 24, 1974, transcript (EHS); Caldonia Martin interview by Angela Jackson, no date, notes from tape, (EHS).
45. Andrew Wiese, "The Other Suburbanites: African American Suburbanization in the North before 1950," Journal of American History 85 (March, 1999): 1495-1524; Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo, Abiding Courage: African American Migrant Women and the East Bay Community (Chapel Hill, 1996), 139-40; Martin interview; Taylor interview.
46. Andrew Wiese, "The Other Suburbanites: African American Suburbanization in the North before 1950," Journal of American History 85 (March, 1999): 1495-1524; Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo, Abiding Courage: African American Migrant Women and the East Bay Community (Chapel Hill, 1996), 139-40; Martin interview; Taylor interview.
47. Andrew Wiese, "The Other Suburbanites: African American Suburbanization in the North before 1950," Journal of American History 85 (March, 1999): 1495-1524; Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo, Abiding Courage: African American Migrant Women and the East Bay Community (Chapel Hill, 1996), 139-40; Martin interview; Taylor interview.
48. 23 percent of black households included an unrelated roomer or tenant in 1920. 29 percent included extended family members. 43 percent (75 of 175 households) included one or the other. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules, Evanston, Illinois, Enumeration Districts 78-80; On Ayars Place, 63 percent of black home owners rented rooms or apartments in their homes in 1931. See R.L. Polk and Company, Polk's Evanston and North Shore Directory: 1931 (Chicago, 1931). For similar patterns see Simon, "Housing and Services in an Immigrant Neighborhood." By 1940, many west side blocks housed more than one family at almost every address. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Census of Housing, Volume I, Block Statistics (Washington, 1942) 8-9.
49. 23 percent of black households included an unrelated roomer or tenant in 1920. 29 percent included extended family members. 43 percent (75 of 175 households) included one or the other. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules, Evanston, Illinois, Enumeration Districts 78-80; On Ayars Place, 63 percent of black home owners rented rooms or apartments in their homes in 1931. See R.L. Polk and Company, Polk's Evanston and North Shore Directory: 1931 (Chicago, 1931). For similar patterns see Simon, "Housing and Services in an Immigrant Neighborhood." By 1940, many west side blocks housed more than one family at almost every address. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Census of Housing, Volume I, Block Statistics (Washington, 1942) 8-9.
50. 23 percent of black households included an unrelated roomer or tenant in 1920. 29 percent included extended family members. 43 percent (75 of 175 households) included one or the other. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules, Evanston, Illinois, Enumeration Districts 78-80; On Ayars Place, 63 percent of black home owners rented rooms or apartments in their homes in 1931. See R.L. Polk and Company, Polk's Evanston and North Shore Directory: 1931 (Chicago, 1931). For similar patterns see Simon, "Housing and Services in an Immigrant Neighborhood." By 1940, many west side blocks housed more than one family at almost every address. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Census of Housing, Volume I, Block Statistics (Washington, 1942) 8-9.
51. 23 percent of black households included an unrelated roomer or tenant in 1920. 29 percent included extended family members. 43 percent (75 of 175 households) included one or the other. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules, Evanston, Illinois, Enumeration Districts 78-80; On Ayars Place, 63 percent of black home owners rented rooms or apartments in their homes in 1931. See R.L. Polk and Company, Polk's Evanston and North Shore Directory: 1931 (Chicago, 1931). For similar patterns see Simon, "Housing and Services in an Immigrant Neighborhood." By 1940, many west side blocks housed more than one family at almost every address. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Census of Housing, Volume I, Block Statistics (Washington, 1942) 8-9.
52. A selection of fifty-three obituaries of black Evanstonians from 1946 to 1987 (most after 1960) revealed that 32 percent of decedents were living with relatives - typically an adult child - at the time of their death. Eighteen (almost all of them migrants to Evanston) had living brothers or sisters in town. Families' choice of final resting place also suggests the extent to which Evanston had become home for these black southerners. 86 percent of those who listed a place of burial (38 of 44) were buried locally. Obituaries, Evanston Review, 1946-1987.
53. By 1920, Evanston institutions ranging from hospitals to the Boy Scouts excluded or segregated black patrons. In response, black Evanstonians established separate institutions of their own, often with financial support from local whites. Leonard, "Paternalism and Deference," 30-33; Bruner, "A General Survey," 31.
54. By 1920, Evanston institutions ranging from hospitals to the Boy Scouts excluded or segregated black patrons. In response, black Evanstonians established separate institutions of their own, often with financial support from local whites. Leonard, "Paternalism and Deference," 30-33; Bruner, "A General Survey," 31.
55. For "informal zoning" in the South see, Howard Preston, Automobile Age Atlanta: The Making of a Southern Metropolis, 1900-1935 (Athens, 1979); Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Housing: Block Statistics, Evanston, Illinois (Washington, 1942).
56. For "informal zoning" in the South see, Howard Preston, Automobile Age Atlanta: The Making of a Southern Metropolis, 1900-1935 (Athens, 1979); Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Housing: Block Statistics, Evanston, Illinois (Washington, 1942).
57. A sample of 33 Evanston subdivisions recorded between 1903 and 1947 uncovered just two racial covenants. Torrens Deed Dockets 239A, 239B, 239D, 239G, 240, 240A, 241, 241B, 242B, 242D, 242E, 242F, Cook County Recorder of Deeds, Chicago, Illinois (Cook County Building, Chicago, Illinois). Whites on at least one additional block adopted a racial covenant in the 1940s as the black community began to expand beyond its older boundaries. 1700 block of Asbury Avenue, Document 12799099, Deed Microfiche, Cook County Recorder of Deeds. Oral histories suggest more informal boundaries. Geraldine Cooper recalled, "there were no signs such as 'whites only,' but everyone knew where they were allowed and not allowed to be." Geraldine Cooper, Buelah Avery and Ruby Alexander interview by David Owusu-Ansah, May 4, 1983, transcript (EHS).
58. Evanston passed a zoning ordinance in 1919, which zoned for commercial uses almost every block where blacks lived outside the west side. Over time, public and private redevelopment demolished dozens of black occupied housing units in these areas. See Map 2. David Bruner, "A General Survey," Map V.
59. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Housing: Block Statistics, 5-12; In 1960, the index of segregation in Evanston (87.2) was only slightly lower than in Chicago (92.6). Karl Taeuber and Alma Taeuber, Negroes in Cities: Residential Segregation and Neighborhood Change (Chicago, 1965), 59.
60. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Housing: Block Statistics, 5-12; In 1960, the index of segregation in Evanston (87.2) was only slightly lower than in Chicago (92.6). Karl Taeuber and Alma Taeuber, Negroes in Cities: Residential Segregation and Neighborhood Change (Chicago, 1965), 59.
61. Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality, 161.
62. Henry L. Taylor, Jr., "The Building of a Black Industrial Suburb"; Henry L. Taylor, ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana, 1993); Andrew Wiese, "Places of Our Own: Suburban Black Towns before 1950," Journal of Urban History 19:3 (May, 1993): 30-54.
63. Henry L. Taylor, Jr., "The Building of a Black Industrial Suburb"; Henry L. Taylor, ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana, 1993); Andrew Wiese, "Places of Our Own: Suburban Black Towns before 1950," Journal of Urban History 19:3 (May, 1993): 30-54.
64. Henry L. Taylor, Jr., "The Building of a Black Industrial Suburb"; Henry L. Taylor, ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana, 1993); Andrew Wiese, "Places of Our Own: Suburban Black Towns before 1950," Journal of Urban History 19:3 (May, 1993): 30-54.
65. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York, 1948); Charles Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors: a Study of Prejudice in Housing (New York, 1955); Karl and Alma Taeuber, Negroes in Cities, 25; Allan Spear, Black Chicago; Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, 1890-1930 (New York, 1966); William Tuttle Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York, 1970); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago (Cambridge, 1987); Edward Orser, Blockbusting in Baltimore: the Edmondson Village Story (Lexington, 1994).
66. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York, 1948); Charles Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors: a Study of Prejudice in Housing (New York, 1955); Karl and Alma Taeuber, Negroes in Cities, 25; Allan Spear, Black Chicago; Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, 1890-1930 (New York, 1966); William Tuttle Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York, 1970); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago (Cambridge, 1987); Edward Orser, Blockbusting in Baltimore: the Edmondson Village Story (Lexington, 1994).
67. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York, 1948); Charles Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors: a Study of Prejudice in Housing (New York, 1955); Karl and Alma Taeuber, Negroes in Cities, 25; Allan Spear, Black Chicago; Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, 1890-1930 (New York, 1966); William Tuttle Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York, 1970); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago (Cambridge, 1987); Edward Orser, Blockbusting in Baltimore: the Edmondson Village Story (Lexington, 1994).
68. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York, 1948); Charles Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors: a Study of Prejudice in Housing (New York, 1955); Karl and Alma Taeuber, Negroes in Cities, 25; Allan Spear, Black Chicago; Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, 1890-1930 (New York, 1966); William Tuttle Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York, 1970); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago (Cambridge, 1987); Edward Orser, Blockbusting in Baltimore: the Edmondson Village Story (Lexington, 1994).
69. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York, 1948); Charles Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors: a Study of Prejudice in Housing (New York, 1955); Karl and Alma Taeuber, Negroes in Cities, 25; Allan Spear, Black Chicago; Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, 1890-1930 (New York, 1966); William Tuttle Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York, 1970); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago (Cambridge, 1987); Edward Orser, Blockbusting in Baltimore: the Edmondson Village Story (Lexington, 1994).
70. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York, 1948); Charles Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors: a Study of Prejudice in Housing (New York, 1955); Karl and Alma Taeuber, Negroes in Cities, 25; Allan Spear, Black Chicago; Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, 1890-1930 (New York, 1966); William Tuttle Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York, 1970); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago (Cambridge, 1987); Edward Orser, Blockbusting in Baltimore: the Edmondson Village Story (Lexington, 1994).
71. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York, 1948); Charles Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors: a Study of Prejudice in Housing (New York, 1955); Karl and Alma Taeuber, Negroes in Cities, 25; Allan Spear, Black Chicago; Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, 1890-1930 (New York, 1966); William Tuttle Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York, 1970); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago (Cambridge, 1987); Edward Orser, Blockbusting in Baltimore: the Edmondson Village Story (Lexington, 1994).
72. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York, 1948); Charles Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors: a Study of Prejudice in Housing (New York, 1955); Karl and Alma Taeuber, Negroes in Cities, 25; Allan Spear, Black Chicago; Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, 1890-1930 (New York, 1966); William Tuttle Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York, 1970); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago (Cambridge, 1987); Edward Orser, Blockbusting in Baltimore: the Edmondson Village Story (Lexington, 1994).
73. Two-thirds of loans to African Americans originated in three institutions (Chicago Title and Trust Company - 25 percent - plus two Evanston banks) and seven individuals - five of whom were prominent in local affairs. The other third was spread among lenders who made fewer than four loans. Local lenders made 29 percent of mortgage loans (42 of 147). Torrens Deed Dockets 240E, 241, 589D.
74. Analysis of Evanston's black housing market is based on a survey of 1920 census manuscripts, Evanston city directories, building permits and deed and mortgage records, plus oral histories, published census reports, and local newspaper reporting. Three blocks chosen for analysis were 1000-1200 Ayars Place, Hobbs' Subdivision (subdivided 1890); the 1800 block of Brown Avenue, J.S. Hovland's Addition (subdivided 1914); and the 1900 block of Brown Avenue, Culver's Addition to Evanston (initial subdivision, 1891, re-opened, 1923). They represent the range within Evanston's black housing market between 1910 and 1940. I culled 230 mortgages from approximately 1,200 transactions involving the 93 properties on these three blocks (source: Cook County Torrens Deed Dockets). 148 of these mortgages were made directly to African Americans. From this group, I traced 73 mortgages and recorded the amount, rate of interest, and duration of the loan. For comparison, I also compiled terms for 73 mortgage loans to white Chicagoans recorded during the same months as mortgages to the west side of Evanston.
75. Ayars Place was later renamed Garnett Place.
76. Hobbs Subdivision, Torrens Deed Docket 589D; Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; Sanborn Map Company, Fire Insurance Map of Evanston, Illinois, 1920 (Chicago, 1920). White occupations in 1920 included skilled blue-collar workers (carpenter, tailor, machinist, and mason, for example) as well as a college professor, proprietors of a hardware store and a tire repair shop, and managers of several local businesses.
77. Hobbs Subdivision, Torrens Deed Docket 589D; Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; Sanborn Map Company, Fire Insurance Map of Evanston, Illinois, 1920 (Chicago, 1920). White occupations in 1920 included skilled blue-collar workers (carpenter, tailor, machinist, and mason, for example) as well as a college professor, proprietors of a hardware store and a tire repair shop, and managers of several local businesses.
78. Cora Watson interview by Sharon F. Patton, May 24, 1974, transcript (EHS).
79. Trust Deed, Moses W. and Cora L. Watson to Victor C. Breytspraek, Trustee, March 22, 1919, document no. 6486557, Cook County Deed Books (microfiche) Cook County Recorder of Deeds; Warranty Deed, A.M. Mickelson and Augusta Mickelson to Moses W. and Cora L. Watson, document no. 6496591, ibid. For home ownership, see Torrens Deeds Docket 589 D, Hobbs Subdivision; Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; Bumstead's Evanston City and North Shore Directory, 1920-1921; R.L. Polk's Evanston City and North Shore Directory, 1925 (Chicago, 1925); Polk's Evanston City Directory, 1931 (Chicago, 1925). Note, Polk's directory identified African Americans with the symbol "(c)," for "colored," between 1922 and 1927.
80. Trust Deed, Moses W. and Cora L. Watson to Victor C. Breytspraek, Trustee, March 22, 1919, document no. 6486557, Cook County Deed Books (microfiche) Cook County Recorder of Deeds; Warranty Deed, A.M. Mickelson and Augusta Mickelson to Moses W. and Cora L. Watson, document no. 6496591, ibid. For home ownership, see Torrens Deeds Docket 589 D, Hobbs Subdivision; Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; Bumstead's Evanston City and North Shore Directory, 1920-1921; R.L. Polk's Evanston City and North Shore Directory, 1925 (Chicago, 1925); Polk's Evanston City Directory, 1931 (Chicago, 1925). Note, Polk's directory identified African Americans with the symbol "(c)," for "colored," between 1922 and 1927.
81. Trust Deed, Moses W. and Cora L. Watson to Victor C. Breytspraek, Trustee, March 22, 1919, document no. 6486557, Cook County Deed Books (microfiche) Cook County Recorder of Deeds; Warranty Deed, A.M. Mickelson and Augusta Mickelson to Moses W. and Cora L. Watson, document no. 6496591, ibid. For home ownership, see Torrens Deeds Docket 589 D, Hobbs Subdivision; Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; Bumstead's Evanston City and North Shore Directory, 1920-1921; R.L. Polk's Evanston City and North Shore Directory, 1925 (Chicago, 1925); Polk's Evanston City Directory, 1931 (Chicago, 1925). Note, Polk's directory identified African Americans with the symbol "(c)," for "colored," between 1922 and 1927.
82. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Housing: Block Statistics, 5-12.
83. R.L. Polk's Evanston City Directory, 1925, 56; Albert N. Marquis, ed., Who's Who in Chicago: The Book of Chicagoans, 1931 (Chicago, 1931), 403; Hahn made 10 percent of the mortgage loans (25 of 230) on three west Evanston blocks, including nine loans to African Americans, all on Ayars Place. Torrens Deed Docket 589D.
84. R.L. Polk's Evanston City Directory, 1925, 56; Albert N. Marquis, ed., Who's Who in Chicago: The Book of Chicagoans, 1931 (Chicago, 1931), 403; Hahn made 10 percent of the mortgage loans (25 of 230) on three west Evanston blocks, including nine loans to African Americans, all on Ayars Place. Torrens Deed Docket 589D.
85. Five future presidents of the North Shore Real Estate Board made mortgage loans or built houses for blacks on the west side. Two, Christian J. Golee and Ray L. Dowdall lent to African Americans on Ayars Place. Torrens Deed Dockets 240E, 241, 589D; "Will Honor Realty Leaders at 25th Anniversary Dinner," Evanston Review, April 27, 1944; Christian J. Golee, Obituary, Evanston Review, January 26, 1950, p. 14; Clyde Foster worked for Quinlan and Tyson from 1907 through the 1960s. He was its treasurer during the 1920s and later president and chairman of the board. Foster also served as Seventh ward Alderman in Evanston, 1918-1924. "Clyde Foster, Dean of City's Businessmen, Marks 50th Year," Evanston Review, July 11, 1957; Clyde D. Foster, Obituary, Evanston Review, Sept. 1, 1966, p. 85; "Who's Who in Real Estate," Evanston Review, March 5, 1943, p. 20.
86. Five future presidents of the North Shore Real Estate Board made mortgage loans or built houses for blacks on the west side. Two, Christian J. Golee and Ray L. Dowdall lent to African Americans on Ayars Place. Torrens Deed Dockets 240E, 241, 589D; "Will Honor Realty Leaders at 25th Anniversary Dinner," Evanston Review, April 27, 1944; Christian J. Golee, Obituary, Evanston Review, January 26, 1950, p. 14; Clyde Foster worked for Quinlan and Tyson from 1907 through the 1960s. He was its treasurer during the 1920s and later president and chairman of the board. Foster also served as Seventh ward Alderman in Evanston, 1918-1924. "Clyde Foster, Dean of City's Businessmen, Marks 50th Year," Evanston Review, July 11, 1957; Clyde D. Foster, Obituary, Evanston Review, Sept. 1, 1966, p. 85; "Who's Who in Real Estate," Evanston Review, March 5, 1943, p. 20.
87. Five future presidents of the North Shore Real Estate Board made mortgage loans or built houses for blacks on the west side. Two, Christian J. Golee and Ray L. Dowdall lent to African Americans on Ayars Place. Torrens Deed Dockets 240E, 241, 589D; "Will Honor Realty Leaders at 25th Anniversary Dinner," Evanston Review, April 27, 1944; Christian J. Golee, Obituary, Evanston Review, January 26, 1950, p. 14; Clyde Foster worked for Quinlan and Tyson from 1907 through the 1960s. He was its treasurer during the 1920s and later president and chairman of the board. Foster also served as Seventh ward Alderman in Evanston, 1918-1924. "Clyde Foster, Dean of City's Businessmen, Marks 50th Year," Evanston Review, July 11, 1957; Clyde D. Foster, Obituary, Evanston Review, Sept. 1, 1966, p. 85; "Who's Who in Real Estate," Evanston Review, March 5, 1943, p. 20.
88. Five future presidents of the North Shore Real Estate Board made mortgage loans or built houses for blacks on the west side. Two, Christian J. Golee and Ray L. Dowdall lent to African Americans on Ayars Place. Torrens Deed Dockets 240E, 241, 589D; "Will Honor Realty Leaders at 25th Anniversary Dinner," Evanston Review, April 27, 1944; Christian J. Golee, Obituary, Evanston Review, January 26, 1950, p. 14; Clyde Foster worked for Quinlan and Tyson from 1907 through the 1960s. He was its treasurer during the 1920s and later president and chairman of the board. Foster also served as Seventh ward Alderman in Evanston, 1918-1924. "Clyde Foster, Dean of City's Businessmen, Marks 50th Year," Evanston Review, July 11, 1957; Clyde D. Foster, Obituary, Evanston Review, Sept. 1, 1966, p. 85; "Who's Who in Real Estate," Evanston Review, March 5, 1943, p. 20.
89. Five future presidents of the North Shore Real Estate Board made mortgage loans or built houses for blacks on the west side. Two, Christian J. Golee and Ray L. Dowdall lent to African Americans on Ayars Place. Torrens Deed Dockets 240E, 241, 589D; "Will Honor Realty Leaders at 25th Anniversary Dinner," Evanston Review, April 27, 1944; Christian J. Golee, Obituary, Evanston Review, January 26, 1950, p. 14; Clyde Foster worked for Quinlan and Tyson from 1907 through the 1960s. He was its treasurer during the 1920s and later president and chairman of the board. Foster also served as Seventh ward Alderman in Evanston, 1918-1924. "Clyde Foster, Dean of City's Businessmen, Marks 50th Year," Evanston Review, July 11, 1957; Clyde D. Foster, Obituary, Evanston Review, Sept. 1, 1966, p. 85; "Who's Who in Real Estate," Evanston Review, March 5, 1943, p. 20.
90. N=60 loans directly to African Americans (1918-1931). Torrens Deed Docket 589D.
91. Torrens Deed Docket 589D; Polk's Evanston City Directory, 1925 (Chicago, 1925); Albert N. Marquis, ed., Who's Who in Chicago.
92. Torrens Deed Docket 589D; Polk's Evanston City Directory, 1925 (Chicago, 1925); Albert N. Marquis, ed., Who's Who in Chicago.
93. Hidden costs included charges for title searches, service charges, and fees for construction loans or second mortgages, which often substantially inflated the price of credit. Robert F. Bingham and Elmore L. Andrews, Financing Real Estate (Cleveland, 1924), 115-117; Chicago Commission on Race Relations, The Negro in Chicago (Chicago, 1920).
94. Hidden costs included charges for title searches, service charges, and fees for construction loans or second mortgages, which often substantially inflated the price of credit. Robert F. Bingham and Elmore L. Andrews, Financing Real Estate (Cleveland, 1924), 115-117; Chicago Commission on Race Relations, The Negro in Chicago (Chicago, 1920).
95. For Ayars Place, n=31: 12 first mortgages, 19 second mortgages. Chicago statistics were drawn from a random sample of 73 loans to white Chicagoans recorded in the same months as loans to African Americans in Evanston. For preference to black borrowers, see, for example, John F. Hahn first mortgage to black chauffeur, Thomas Jetton, (2,000 @ 6 percent in three years) compared to first mortgage to John Keegan, a white mason (across the street) ($2,500 @ 6.5 percent in 3 years). Torrens Deed Docket 589D.
96. 427 (35 percent) of the 1,223 occupied housing units in the black west side in 1940 were constructed between 1920 and 1929. Sixteenth Census of the United States, 1940: Housing, Block Statistics, Evanston, Illinois, 8-9.
97. City of Evanston, Building Permits, (EHS). R.L. Polk's Evanston City and North Shore Director, 1922-1927; David Bruner called owner building "the most striking tendency in the distribution of the Negro population." Bruner, "A General Survey," 36.
98. City of Evanston, Building Permits, (EHS). R.L. Polk's Evanston City and North Shore Director, 1922-1927; David Bruner called owner building "the most striking tendency in the distribution of the Negro population." Bruner, "A General Survey," 36.
99. Harris, "The Unplanned Blue-Collar Suburb."
100. Torrens Deed Docket 240E; Sanborn Map Company, Fire Insurance Map of Evanston, Illinois, 1920. Early residents included laborers, carpenters, chauffeurs, a janitor, hod carrier, train conductor, and fireman, plus a minister and a few small business owners. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; Bumstead's Evanston City and North Shore Directory, 1920-1921.
101. Torrens Deed Docket 240E; Sanborn Map Company, Fire Insurance Map of Evanston, Illinois, 1920. Early residents included laborers, carpenters, chauffeurs, a janitor, hod carrier, train conductor, and fireman, plus a minister and a few small business owners. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules; Bumstead's Evanston City and North Shore Directory, 1920-1921.
102. Harris, Unplanned Suburbs; Nicolaides, "Where the Working Man is Welcomed: Working Class Suburbs in Los Angeles, 1910-1940," forthcoming, Pacific Historical Review, 2000.
103. Harris, Unplanned Suburbs; Nicolaides, "Where the Working Man is Welcomed: Working Class Suburbs in Los Angeles, 1910-1940," forthcoming, Pacific Historical Review, 2000.
104. Construction costs listed on Evanston building permits were a maximum cost which builders were not to exceed. A small tax (.1 percent of estimated cost) gave builders a small incentive to underestimate costs.
105. The average construction cost of early homes was less than $1,500. African American-owned homes averaged $900 (n=27, 8 homes were owned by African Americans). City of Evanston, Building Permits (EHS).
106. 2100 Emerson Street, ibid; Bruner, "General Survey," 36, also plate VI., photograph no. 7.
107. 2100 Emerson Street, ibid; Bruner, "General Survey," 36, also plate VI., photograph no. 7.
108. Fenton Turck to Franklin Gray and Wife (of Oak Park, Illinois) October 13, 1923, Deed Locator 19122, Torrens Deed Dockets 241, 618.
109. Based on sample of building permits for 22 houses in Culver's addition. City of Evanston, Building Permits; also list prices of $12,000 and $12,500 for 1919 and 1937 Grey Avenue, North Shore Guide, January 26, 1929, see Evanston-Buildings-Razed, YMCA Emerson Street, Box 242, (EHS).
110. E.g., block 3, lots 25-26, 41-42, 45-46, Culver's Addition to Evanston, Torrens Deed Docket 241. Also, a row of four bungalows at 1802-1808 Foster Street, October, 1923, and three bungalows, 1817-1823 Lyons Street, October, 1924, ibid; James J. Barbour, Obituary, Evanston Review, April 4, 1946, p. 94; James J. Barbour, "A City Lawyer," Evanston Review, December 28, 1939, Clippings File, James J. Barbour (Evanston Public Library, Evanston, Illinois).
111. E.g., block 3, lots 25-26, 41-42, 45-46, Culver's Addition to Evanston, Torrens Deed Docket 241. Also, a row of four bungalows at 1802-1808 Foster Street, October, 1923, and three bungalows, 1817-1823 Lyons Street, October, 1924, ibid; James J. Barbour, Obituary, Evanston Review, April 4, 1946, p. 94; James J. Barbour, "A City Lawyer," Evanston Review, December 28, 1939, Clippings File, James J. Barbour (Evanston Public Library, Evanston, Illinois).
112. E.g., block 3, lots 25-26, 41-42, 45-46, Culver's Addition to Evanston, Torrens Deed Docket 241. Also, a row of four bungalows at 1802-1808 Foster Street, October, 1923, and three bungalows, 1817-1823 Lyons Street, October, 1924, ibid; James J. Barbour, Obituary, Evanston Review, April 4, 1946, p. 94; James J. Barbour, "A City Lawyer," Evanston Review, December 28, 1939, Clippings File, James J. Barbour (Evanston Public Library, Evanston, Illinois).
113. Brick bungalows at 2008 Grey Avenue and 2026 Emerson. Two-flats at 1919, 1921 and 1937 Grey. City of Evanston, Building Permits; Partners included builders James W. Jackson, John Wesley Banks, and George Dunn, architect W.J. Bailey (of Chicago) and real estate agent William Henry Dixon; also Polk's Evanston and North Shore Directory, 1925, 1931; Bruner, "A General Survey," 35-6; North Shore Guide, January 26, 1929.
114. Brick bungalows at 2008 Grey Avenue and 2026 Emerson. Two-flats at 1919, 1921 and 1937 Grey. City of Evanston, Building Permits; Partners included builders James W. Jackson, John Wesley Banks, and George Dunn, architect W.J. Bailey (of Chicago) and real estate agent William Henry Dixon; also Polk's Evanston and North Shore Directory, 1925, 1931; Bruner, "A General Survey," 35-6; North Shore Guide, January 26, 1929.
115. Brick bungalows at 2008 Grey Avenue and 2026 Emerson. Two-flats at 1919, 1921 and 1937 Grey. City of Evanston, Building Permits; Partners included builders James W. Jackson, John Wesley Banks, and George Dunn, architect W.J. Bailey (of Chicago) and real estate agent William Henry Dixon; also Polk's Evanston and North Shore Directory, 1925, 1931; Bruner, "A General Survey," 35-6; North Shore Guide, January 26, 1929.
116. These homes cost from four to eight times the combined yearly income of the "average" black working couple. In 1924, an African American janitor in Evanston might earn $1,000 to $1,500 in a year; domestic servants earned $750 to $900. Bruner, "General Survey," 36, 44-47.
117. Albert G. Hinman, "An Inventory of Housing in a Suburban City," Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics 7 (May, 1931), 169-180; Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Housing: Block Statistics, 8-9.
118. Albert G. Hinman, "An Inventory of Housing in a Suburban City," Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics 7 (May, 1931), 169-180; Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Housing: Block Statistics, 8-9.
119. 1829 Grey Avenue, City of Evanston, Building Permits; also, Hovland's Addition, Block 3, Lot 15, Torrens Deed Docket, 240E. Note, not all sources of credit must be recorded as a lien against property. "Equitable mortgages" may be secured by contract but not recorded with the county. However, building without a mortgage was not uncommon in working class subdivisions where owner building was common. Wiese, "Places of Our Own."
120. Block 1, lots 15-16, Hovland's Addition, Torrens Deed Docket 240E.
121. Chicago Title and Trust made 36 (of 87) mortgage loans in Hovland's addition between 1915 and 1930. Ibid.
122. Torrens Deed Docket 241.
123. Frank Foster joined the real estate firm, Quinlan and Tyson, of which his father was president, in 1947. Frank B. Foster interview by Andrew Wiese, January 9, 1998, notes (in Wiese's possession).
124. Richard Harris and Matt Sendbuehler note that individual mortgage lending was especially common in Canada before World War Two. Harris and Sendbuehler, "Making a Working Class Suburb in Hamilton's East End, 1900-1945," Journal of Urban History, 20 (Aug. 1994), 491-93; Bingham and Andrews, Financing Real Estate, 89-91; also Marc Weiss, The Rise of the Community Builders: The American Real Estate Industry and Urban Land Planning (New York, 1987), 35-36.
125. Richard Harris and Matt Sendbuehler note that individual mortgage lending was especially common in Canada before World War Two. Harris and Sendbuehler, "Making a Working Class Suburb in Hamilton's East End, 1900-1945," Journal of Urban History, 20 (Aug. 1994), 491-93; Bingham and Andrews, Financing Real Estate, 89-91; also Marc Weiss, The Rise of the Community Builders: The American Real Estate Industry and Urban Land Planning (New York, 1987), 35-36.
126. Richard Harris and Matt Sendbuehler note that individual mortgage lending was especially common in Canada before World War Two. Harris and Sendbuehler, "Making a Working Class Suburb in Hamilton's East End, 1900-1945," Journal of Urban History, 20 (Aug. 1994), 491-93; Bingham and Andrews, Financing Real Estate, 89-91; also Marc Weiss, The Rise of the Community Builders: The American Real Estate Industry and Urban Land Planning (New York, 1987), 35-36.
127. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York, 1948), 39; Tuttle Jr., Race Riot, 171-178; also Thomas Lee Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle Class Reform, Chicago, 1880-1930 (New York, 1978), 162-164. In 1924, the National Association of Real Estate Boards and local affiliates adopted a "code of ethics" that included the pledge, "a Realtor should never be instrumental in introducing into a neighborhood a character of property or occupancy, members of any race or nationality, or any individuals whose presence will clearly be detrimental to property values in that neighborhood." This regulation remained part of the NAREB code until 1950. Davis McEntire, Residence and Race, Final and Comprehensive Report to the Commission on Race and Housing (Berkeley, 1960), 244-248.
128. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York, 1948), 39; Tuttle Jr., Race Riot, 171-178; also Thomas Lee Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle Class Reform, Chicago, 1880-1930 (New York, 1978), 162-164. In 1924, the National Association of Real Estate Boards and local affiliates adopted a "code of ethics" that included the pledge, "a Realtor should never be instrumental in introducing into a neighborhood a character of property or occupancy, members of any race or nationality, or any individuals whose presence will clearly be detrimental to property values in that neighborhood." This regulation remained part of the NAREB code until 1950. Davis McEntire, Residence and Race, Final and Comprehensive Report to the Commission on Race and Housing (Berkeley, 1960), 244-248.
129. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York, 1948), 39; Tuttle Jr., Race Riot, 171-178; also Thomas Lee Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle Class Reform, Chicago, 1880-1930 (New York, 1978), 162-164. In 1924, the National Association of Real Estate Boards and local affiliates adopted a "code of ethics" that included the pledge, "a Realtor should never be instrumental in introducing into a neighborhood a character of property or occupancy, members of any race or nationality, or any individuals whose presence will clearly be detrimental to property values in that neighborhood." This regulation remained part of the NAREB code until 1950. Davis McEntire, Residence and Race, Final and Comprehensive Report to the Commission on Race and Housing (Berkeley, 1960), 244-248.
130. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York, 1948), 39; Tuttle Jr., Race Riot, 171-178; also Thomas Lee Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle Class Reform, Chicago, 1880-1930 (New York, 1978), 162-164. In 1924, the National Association of Real Estate Boards and local affiliates adopted a "code of ethics" that included the pledge, "a Realtor should never be instrumental in introducing into a neighborhood a character of property or occupancy, members of any race or nationality, or any individuals whose presence will clearly be detrimental to property values in that neighborhood." This regulation remained part of the NAREB code until 1950. Davis McEntire, Residence and Race, Final and Comprehensive Report to the Commission on Race and Housing (Berkeley, 1960), 244-248.
131. On suburban efforts to exclude African Americans, see President's Conference on Housing and Home Ownership, Negro Housing (Washington, 1932), 46-47; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, "A Year's Defense of the Negro American's Citizenship Rights," Nineteenth Annual Report, 1928 (New York, 1929) Box 758, Presidential Papers, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library, West Branch, Iowa; also, "Negro Ouster Suit on in Westchester," New York Times, March 7, 1937, Clippings Scrapbook, "Housing, New York State," Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York; on the North Shore, see Ebner, Creating Chicago's North Shore, 226, 235; Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors.
132. On suburban efforts to exclude African Americans, see President's Conference on Housing and Home Ownership, Negro Housing (Washington, 1932), 46-47; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, "A Year's Defense of the Negro American's Citizenship Rights," Nineteenth Annual Report, 1928 (New York, 1929) Box 758, Presidential Papers, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library, West Branch, Iowa; also, "Negro Ouster Suit on in Westchester," New York Times, March 7, 1937, Clippings Scrapbook, "Housing, New York State," Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York; on the North Shore, see Ebner, Creating Chicago's North Shore, 226, 235; Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors.
133. On suburban efforts to exclude African Americans, see President's Conference on Housing and Home Ownership, Negro Housing (Washington, 1932), 46-47; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, "A Year's Defense of the Negro American's Citizenship Rights," Nineteenth Annual Report, 1928 (New York, 1929) Box 758, Presidential Papers, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library, West Branch, Iowa; also, "Negro Ouster Suit on in Westchester," New York Times, March 7, 1937, Clippings Scrapbook, "Housing, New York State," Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York; on the North Shore, see Ebner, Creating Chicago's North Shore, 226, 235; Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors.
134. On suburban efforts to exclude African Americans, see President's Conference on Housing and Home Ownership, Negro Housing (Washington, 1932), 46-47; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, "A Year's Defense of the Negro American's Citizenship Rights," Nineteenth Annual Report, 1928 (New York, 1929) Box 758, Presidential Papers, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library, West Branch, Iowa; also, "Negro Ouster Suit on in Westchester," New York Times, March 7, 1937, Clippings Scrapbook, "Housing, New York State," Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York; on the North Shore, see Ebner, Creating Chicago's North Shore, 226, 235; Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors.
135. On suburban efforts to exclude African Americans, see President's Conference on Housing and Home Ownership, Negro Housing (Washington, 1932), 46-47; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, "A Year's Defense of the Negro American's Citizenship Rights," Nineteenth Annual Report, 1928 (New York, 1929) Box 758, Presidential Papers, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library, West Branch, Iowa; also, "Negro Ouster Suit on in Westchester," New York Times, March 7, 1937, Clippings Scrapbook, "Housing, New York State," Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York; on the North Shore, see Ebner, Creating Chicago's North Shore, 226, 235; Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors.
136. The five individuals who were the most active mortgage lenders in west Evanston all belonged to the North Shore or Chicago Real Estate Boards, as did a number of other men who appeared less often in the sample.
137. For an example of this view, see Mayor Ingraham's Committee on Post War Planning, "Evanston Housing: Some Facts, Some Problems," (Evanston, 1943).
138. File: Evanston Hospitals - Community, (EHS); "Editor's note," North Shore Guide, Jan. 26, 1929; Trust deeds William H. Dixon to Howell N. Tyson, lots 34-35, Culver's addition, Lots 99-100, Hovland's addition, Torrens Deed Dockets 240E, 241.
139. Ibid.
140. Foster was president of the (black) Evanston Community Hospital from the 1920s through the 1950s. Hahn served on the local charity board from 1911 until the time of his death. "Clyde Foster, Dean of City's Businessmen," Evanston Review; Clyde D. Foster, "Obituary"; John F. Hahn, "Obituary," Evanston Review, April 12, 1945, p. 83.
141. Foster was president of the (black) Evanston Community Hospital from the 1920s through the 1950s. Hahn served on the local charity board from 1911 until the time of his death. "Clyde Foster, Dean of City's Businessmen," Evanston Review; Clyde D. Foster, "Obituary"; John F. Hahn, "Obituary," Evanston Review, April 12, 1945, p. 83.
142. Foster was president of the (black) Evanston Community Hospital from the 1920s through the 1950s. Hahn served on the local charity board from 1911 until the time of his death. "Clyde Foster, Dean of City's Businessmen," Evanston Review; Clyde D. Foster, "Obituary"; John F. Hahn, "Obituary," Evanston Review, April 12, 1945, p. 83.
143. Spencer interview by Sharon F. Patton; Spencer interview by Wayne Watson; Watson interview; Mrs. E. Edgarton Hart interview by Glenna Johnson, May 20, 1974, transcript (EHS).
144. There is no concrete evidence that any of the larger white lenders in west Evanston lent directly to an employee or family member thereof, however it is not unlikely. A tribute written for William Dyche, president of the State Bank and Trust Company, suggests the existence of that practice as well as the ways paternalism earned esteem within the white community. The writer claimed that Dyche's door was always open, whether to college presidents or "a former colored housekeeper trying to make a mortgage on some property." Dyche did not make any of the loans sampled, but his bank made 30 (of 230) loans in the sample. George Dalgety, "Mr Dyche's Career Packed with Achievement," Evanston Review, August 23, 1934, pps. 22-23; Torrens Deeds Dockets 240E, 241, 589D. None of the other lenders was known to have employed black servants. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules, Evanston, Illinois.
145. There is no concrete evidence that any of the larger white lenders in west Evanston lent directly to an employee or family member thereof, however it is not unlikely. A tribute written for William Dyche, president of the State Bank and Trust Company, suggests the existence of that practice as well as the ways paternalism earned esteem within the white community. The writer claimed that Dyche's door was always open, whether to college presidents or "a former colored housekeeper trying to make a mortgage on some property." Dyche did not make any of the loans sampled, but his bank made 30 (of 230) loans in the sample. George Dalgety, "Mr Dyche's Career Packed with Achievement," Evanston Review, August 23, 1934, pps. 22-23; Torrens Deeds Dockets 240E, 241, 589D. None of the other lenders was known to have employed black servants. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, Census Schedules, Evanston, Illinois.
146. Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto, 204.
147. Ibid., 116, 244-69.
148. Black population in Evanston grew from 2,522 to 4,938 between 1920 and 1930. Meanwhile builders erected 427 new units of housing. At four persons per household, these new units offered room for 1,700 persons, 71 percent of total population growth. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Census of Housing, Volume I, Block Statistics, 8; Leonard, "Paternalism and the Rise of a Black Community."
149. Black population in Evanston grew from 2,522 to 4,938 between 1920 and 1930. Meanwhile builders erected 427 new units of housing. At four persons per household, these new units offered room for 1,700 persons, 71 percent of total population growth. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Census of Housing, Volume I, Block Statistics, 8; Leonard, "Paternalism and the Rise of a Black Community."
150. Cora Watson interview; William H. Gill, Obituary, Evanston Review, July 27, 1961, p. 96.
151. Martin interview.
152. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 99-102.
153. Blumberg and Lalli, "Little Ghettoes," 124.
154. Wiese, "The Other Suburbanites."
155. For Englewood, see New York Age, April 16, 1921, p. 8. On Yonkers, see Bruce D. Haynes, "The Social Construction of a Black Suburban Community: A Case Study of Runyon Heights, Yonkers, New York, 1912-1994," (PhD. diss., City University of New York, 1995). For Pasadena, see James E. Crimi, "The Social Status of the Negro in Pasadena, California," (Masters Thesis, University of Southern California, 1941), 15-18; also, City of Pasadena, Department of Planning and Permitting, Building Permits, 1904-1921 (Hale Building, Pasadena, California); home ownership rate is based on a sample of 157 black households (48 percent of black residents) in manuscript census schedules. Fourteenth Census of the U.S., Census of Population: 1920, Census Schedules, Pasadena, California, Enumeration Districts 504-535.
156. For Englewood, see New York Age, April 16, 1921, p. 8. On Yonkers, see Bruce D. Haynes, "The Social Construction of a Black Suburban Community: A Case Study of Runyon Heights, Yonkers, New York, 1912-1994," (PhD. diss., City University of New York, 1995). For Pasadena, see James E. Crimi, "The Social Status of the Negro in Pasadena, California," (Masters Thesis, University of Southern California, 1941), 15-18; also, City of Pasadena, Department of Planning and Permitting, Building Permits, 1904-1921 (Hale Building, Pasadena, California); home ownership rate is based on a sample of 157 black households (48 percent of black residents) in manuscript census schedules. Fourteenth Census of the U.S., Census of Population: 1920, Census Schedules, Pasadena, California, Enumeration Districts 504-535.
157. For Englewood, see New York Age, April 16, 1921, p. 8. On Yonkers, see Bruce D. Haynes, "The Social Construction of a Black Suburban Community: A Case Study of Runyon Heights, Yonkers, New York, 1912-1994," (PhD. diss., City University of New York, 1995). For Pasadena, see James E. Crimi, "The Social Status of the Negro in Pasadena, California," (Masters Thesis, University of Southern California, 1941), 15-18; also, City of Pasadena, Department of Planning and Permitting, Building Permits, 1904-1921 (Hale Building, Pasadena, California); home ownership rate is based on a sample of 157 black households (48 percent of black residents) in manuscript census schedules. Fourteenth Census of the U.S., Census of Population: 1920, Census Schedules, Pasadena, California, Enumeration Districts 504-535.
158. For Englewood, see New York Age, April 16, 1921, p. 8. On Yonkers, see Bruce D. Haynes, "The Social Construction of a Black Suburban Community: A Case Study of Runyon Heights, Yonkers, New York, 1912-1994," (PhD. diss., City University of New York, 1995). For Pasadena, see James E. Crimi, "The Social Status of the Negro in Pasadena, California," (Masters Thesis, University of Southern California, 1941), 15-18; also, City of Pasadena, Department of Planning and Permitting, Building Permits, 1904-1921 (Hale Building, Pasadena, California); home ownership rate is based on a sample of 157 black households (48 percent of black residents) in manuscript census schedules. Fourteenth Census of the U.S., Census of Population: 1920, Census Schedules, Pasadena, California, Enumeration Districts 504-535.
159. Earl F. Cartland, "A Study of the Negroes Living in Pasadena," (Masters Thesis, Whittier College, 1948), 10; Leona and Garfield Lee interview, audio-tape, 1984, Black History Project, (Pasadena Historical Society, Pasadena, California); "City of Pasadena Architectural and Historical Inventory: Survey Area Sixteen, Brenner Park," Feb., 1983, Urban Conservation Program, City of Pasadena, Department of Building and Permitting (Hale Building, Pasadena, California), 211-13, 216; For loans to blacks in Pasadena, see for example, Grant Deed, Leoni M. Twomey to Robert and Mandy Morgan, October 9, 1916, Document 22, Book 6337, p. 303, Los Angeles County Recorder of Deeds (Los Angeles County Recorder-Registrar, Norwalk, California), 44.
160. Earl F. Cartland, "A Study of the Negroes Living in Pasadena," (Masters Thesis, Whittier College, 1948), 10; Leona and Garfield Lee interview, audio-tape, 1984, Black History Project, (Pasadena Historical Society, Pasadena, California); "City of Pasadena Architectural and Historical Inventory: Survey Area Sixteen, Brenner Park," Feb., 1983, Urban Conservation Program, City of Pasadena, Department of Building and Permitting (Hale Building, Pasadena, California), 211-13, 216; For loans to blacks in Pasadena, see for example, Grant Deed, Leoni M. Twomey to Robert and Mandy Morgan, October 9, 1916, Document 22, Book 6337, p. 303, Los Angeles County Recorder of Deeds (Los Angeles County Recorder-Registrar, Norwalk, California), 44.