The Ford foundation, European physics and the Cold War

Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 332-361

  Krige, John ^a  

^a Ctr Rech Hist Sci/Techiques   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040709343     PISSN: 08909997     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/27757813     Document Type: Review

References (145)

1. While large sums for the two institutions concerned, they were tiny compared to the $150-$300 million awarded annually by the Ford Foundation between 1957 and 1965. During this period, Ford's European program never exceeded 5% of the total grant budget. See Francis X. Sutton, "The Ford Foundation and Europe: ambitions and ambivalences," in Giuliana Gemelli, ed. The Ford Foundation and Europe (1950's-1970's). Cross-fertilisation of learning in social science and management (Brussels, 1998), 21-66. See also Richard Magat, The Ford Foundation at work. Philanthropic choices, methods and styles (New York, 1979), 192, 193. All the grants awarded by the Foundation are listed in appendices to its annual reports.
2. While large sums for the two institutions concerned, they were tiny compared to the $150-$300 million awarded annually by the Ford Foundation between 1957 and 1965. During this period, Ford's European program never exceeded 5% of the total grant budget. See Francis X. Sutton, "The Ford Foundation and Europe: ambitions and ambivalences," in Giuliana Gemelli, ed. The Ford Foundation and Europe (1950's-1970's). Cross-fertilisation of learning in social science and management (Brussels, 1998), 21-66. See also Richard Magat, The Ford Foundation at work. Philanthropic choices, methods and styles (New York, 1979), 192, 193. All the grants awarded by the Foundation are listed in appendices to its annual reports.
3. For example, Finn Aaserud, Redirecting science. Niels Bohr, philanthropy and the rise of nuclear physics (Cambridge, 1990); Pnina Abir-Am, "The discourse of physical power and biological knowledge in the 1930s: A reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's 'policy' in molecular biology," Social studies of science, 12 (1982), 341-382, and "'New' trends in the history of molecular biology," HSPS, 26:1 (1995), 167-196; E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller medicine men. Medicine and capitalism in America (Berkeley, 1980); Lily E. Kay, The molecular vision of life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology (New York, 1993), and "Rethinking institutions: philanthropy as historio-graphic problem of knowledge and power," Minerva, 35 (1997), 283-293; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science. Foundations and natural scientists 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991); Paul Weindling, "Philanthropy and world health: The Rockefeller Foundation and the League of Nations Health Organisation," Minerva, 35:3 (1997), 269-281.
4. For example, Finn Aaserud, Redirecting science. Niels Bohr, philanthropy and the rise of nuclear physics (Cambridge, 1990); Pnina Abir-Am, "The discourse of physical power and biological knowledge in the 1930s: A reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's 'policy' in molecular biology," Social studies of science, 12 (1982), 341-382, and "'New' trends in the history of molecular biology," HSPS, 26:1 (1995), 167-196; E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller medicine men. Medicine and capitalism in America (Berkeley, 1980); Lily E. Kay, The molecular vision of life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology (New York, 1993), and "Rethinking institutions: philanthropy as historio-graphic problem of knowledge and power," Minerva, 35 (1997), 283-293; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science. Foundations and natural scientists 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991); Paul Weindling, "Philanthropy and world health: The Rockefeller Foundation and the League of Nations Health Organisation," Minerva, 35:3 (1997), 269-281.
5. For example, Finn Aaserud, Redirecting science. Niels Bohr, philanthropy and the rise of nuclear physics (Cambridge, 1990); Pnina Abir-Am, "The discourse of physical power and biological knowledge in the 1930s: A reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's 'policy' in molecular biology," Social studies of science, 12 (1982), 341-382, and "'New' trends in the history of molecular biology," HSPS, 26:1 (1995), 167-196; E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller medicine men. Medicine and capitalism in America (Berkeley, 1980); Lily E. Kay, The molecular vision of life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology (New York, 1993), and "Rethinking institutions: philanthropy as historio-graphic problem of knowledge and power," Minerva, 35 (1997), 283-293; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science. Foundations and natural scientists 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991); Paul Weindling, "Philanthropy and world health: The Rockefeller Foundation and the League of Nations Health Organisation," Minerva, 35:3 (1997), 269-281.
6. For example, Finn Aaserud, Redirecting science. Niels Bohr, philanthropy and the rise of nuclear physics (Cambridge, 1990); Pnina Abir-Am, "The discourse of physical power and biological knowledge in the 1930s: A reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's 'policy' in molecular biology," Social studies of science, 12 (1982), 341-382, and "'New' trends in the history of molecular biology," HSPS, 26:1 (1995), 167-196; E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller medicine men. Medicine and capitalism in America (Berkeley, 1980); Lily E. Kay, The molecular vision of life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology (New York, 1993), and "Rethinking institutions: philanthropy as historio-graphic problem of knowledge and power," Minerva, 35 (1997), 283-293; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science. Foundations and natural scientists 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991); Paul Weindling, "Philanthropy and world health: The Rockefeller Foundation and the League of Nations Health Organisation," Minerva, 35:3 (1997), 269-281.
7. For example, Finn Aaserud, Redirecting science. Niels Bohr, philanthropy and the rise of nuclear physics (Cambridge, 1990); Pnina Abir-Am, "The discourse of physical power and biological knowledge in the 1930s: A reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's 'policy' in molecular biology," Social studies of science, 12 (1982), 341-382, and "'New' trends in the history of molecular biology," HSPS, 26:1 (1995), 167-196; E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller medicine men. Medicine and capitalism in America (Berkeley, 1980); Lily E. Kay, The molecular vision of life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology (New York, 1993), and "Rethinking institutions: philanthropy as historio-graphic problem of knowledge and power," Minerva, 35 (1997), 283-293; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science. Foundations and natural scientists 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991); Paul Weindling, "Philanthropy and world health: The Rockefeller Foundation and the League of Nations Health Organisation," Minerva, 35:3 (1997), 269-281.
8. For example, Finn Aaserud, Redirecting science. Niels Bohr, philanthropy and the rise of nuclear physics (Cambridge, 1990); Pnina Abir-Am, "The discourse of physical power and biological knowledge in the 1930s: A reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's 'policy' in molecular biology," Social studies of science, 12 (1982), 341-382, and "'New' trends in the history of molecular biology," HSPS, 26:1 (1995), 167-196; E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller medicine men. Medicine and capitalism in America (Berkeley, 1980); Lily E. Kay, The molecular vision of life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology (New York, 1993), and "Rethinking institutions: philanthropy as historio-graphic problem of knowledge and power," Minerva, 35 (1997), 283-293; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science. Foundations and natural scientists 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991); Paul Weindling, "Philanthropy and world health: The Rockefeller Foundation and the League of Nations Health Organisation," Minerva, 35:3 (1997), 269-281.
9. For example, Finn Aaserud, Redirecting science. Niels Bohr, philanthropy and the rise of nuclear physics (Cambridge, 1990); Pnina Abir-Am, "The discourse of physical power and biological knowledge in the 1930s: A reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's 'policy' in molecular biology," Social studies of science, 12 (1982), 341-382, and "'New' trends in the history of molecular biology," HSPS, 26:1 (1995), 167-196; E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller medicine men. Medicine and capitalism in America (Berkeley, 1980); Lily E. Kay, The molecular vision of life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology (New York, 1993), and "Rethinking institutions: philanthropy as historio-graphic problem of knowledge and power," Minerva, 35 (1997), 283-293; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science. Foundations and natural scientists 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991); Paul Weindling, "Philanthropy and world health: The Rockefeller Foundation and the League of Nations Health Organisation," Minerva, 35:3 (1997), 269-281.
10. For example, Finn Aaserud, Redirecting science. Niels Bohr, philanthropy and the rise of nuclear physics (Cambridge, 1990); Pnina Abir-Am, "The discourse of physical power and biological knowledge in the 1930s: A reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's 'policy' in molecular biology," Social studies of science, 12 (1982), 341-382, and "'New' trends in the history of molecular biology," HSPS, 26:1 (1995), 167-196; E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller medicine men. Medicine and capitalism in America (Berkeley, 1980); Lily E. Kay, The molecular vision of life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology (New York, 1993), and "Rethinking institutions: philanthropy as historio-graphic problem of knowledge and power," Minerva, 35 (1997), 283-293; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science. Foundations and natural scientists 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991); Paul Weindling, "Philanthropy and world health: The Rockefeller Foundation and the League of Nations Health Organisation," Minerva, 35:3 (1997), 269-281.
11. Magat (ref. 1); Waldemar A. Nielsen, The big foundations (New York, 1972), chapt. 5; Francis X. Sutton, "The Ford Foundation: The early years," Daedelus (Winter 1987), 41-91; Dwight Macdonald, The Ford Foundation:The men and the millions (New Brunswick, 1989).
12. Magat (ref. 1); Waldemar A. Nielsen, The big foundations (New York, 1972), chapt. 5; Francis X. Sutton, "The Ford Foundation: The early years," Daedelus (Winter 1987), 41-91; Dwight Macdonald, The Ford Foundation:The men and the millions (New Brunswick, 1989).
13. Magat (ref. 1); Waldemar A. Nielsen, The big foundations (New York, 1972), chapt. 5; Francis X. Sutton, "The Ford Foundation: The early years," Daedelus (Winter 1987), 41-91; Dwight Macdonald, The Ford Foundation:The men and the millions (New Brunswick, 1989).
14. Roger L. Geiger, "American foundations and academic social science, 1945-1960," Minerva, 36:3 (1988), 315-341; Giuliana Gemelli, "The Ford Foundation and the development of social and political sciences in Italy (1954-1973). Some case studies," in Giuliana Gemelli, Big culture. Intellectual cooperation in large-scale cultural and technical systems. An historical approach (Bologna, 1994), 61-116; Giuliana Gemelli, "The origins of the Olivetti Foundation and the development of social and political sciences in Italy during the sixties," in Gemelli (ref. 1), 97-135; Giuliana Gemelli, "From imitation to competitive-cooperation. The Ford Foundation and management education in western and eastern Europe (1950's-1970's)" in Gemelli (ref. 1), 167-304; Kathleen D. McCarthy, "From cold war to cultural development: The international cultural activities of the Ford Foundation, 1950-1980," Daedalus (1987), 93-117; Peter J. Seybold, "The Ford Foundation and the triumph of behavioralism in American political science," in Robert F. Arnove, Philanthropy and cultural imperialism. The foundations at home and abroad (Boston, 1980), 269-303.
15. Roger L. Geiger, "American foundations and academic social science, 1945-1960," Minerva, 36:3 (1988), 315-341; Giuliana Gemelli, "The Ford Foundation and the development of social and political sciences in Italy (1954-1973). Some case studies," in Giuliana Gemelli, Big culture. Intellectual cooperation in large-scale cultural and technical systems. An historical approach (Bologna, 1994), 61-116; Giuliana Gemelli, "The origins of the Olivetti Foundation and the development of social and political sciences in Italy during the sixties," in Gemelli (ref. 1), 97-135; Giuliana Gemelli, "From imitation to competitive-cooperation. The Ford Foundation and management education in western and eastern Europe (1950's-1970's)" in Gemelli (ref. 1), 167-304; Kathleen D. McCarthy, "From cold war to cultural development: The international cultural activities of the Ford Foundation, 1950-1980," Daedalus (1987), 93-117; Peter J. Seybold, "The Ford Foundation and the triumph of behavioralism in American political science," in Robert F. Arnove, Philanthropy and cultural imperialism. The foundations at home and abroad (Boston, 1980), 269-303.
16. Roger L. Geiger, "American foundations and academic social science, 1945-1960," Minerva, 36:3 (1988), 315-341; Giuliana Gemelli, "The Ford Foundation and the development of social and political sciences in Italy (1954-1973). Some case studies," in Giuliana Gemelli, Big culture. Intellectual cooperation in large-scale cultural and technical systems. An historical approach (Bologna, 1994), 61-116; Giuliana Gemelli, "The origins of the Olivetti Foundation and the development of social and political sciences in Italy during the sixties," in Gemelli (ref. 1), 97-135; Giuliana Gemelli, "From imitation to competitive-cooperation. The Ford Foundation and management education in western and eastern Europe (1950's-1970's)" in Gemelli (ref. 1), 167-304; Kathleen D. McCarthy, "From cold war to cultural development: The international cultural activities of the Ford Foundation, 1950-1980," Daedalus (1987), 93-117; Peter J. Seybold, "The Ford Foundation and the triumph of behavioralism in American political science," in Robert F. Arnove, Philanthropy and cultural imperialism. The foundations at home and abroad (Boston, 1980), 269-303.
17. Roger L. Geiger, "American foundations and academic social science, 1945-1960," Minerva, 36:3 (1988), 315-341; Giuliana Gemelli, "The Ford Foundation and the development of social and political sciences in Italy (1954-1973). Some case studies," in Giuliana Gemelli, Big culture. Intellectual cooperation in large-scale cultural and technical systems. An historical approach (Bologna, 1994), 61-116; Giuliana Gemelli, "The origins of the Olivetti Foundation and the development of social and political sciences in Italy during the sixties," in Gemelli (ref. 1), 97-135; Giuliana Gemelli, "From imitation to competitive-cooperation. The Ford Foundation and management education in western and eastern Europe (1950's-1970's)" in Gemelli (ref. 1), 167-304; Kathleen D. McCarthy, "From cold war to cultural development: The international cultural activities of the Ford Foundation, 1950-1980," Daedalus (1987), 93-117; Peter J. Seybold, "The Ford Foundation and the triumph of behavioralism in American political science," in Robert F. Arnove, Philanthropy and cultural imperialism. The foundations at home and abroad (Boston, 1980), 269-303.
18. Roger L. Geiger, "American foundations and academic social science, 1945-1960," Minerva, 36:3 (1988), 315-341; Giuliana Gemelli, "The Ford Foundation and the development of social and political sciences in Italy (1954-1973). Some case studies," in Giuliana Gemelli, Big culture. Intellectual cooperation in large-scale cultural and technical systems. An historical approach (Bologna, 1994), 61-116; Giuliana Gemelli, "The origins of the Olivetti Foundation and the development of social and political sciences in Italy during the sixties," in Gemelli (ref. 1), 97-135; Giuliana Gemelli, "From imitation to competitive-cooperation. The Ford Foundation and management education in western and eastern Europe (1950's-1970's)" in Gemelli (ref. 1), 167-304; Kathleen D. McCarthy, "From cold war to cultural development: The international cultural activities of the Ford Foundation, 1950-1980," Daedalus (1987), 93-117; Peter J. Seybold, "The Ford Foundation and the triumph of behavioralism in American political science," in Robert F. Arnove, Philanthropy and cultural imperialism. The foundations at home and abroad (Boston, 1980), 269-303.
19. Roger L. Geiger, "American foundations and academic social science, 1945-1960," Minerva, 36:3 (1988), 315-341; Giuliana Gemelli, "The Ford Foundation and the development of social and political sciences in Italy (1954-1973). Some case studies," in Giuliana Gemelli, Big culture. Intellectual cooperation in large-scale cultural and technical systems. An historical approach (Bologna, 1994), 61-116; Giuliana Gemelli, "The origins of the Olivetti Foundation and the development of social and political sciences in Italy during the sixties," in Gemelli (ref. 1), 97-135; Giuliana Gemelli, "From imitation to competitive-cooperation. The Ford Foundation and management education in western and eastern Europe (1950's-1970's)" in Gemelli (ref. 1), 167-304; Kathleen D. McCarthy, "From cold war to cultural development: The international cultural activities of the Ford Foundation, 1950-1980," Daedalus (1987), 93-117; Peter J. Seybold, "The Ford Foundation and the triumph of behavioralism in American political science," in Robert F. Arnove, Philanthropy and cultural imperialism. The foundations at home and abroad (Boston, 1980), 269-303.
20. Notable exceptions are Sutton (ref. 1), who mentions the grants to CERN and Bohr, and Adriaan Blaauw, ESO's early history. The European Southern Observatory from concept to reality (Garching, 1991), 10-12. Ford made a major contribution to the costs of ESO's telescope in the early 1960s; Frank E. Edmondson, "The Ford Foundation and ESO," Journal for the history of astronomy, 29:4 (1998), 309-326. These accounts abstract the grant from any political or ideological concerns that the Foundation might have had.
21. Notable exceptions are Sutton (ref. 1), who mentions the grants to CERN and Bohr, and Adriaan Blaauw, ESO's early history. The European Southern Observatory from concept to reality (Garching, 1991), 10-12. Ford made a major contribution to the costs of ESO's telescope in the early 1960s; Frank E. Edmondson, "The Ford Foundation and ESO," Journal for the history of astronomy, 29:4 (1998), 309-326. These accounts abstract the grant from any political or ideological concerns that the Foundation might have had.
22. E.C. Lagemann, The politics of knowledge. The Carnegie Corporation, philanthropy, and public policy (Middletown, 1989), 7 (quote).
23. Ford Foundation, "Current interests for 1993/1999." "Promote international cooperation" remains another of its major objectives.
24. Paul G. Hoffman, Peace can be won (New York, 1951), 18.
25. Edward H. Berman, The ideology of philanthropy. The influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller Foundations on American foreign policy (Albany, 1983), 7.
26. Ronald E. Doel, "Scientists as policymakers, advisors, and intelligence agents. Linking contemporary diplomatic history with the history of contemporary science," in Thomas Söderqvist, ed., The historiography of contemporary science and technology (Amsterdam, 1997), 215-244, at 220.
27. This point is argued in Dominique Pestre and John Krige, "Some thoughts on the early history of CERN," in Peter Galison and Bruce Hevly, eds., Big science. The growth of large-scale research (Stanford, 1992),78-99, on 82-85.
28. For the role of foundations in forming and sustaining intellectual elites see Barry D. Karl, "Philanthropy and the maintenance of democratic elites," Minerva, 35:3 (1997), 207-220; Barry D. Karl and Stanley N. Katz, "Foundations and ruling class elites," Daedelus (Winter 1987), 1-40.
29. For the role of foundations in forming and sustaining intellectual elites see Barry D. Karl, "Philanthropy and the maintenance of democratic elites," Minerva, 35:3 (1997), 207-220; Barry D. Karl and Stanley N. Katz, "Foundations and ruling class elites," Daedelus (Winter 1987), 1-40.
30. In 1950 the principal assets of the Foundation consisted of stocks, bonds, cash, and real property given by Henry and Edsel Ford during their lifetimes and by their wills, as well as by Mrs Clara J. Ford and by the Ford Motor Company.
31. On Gaither see Macdonald (ref. 3), 10-11 and Sam S. Schweber, "Theoretical physics and the restructuring of the physical sciences: 1925-1975," in Gemelli, Big culture (ref. 4), 144-146; on the Rad Lab, Robert Buderi, The invention that changed the world. How a small group of radar pioneers won the Second World War and launched a technical revolution (New York, 1996) and Daniel J. Kevles, The physicists. The history of a scientific community in modern America (Harvard, 1971), chapt. 20.
32. On Gaither see Macdonald (ref. 3), 10-11 and Sam S. Schweber, "Theoretical physics and the restructuring of the physical sciences: 1925-1975," in Gemelli, Big culture (ref. 4), 144-146; on the Rad Lab, Robert Buderi, The invention that changed the world. How a small group of radar pioneers won the Second World War and launched a technical revolution (New York, 1996) and Daniel J. Kevles, The physicists. The history of a scientific community in modern America (Harvard, 1971), chapt. 20.
33. On Gaither see Macdonald (ref. 3), 10-11 and Sam S. Schweber, "Theoretical physics and the restructuring of the physical sciences: 1925-1975," in Gemelli, Big culture (ref. 4), 144-146; on the Rad Lab, Robert Buderi, The invention that changed the world. How a small group of radar pioneers won the Second World War and launched a technical revolution (New York, 1996) and Daniel J. Kevles, The physicists. The history of a scientific community in modern America (Harvard, 1971), chapt. 20.
34. David Hounshell, "The Cold War, RAND, and the generation of knowledge, 1946-1962," HSPS, 27:2 (1997), 237-267, describes the transformation of the RAND organisation in which Gaither was involved.
35. On the Gaither Report see Buderi (ref. 14), 411-12, and R.G. Hewlett and J.M. Holl, Atoms for peace and war, 1953-1961. Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission (Berkeley, 1989), 465-66.
36. The view of J.L. Heilbron and Robert W. Seidel, Lawrence and his laboratory. A history of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Vol. 1 (Berkeley, 1989), 15.
37. "Report of the Trustees of the Ford Foundation," 27 Sep 1950 (FFA); Sutton (ref. 3), 48.
38. Alan S. Milward, The reconstruction of Europe, 1945-1951 (Berkeley, 1984); various authors in Transatlantic perspectives, no. 17 (Winter 1988); Michael J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan. America, Britain and the reconstruction of western Europe, 1947-1952 (Cambridge, 1987).
39. Alan S. Milward, The reconstruction of Europe, 1945-1951 (Berkeley, 1984); various authors in Transatlantic perspectives, no. 17 (Winter 1988); Michael J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan. America, Britain and the reconstruction of western Europe, 1947-1952 (Cambridge, 1987).
40. Alan S. Milward, The reconstruction of Europe, 1945-1951 (Berkeley, 1984); various authors in Transatlantic perspectives, no. 17 (Winter 1988); Michael J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan. America, Britain and the reconstruction of western Europe, 1947-1952 (Cambridge, 1987).
41. "President's Memorandum to the Board of Trustees," 29 Jan 1951, "Report of the President to the Board of Trustees," 10 Apr 1951, both included with the bound copy of the Docket Excerpts for that year (FFA).
42. "President's Memorandum to the Board of Trustees," 29 Jan 1951, "Report of the President to the Board of Trustees," 10 Apr 1951, both included with the bound copy of the Docket Excerpts for that year (FFA).
43. Macdonald (ref. 3), 139.
44. "President's Report to the Trustees," June 1953, bound into the Docket Excerpts of that year (FFA); Gaither, "The Ford Foundation and Foreign Affairs," an address at Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, Minnesota, on 3 May 1956, and published by the Ford Foundation.
45. "President's Report to the Trustees," June 1953, bound into the Docket Excerpts of that year (FFA); Gaither, "The Ford Foundation and Foreign Affairs," an address at Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, Minnesota, on 3 May 1956, and published by the Ford Foundation.
46. Sutton (ref. 3), 84; Macdonald (ref. 3), chapt. 2.
47. Sutton (ref. 3), 69.
48. Interview with Shepard Stone, 12 Dec 1972 (FFA).
49. Internal memo, Gaither to Davis, 7 Jun 1951 (FFA, Reel 1218).
50. John Archibald Wheeler, At home in the universe (New York, 1994), 141.
51. Niels Bohr, Open letter to the United Nations (Copenhagen, 1950). Here Bohr spoke strongly for international cooperation and the lifting of security restrictions on the flow of atomic information to lessen "distrust and anxiety" between nations (p. 8). Only "full mutual openness," he argued, "can effectively promote confidence and guarantee common security" (p. 13).
52. Kohler (ref. 2), 165-8, 251 (quote).
53. Courant to Gaither, 23 Aug 1951 (FFA, Reel 1218).
54. Courant to Bohr, 23 Aug and 4 Sep 1951, and Bohr to Courant, 8 Sep 1951 (FFA, Reel 1218).
55. Courant to Bohr, 19 Oct 1951 (NBA)
56. Gaither to McDaniel, 30 Nov 1951 (FFA, Reel 1218).
57. Dominique Pestre, "The period of conflict, August-December 1951" in Armin Hermann, et al., History of CERN, Vol. I (Amsterdam, 1987), 147-177.
58. Courant to Howard, 16 May 1952, quoting a letter from Bohr to Courant (FFA, Reel 1218).
59. Speier to Howard, 8 Jul 1952, copied to Gaither and McDaniel (FFA, Reel 1218).
60. Gaither to Howard, 12 Nov 1952 (FFA, Reel 1218).
61. Sutton (ref. 3), 57, 61, 69.
62. Howard to Gaither, 8 Dec 1952, and Katz to Dacy, 15 Apr 1953 (FFA, Reel 1218).
63. Gaither to Davis, 7 Jun 1951 (FFA, Reel 1218).
64. Hoffman devoted three pages of his book to describing the tactics of the French Communist party - its "kind of all-embracing propaganda, carefully conceived, devoutly executed and impeccably timed, which confronts the free world," Hoffman (ref. 8), 140.
65. Gaither to McDaniel, 30 Nov 1951 (FFA, Reel 1218).
66. McCarthy (ref. 4), 95. These views were shared by Hoffman and by the controversial president of the University of Chicago, Robert Maynard Hutchins, whom Hoffman recruited to the Foundation; Sutton (ref. 3), 55-58.
67. "President's Report to the Trustees," introduction to the Docket, Jun 1953, 9 (FFA).
68. Gaither to Bohr, 19 Aug 1954 (NBA, Ford Foundation, S-2, 1).
69. Sutton (ref. 1), 39 (quote).
70. Volker R. Berghahn, "Shepard Stone and the Ford Foundation," in Gemelli (ref. 1), 69-95, and Berghahn to the author, 28 Dec 1998.
71. Berghahn (ref. 47), 90.
72. Sutton (ref. 1), 28.
73. Interview with Shepard Stone, 12 Dec 1972 (FFA).
74. Berghahn (ref. 47), 90-92.
75. Pierre Gremion, "The partnership between the Ford Foundation and the Congress for Cultural Freedom in Europe," in Gemelli (ref. 1), 137-164, and Intelligence de l'anticommunisme. Le Congrès pour la liberté de la culture à Paris (1950-1975) (Paris, 1995).
76. Berghahn (ref. 47), 92.
77. Willems became vice chairman of the CERN Council from 1958 to 1960, and chairman from 1961 to 1963. Pestre and Krige, in Galison and Hevly (ref. 11), 85-7.
78. Willems to Gaither, 9 May 1955, and Gaither to Stone, 17 May 1955 (FFA, Reel 501).
79. Stone to Gaither, 16 May 1955 (FFA, Reel 501).
80. Stone to Bohr, 31 Dec 1954, 26 May 1955, 8 Jun 1955, and 28 Jul 1955, and Bohr to Stone, 18 May 1955 (NBA, The Ford Foundation, file S-2,1).
81. Stone to Wheeler, 1 Jun 1967 (FFA), and to Aage Bohr, 20 Sep 1963 (FFA).
82. Hewlett and Holl (ref. 16), 232-235.
83. R.G. Gustavson, "Report on impressions received while attending the International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Erergy, Geneva, 8-20 August, 1955" (FFA, Reel 501).
84. The objector said that the US should ensure its leadership by never encouraging the reestablishment of the European community, and should do all it could to get the best European students to study in the US with a view to having them stay there.
85. Bohr to Stone, 16 Sep 1955 (FFA, Reel 1218).
86. Stone to Gaither, 27 Oct 1955 (FFA, Reel 501), Stone to Bohr, 23 Nov 1955 (Reel 1218), Price's memo on consultations with Whitman and Lawrence, 30 Nov 1955, Stone's memo on his dinner with Rabi, 1 Dec 1955, Strauss to Price, 5 Dec 1955, and memo Stone on his visit to Washington, 8 Dec 1955 (all in FFA, Reel 501). Stone spoke with Robert Bowie, Assistant Secretary of State in the State Department, John Bross, "an expert on European problems," and William Clark, European Regional Director of the U.S. Information Agency.
87. Stone phoned Bohr a few days before Christmas to give him the good news (memo Stone to Price, 23 Dec 1955). Bohr replied (letter of 17 Jan 1956) repeating $50,000 a year instead of the $40,000 Stone contemplated, and, as a second priority, funding for an extension of his facilities. He showed some reluctance over supporting work "bringing atomic scientists into closer relationship with the humanities" (Bohr to Stone 13 Mar 1956, letter Stone to Bohr, 26 Mar 1956, and Bohr's reply, 9 Apr 1956, FFA, Reel 1218). Stone eventually dropped the requirement of bridging the cultures, but he stuck to $40,000 a year for five years ("Request for Grant Action," 20 Apr 1956, FFA, Reel 1218). CERN's main worry seems to have been over Stone's request that Asian scientists be invited to the laboratory, which Bakker agreed to do "provided they were sufficiently qualified" (Bakker to Stone, 20 Dec 1955 and 29 May 1956, FFA, Reel 501).
88. CERN/169, 23 Apr 1956. The proposal was presented to the supreme governing body of CERN, the Council, as CERN/176, 17 May 1956, and the grant was officially accepted at the Council meeting on 1 Jun 1956, CERN/183, 14 Dec 1956 (CERN Archives, Geneva).
89. "Program Action," 14 May 1956 for Bohr and 3 Jul 1956 for CERN (FFA, Reel 1218 and Reel 501, resp.).
90. Stone to Gaither, 2 Jul 1956 (FFA, Reel 501).
91. Bohr to the Ford Foundation, 3 May 1958, Borgmann to Stone, 10 Jun 1958, Stone memo, 26 Jun 1958, Stone to Nielsen, 8 Aug 1958 (FFA, Reel 1218).
92. Stone to Nielsen, 8 Aug 1958, Bohr to Stone and to the Ford Foundation (attached), 5 Sep 1958, and Paul B. Pearson to Stone, 3 Oct 1958; Bohr to Stone, 3 Mar 1959, and Stone to Bohr, 12 Mar 1959 (FFA, Reel 1218).
93. Stone claimed that "Support for these insulations is in line with the Foundation's overall program objectives and with such Foundation grants as the one made to the Fund for Peaceful Atomic Development," "Atomic development" (FFA, Reel 501). The Fund was a private, non-profit organisation established in 1954 with a board of directors composed mostly of prominent businessmen. Ford awarded it $150,000 in its first year of operation to support its efforts in "diffusing knowledge of a new field, nuclear energy, among the free nations of the world for peaceful purposes." The grant was approved on 17 Dec 1954 (FFA, Reel, 495).
94. "Atomic development," n.d., and Stone to Gaither, 27 Oct 1955 (FFA, Reel 501).
95. "Program Action Form," 3 Jul 1956 (FFA, Reel 501).
96. Hermann et al. (ref. 34), 241-3.
97. Aaserud (ref. 2).
98. Bohr to Stone, 16 Sep 1955 (FFA, Reel 1218); Bakker to Gaither, 29 May 1956 (FFA, Reel 501).
99. Iverson to Stone, 9 Nov 1955; Price memo on consultations with Whitman and Lawrence, 30 Nov 1955 (FFA, Reel 501, Grant 56-241).
100. Stone to Gaither, 2 Jul 1956 (FFA, Reel 501).
101. The list of appointments to CERN paid for by the first Ford Foundation grant was appended to Bakker to Stone, 11 May 1959 (FFA, Reel 501); Bohr's figures are from his "Report of activities under grant from the Ford Foundation," 14 May 1956 (FFA, Reel 1218).
102. The undated "Request" has the annotation "Hold for final draft in June" (FFA, Reel 501).
103. Stone, memo on a meeting with Bakker on 9 Apr 1956 (FFA, Reel 501), and letter to Bohr, 30 Apr 1956; Stone to Heald and Price, 3 Mar 1958 (FFA, Reel 1218).
104. Stone recounted Senator John F. Kennedy's great pleasure over the scheme, which Stone described in detail to him over lunch in Washington. Kennedy saw it as the sort of initiative that foundations, but not the Federal Government, could undertake. Interview with Shepard Stone, 12 Dec 1972 (FFA).
105. Stone to Bakker, 26 Apr 1957 (FFA, Reel 501), the day the announcement was made.
106. Interview with Shepard Stone, 12 Dec 1972 (FFA); Stone to Price, 8 Dec 1955, and Strauss to Price, 5 Dec 1955 (FFA, Reel 501).
107. Stone's memo on his visit to Washington, 8 Dec 1955 (FFA, Reel 501).
108. Price's memo on consultations with Whitman and Lawrence, 30 Nov 1955 (FFA, Reel 501).
109. Stone to Heald and Price, 3 Mar 1958 (FFA, Reel 1218).
110. Kai Bird, The Chairman. John J. McCloy. The making of the American establishment (New York, 1992), 426-9; Berman (ref. 9), 61, and Sally Pisani, The CIA and the Marshall Plan (Lawrence, 1992), 46-53. Charles Merrill, who collaborated with the CIA in the 1950s on behalf of the Merrill Trust (though not without serious misgivings), explained his decision in this way: granted the power of the "caveman Right" at the time, "the most dangerous enemy of an effective, long-range American foreign policy as seen by the State Department was not the Soviet Union but Congress." Being free from congressional scrutiny, the CIA could deal with long-range problems and the foundations collaborated with them in areas where it needed front organizations to cover its activities. See Merrill, The checkbook. The politics and ethics of foundation philanthropy (Boston, 1986) 447-450.
111. Kai Bird, The Chairman. John J. McCloy. The making of the American establishment (New York, 1992), 426-9; Berman (ref. 9), 61, and Sally Pisani, The CIA and the Marshall Plan (Lawrence, 1992), 46-53. Charles Merrill, who collaborated with the CIA in the 1950s on behalf of the Merrill Trust (though not without serious misgivings), explained his decision in this way: granted the power of the "caveman Right" at the time, "the most dangerous enemy of an effective, long-range American foreign policy as seen by the State Department was not the Soviet Union but Congress." Being free from congressional scrutiny, the CIA could deal with long-range problems and the foundations collaborated with them in areas where it needed front organizations to cover its activities. See Merrill, The checkbook. The politics and ethics of foundation philanthropy (Boston, 1986) 447-450.
112. Kai Bird, The Chairman. John J. McCloy. The making of the American establishment (New York, 1992), 426-9; Berman (ref. 9), 61, and Sally Pisani, The CIA and the Marshall Plan (Lawrence, 1992), 46-53. Charles Merrill, who collaborated with the CIA in the 1950s on behalf of the Merrill Trust (though not without serious misgivings), explained his decision in this way: granted the power of the "caveman Right" at the time, "the most dangerous enemy of an effective, long-range American foreign policy as seen by the State Department was not the Soviet Union but Congress." Being free from congressional scrutiny, the CIA could deal with long-range problems and the foundations collaborated with them in areas where it needed front organizations to cover its activities. See Merrill, The checkbook. The politics and ethics of foundation philanthropy (Boston, 1986) 447-450.
113. Bird (ref. 87), 429.
114. An American physicist who heard a version of this paper in Copenhagen confirmed that every time he returned to his University in the USA after a trip to Europe in the early 1970s he was visited by the "CIA-man" on campus.
115. An article in the Danish daily newspaper Politikken reported at length on my seminar in Copenhagen in its edition of 9 Feb 1999 under the headline "USA brugte Bohr," "The United States used Bohr." It was mutual. Bohr actively collaborated with the U.S. in these initiatives.
116. Courant to Bohr, 22 Mar 1951, and Bohr's reply, 18 Apr 1951; six months later the two had still not met, according to Courant to Bohr, 19 Oct 1951 (NBA, Political Correspondence, R. Courant, j.nr. 54).
117. Berghahn, letter to me, 28 Dec 1998.
118. Stone to Bohr, 17 Jun 1958 (NBA, The Ford Foundation, File S-2,3)
119. Secretary, Royal Danish Academy to Ford, 9 Mar and 8 Nov 1957 (NBA, The Ford Foundation, File S-2,2). Stefan Rozental from Bohr's Institute was also active in this program, along with representatives from the Danish Ministry of Education with support from the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
120. "Report of activities under grant from the Ford Foundation," 14 May 1956, and "Report of activities sponsored by the grant from the Ford Foundation," 17 Dec 1959, the latter attached to A. Bohr to McDaniel, 14 Jul 1967 (FFA, Reel 1218); W. O. Lock, "A history of the collaboration between the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), and with Soviet Research Institutes in the USSR, 1955-1970," Geneva, CERN Report 75-7, 16 Jun 1975, and "Origins and evolution of the collaboration between CERN and the People's Republic of China, 1971-1980," CERN Report 81-14, 13 Nov 1981; Fan Dainan, "Nuclear Physicist Wang Ganchang in the People's Republic of China," in Cathryn Carson, et al., "Physicists in the postwar political arena: Comparative perspectives, Collected papers from a conference held at the University of California, Berkeley, 22-24 Jan 1998," 145-150, and Zuoyue Wang, "US-China Scientific Exchange, 1971-1989," ibid., 244-270 (unpublished).
121. "Report of activities under grant from the Ford Foundation," 14 May 1956, and "Report of activities sponsored by the grant from the Ford Foundation," 17 Dec 1959, the latter attached to A. Bohr to McDaniel, 14 Jul 1967 (FFA, Reel 1218); W. O. Lock, "A history of the collaboration between the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), and with Soviet Research Institutes in the USSR, 1955-1970," Geneva, CERN Report 75-7, 16 Jun 1975, and "Origins and evolution of the collaboration between CERN and the People's Republic of China, 1971-1980," CERN Report 81-14, 13 Nov 1981; Fan Dainan, "Nuclear Physicist Wang Ganchang in the People's Republic of China," in Cathryn Carson, et al., "Physicists in the postwar political arena: Comparative perspectives, Collected papers from a conference held at the University of California, Berkeley, 22-24 Jan 1998," 145-150, and Zuoyue Wang, "US-China Scientific Exchange, 1971-1989," ibid., 244-270 (unpublished).
122. "Report of activities under grant from the Ford Foundation," 14 May 1956, and "Report of activities sponsored by the grant from the Ford Foundation," 17 Dec 1959, the latter attached to A. Bohr to McDaniel, 14 Jul 1967 (FFA, Reel 1218); W. O. Lock, "A history of the collaboration between the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), and with Soviet Research Institutes in the USSR, 1955-1970," Geneva, CERN Report 75-7, 16 Jun 1975, and "Origins and evolution of the collaboration between CERN and the People's Republic of China, 1971-1980," CERN Report 81-14, 13 Nov 1981; Fan Dainan, "Nuclear Physicist Wang Ganchang in the People's Republic of China," in Cathryn Carson, et al., "Physicists in the postwar political arena: Comparative perspectives, Collected papers from a conference held at the University of California, Berkeley, 22-24 Jan 1998," 145-150, and Zuoyue Wang, "US-China Scientific Exchange, 1971-1989," ibid., 244-270 (unpublished).
123. "Report of activities under grant from the Ford Foundation," 14 May 1956, and "Report of activities sponsored by the grant from the Ford Foundation," 17 Dec 1959, the latter attached to A. Bohr to McDaniel, 14 Jul 1967 (FFA, Reel 1218); W. O. Lock, "A history of the collaboration between the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), and with Soviet Research Institutes in the USSR, 1955-1970," Geneva, CERN Report 75-7, 16 Jun 1975, and "Origins and evolution of the collaboration between CERN and the People's Republic of China, 1971-1980," CERN Report 81-14, 13 Nov 1981; Fan Dainan, "Nuclear Physicist Wang Ganchang in the People's Republic of China," in Cathryn Carson, et al., "Physicists in the postwar political arena: Comparative perspectives, Collected papers from a conference held at the University of California, Berkeley, 22-24 Jan 1998," 145-150, and Zuoyue Wang, "US-China Scientific Exchange, 1971-1989," ibid., 244-270 (unpublished).
124. "Report of activities under grant from the Ford Foundation," 14 May 1956, and "Report of activities sponsored by the grant from the Ford Foundation," 17 Dec 1959, the latter attached to A. Bohr to McDaniel, 14 Jul 1967 (FFA, Reel 1218); W. O. Lock, "A history of the collaboration between the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), and with Soviet Research Institutes in the USSR, 1955-1970," Geneva, CERN Report 75-7, 16 Jun 1975, and "Origins and evolution of the collaboration between CERN and the People's Republic of China, 1971-1980," CERN Report 81-14, 13 Nov 1981; Fan Dainan, "Nuclear Physicist Wang Ganchang in the People's Republic of China," in Cathryn Carson, et al., "Physicists in the postwar political arena: Comparative perspectives, Collected papers from a conference held at the University of California, Berkeley, 22-24 Jan 1998," 145-150, and Zuoyue Wang, "US-China Scientific Exchange, 1971-1989," ibid., 244-270 (unpublished).
125. "Report of activities under grant from the Ford Foundation," 14 May 1956, and "Report of activities sponsored by the grant from the Ford Foundation," 17 Dec 1959, the latter attached to A. Bohr to McDaniel, 14 Jul 1967 (FFA, Reel 1218); W. O. Lock, "A history of the collaboration between the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), and with Soviet Research Institutes in the USSR, 1955-1970," Geneva, CERN Report 75-7, 16 Jun 1975, and "Origins and evolution of the collaboration between CERN and the People's Republic of China, 1971-1980," CERN Report 81-14, 13 Nov 1981; Fan Dainan, "Nuclear Physicist Wang Ganchang in the People's Republic of China," in Cathryn Carson, et al., "Physicists in the postwar political arena: Comparative perspectives, Collected papers from a conference held at the University of California, Berkeley, 22-24 Jan 1998," 145-150, and Zuoyue Wang, "US-China Scientific Exchange, 1971-1989," ibid., 244-270 (unpublished).
126. "Report of activities under grant from the Ford Foundation," 14 May 1956, and "Report of activities sponsored by the grant from the Ford Foundation," 17 Dec 1959, the latter attached to A. Bohr to McDaniel, 14 Jul 1967 (FFA, Reel 1218); W. O. Lock, "A history of the collaboration between the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), and with Soviet Research Institutes in the USSR, 1955-1970," Geneva, CERN Report 75-7, 16 Jun 1975, and "Origins and evolution of the collaboration between CERN and the People's Republic of China, 1971-1980," CERN Report 81-14, 13 Nov 1981; Fan Dainan, "Nuclear Physicist Wang Ganchang in the People's Republic of China," in Cathryn Carson, et al., "Physicists in the postwar political arena: Comparative perspectives, Collected papers from a conference held at the University of California, Berkeley, 22-24 Jan 1998," 145-150, and Zuoyue Wang, "US-China Scientific Exchange, 1971-1989," ibid., 244-270 (unpublished).
127. "Report of activities under grant from the Ford Foundation," 14 May 1956, and "Report of activities sponsored by the grant from the Ford Foundation," 17 Dec 1959, the latter attached to A. Bohr to McDaniel, 14 Jul 1967 (FFA, Reel 1218); W. O. Lock, "A history of the collaboration between the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), and with Soviet Research Institutes in the USSR, 1955-1970," Geneva, CERN Report 75-7, 16 Jun 1975, and "Origins and evolution of the collaboration between CERN and the People's Republic of China, 1971-1980," CERN Report 81-14, 13 Nov 1981; Fan Dainan, "Nuclear Physicist Wang Ganchang in the People's Republic of China," in Cathryn Carson, et al., "Physicists in the postwar political arena: Comparative perspectives, Collected papers from a conference held at the University of California, Berkeley, 22-24 Jan 1998," 145-150, and Zuoyue Wang, "US-China Scientific Exchange, 1971-1989," ibid., 244-270 (unpublished).
128. "Program action" forms associated for grants 56-241A, 56-2418B, and 56-154A. Weisskopf asked Stone by letter of 26 Mar 1962 for $750,000, Stone's reply explaining why the Foundation could only give $250,000 is dated 5 Feb 1963. Weisskopf answered that the cut would hit Polish scientists particularly badly, and asked for additional support just for them. The Foundation refused. Weisskopf to Stone, 4 Mar 1963, and Cullen to Stone and to Kimbler, 19 Apr 1963. For the terminal grant to Copenhagen, see letter A. Bohr to Stone, 19 Feb 1965, and the program action form for Grant 56-154B showing the approval of the Board on 8-9 Dec 1966 (FFA, Reel 501 for CERN, Reel 1218 for Bohr).
129. "Docket Excerpt, Meeting of the Executive Committee," 10 Dec 1959 (FFA).
130. Hill to Heald dated 17 Jan 1963; letter Stone to Weisskopf (as CERN's Director General) 5 Feb 1963 (FFA, Reel 501).
131. Stone's memo describing a telephone conversation with Weisskopf, 20 Feb 1959; Weisskopf to Stone, 4 Nov 1966 (FFA, Reel 501).
132. Wheeler to Stone, 11 May 1967 (FFA, Reel 1218).
133. "Docket Excerpt, Meeting of the Executive Committee," 10 Dec 1959 (FFA), and Docket Item, 26 Oct 1966, from David E. Bell to McGeorge Bundy (FFA, Reel 1218).
134. Citations in this paragraph respectively from Hill to Heald, 17 Jan 1963 (FFA, Reel 501), and Wheeler to Stone, 11 May 1967 (FFA, Reel 1218).
135. Weisskopf to Stone, 4 Nov 1966 (FFA, Reel 501).
136. "Docket Item," 26 Oct 1966, from David E. Bell to McGeorge Bundy recommending the terminal grant for the Niels Bohr Institute (FFA, Reel 1218).
137. "Docket Excerpt for the Meeting of the Executive Committee," 10 Dec 1959, and the recommendation for the approval of a $300,000 grant dated 21 Oct 1959 (FFA, Reel 1218).
138. "Increasing the effectiveness of Western science," Foreword (Fondation Universitaire, Brussels, 1960), included with the grant documents in the Ford Foundation Archive (FFA, Reel 562).
139. Stone admired Monnet as he did Bohr. He later described Monnet as "in some ways the greatest philosopher I have ever met," (interview, 12 Dec 1972, FFA) and he wrote Monnet that "the hours together with you are good for my sense of history, stimulating for my work and, above all, excellent for my soul," Stone to Monnet, 17 Feb 1959 (Shepard Stone Papers, Dartmouth College Library, copied into Historical Archives of the European Community, European University Institute, Florence, file JMAS59). Monnet, like Bohr, counted 'Shep' as one of his "friends," Jean Monnet, Mémoires
140. "Docket Excerpt for the Meeting of the Executive Committee," 12 Dec 1957 (FFA, Reel 538).
141. "Docket Excerpt for the Meeting of the Executive Committee," 10 Dec 1959 (FFA, Reel 501)
142. Hoffman (ref. 8), 16, 18, 136.
143. Allan A. Needell, "I.I. Rabi, Lloyd V. Berkner, and the American rehabilitation of European science, 1945-1954," in Francis H. Heller and John R. Gillingham, eds., The United States and the integration of Europe. Legacies of the postwar era (New York, 1996), 289-305.
144. Interview with Shepard Stone, 12 Dec 1972 (FFA). "Red Poland" was a particularly painful label to Stone, for the Foundation had been heavily criticized by McCarthy for being soft on communism; Macdonald (ref. 3), chapt. 2.
145. Wheeler to Stone, 11 May 1967 (FFA, Reel 1218).