Freedom, collectivism, and quasiparticles: Social metaphors in quantum physics

Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 294-331

  Kojevnikov, Alexei ^a  

^a AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040709342     PISSN: 08909997     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/27757812     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. M.I. Kaganov, I.M. Lifshits, Kvazichastitsy 2nd. ed. (Moscow, 1989), 14.
2. This approach has not been studied so far in the existing historical literature. For more information on the history of other main approaches, see, in particular, OCM. This paper may be considered an additional chapter for that landmark study.
3. On anarchist collectivism see Max Nettlau, A short history of anarchism (London, 1996), chapt. 8; George Woodcock, Anarchism: A history of libertarian ideas and movements (Cleveland, 1962).
4. On anarchist collectivism see Max Nettlau, A short history of anarchism (London, 1996), chapt. 8; George Woodcock, Anarchism: A history of libertarian ideas and movements (Cleveland, 1962).
5. On this and other antinomies of freedom see, for example, Zygmunt Bauman, Freedom (Minneapolis, 1988).
6. See updates in the database of Chemical abstracts service, under the heading Quasiparticles and excitations. URL: http://www.cas.org/vocabulary/18640.html.
7. Ian Hacking, Representing and intervening. Introductory topics in the philosophy of natural sciences (Cambridge, 1983).
8. I.M. Lifshitz, "Kvazichastitsy v sovremennoi fizike," Priroda, 5 (1958), 11-20, reprinted in I.M. Lifshitz, Izbrannye Trudy. Vol. 2 (Moscow, 1994), 397-407, on 402.
9. I.M. Lifshitz, "Kvazichastitsy v sovremennoi fizike," Priroda, 5 (1958), 11-20, reprinted in I.M. Lifshitz, Izbrannye Trudy. Vol. 2 (Moscow, 1994), 397-407, on 402.
10. Charles T. Walker and Glen A. Slack, "Who named the -On's," American journal of physics, 38 (1970), 1380-1389; a similar list n M.I. Kaganov and V. Ya. Frenkel, Vekhi istorii fiziki tverdogo tela (Moscow, 1981), 28-35, 51-54.
11. Charles T. Walker and Glen A. Slack, "Who named the -On's," American journal of physics, 38 (1970), 1380-1389; a similar list n M.I. Kaganov and V. Ya. Frenkel, Vekhi istorii fiziki tverdogo tela (Moscow, 1981), 28-35, 51-54.
12. See, for example, "Kollektiv" in Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 19 edn. (24 vols., Mannheim, 1986), 12, 170.
13. On social metaphors in biology see, for example, Sabine Maasen, Everett Mendelsohn, and Peter Weingart, eds., Biology as society, society as biology: Metaphors (Dordrecht, 1995); Robert Young, Darwin's metaphor: Nature's place in Victorian culture (Cambridge, 1985); Adrian Desmond, The politics of evolution. Morphology, medicine, and reform in radical London (Chicago, 1989); Daniel Todes, "Darwin's Malthusian metaphor and Russian evolutionary thought, 1859-1917," Isis, 78 (1987), 537-551. On the reverse transfer of metaphors from science into social discourse see Richard Olson, ed. Science as metaphor: The historical role of scientific theories in forming Western culture (Belmont, 1971).
14. On social metaphors in biology see, for example, Sabine Maasen, Everett Mendelsohn, and Peter Weingart, eds., Biology as society, society as biology: Metaphors (Dordrecht, 1995); Robert Young, Darwin's metaphor: Nature's place in Victorian culture (Cambridge, 1985); Adrian Desmond, The politics of evolution. Morphology, medicine, and reform in radical London (Chicago, 1989); Daniel Todes, "Darwin's Malthusian metaphor and Russian evolutionary thought, 1859-1917," Isis, 78 (1987), 537-551. On the reverse transfer of metaphors from science into social discourse see Richard Olson, ed. Science as metaphor: The historical role of scientific theories in forming Western culture (Belmont, 1971).
15. On social metaphors in biology see, for example, Sabine Maasen, Everett Mendelsohn, and Peter Weingart, eds., Biology as society, society as biology: Metaphors (Dordrecht, 1995); Robert Young, Darwin's metaphor: Nature's place in Victorian culture (Cambridge, 1985); Adrian Desmond, The politics of evolution. Morphology, medicine, and reform in radical London (Chicago, 1989); Daniel Todes, "Darwin's Malthusian metaphor and Russian evolutionary thought, 1859-1917," Isis, 78 (1987), 537-551. On the reverse transfer of metaphors from science into social discourse see Richard Olson, ed. Science as metaphor: The historical role of scientific theories in forming Western culture (Belmont, 1971).
16. On social metaphors in biology see, for example, Sabine Maasen, Everett Mendelsohn, and Peter Weingart, eds., Biology as society, society as biology: Metaphors (Dordrecht, 1995); Robert Young, Darwin's metaphor: Nature's place in Victorian culture (Cambridge, 1985); Adrian Desmond, The politics of evolution. Morphology, medicine, and reform in radical London (Chicago, 1989); Daniel Todes, "Darwin's Malthusian metaphor and Russian evolutionary thought, 1859-1917," Isis, 78 (1987), 537-551. On the reverse transfer of metaphors from science into social discourse see Richard Olson, ed. Science as metaphor: The historical role of scientific theories in forming Western culture (Belmont, 1971).
17. On social metaphors in biology see, for example, Sabine Maasen, Everett Mendelsohn, and Peter Weingart, eds., Biology as society, society as biology: Metaphors (Dordrecht, 1995); Robert Young, Darwin's metaphor: Nature's place in Victorian culture (Cambridge, 1985); Adrian Desmond, The politics of evolution. Morphology, medicine, and reform in radical London (Chicago, 1989); Daniel Todes, "Darwin's Malthusian metaphor and Russian evolutionary thought, 1859-1917," Isis, 78 (1987), 537-551. On the reverse transfer of metaphors from science into social discourse see Richard Olson, ed. Science as metaphor: The historical role of scientific theories in forming Western culture (Belmont, 1971).
18. YIF, 1-4.
19. YIF, 20-21.
20. His post, according to one account, was deputy commissar of the enlightenment of the Crimean republic, FPW, 8.
21. Victor Ya. Frenkel, "Yakov Ilich Frenkel: Sketches toward a civic portrait," HSPS, 27:2 (1997), 197-236, on 204.
22. Paul Drude, Lehrbuch der Optik (Leipzig, 1900).
23. On the Drude-Lorentz theory see OCM, 27-31; Michael Eckert, "Das 'freie Elektronengas': Vorquantenmechanische Theorten über die elektrischen Eigenschaften der Metalle," Deutsches Museum, Wissenschaftliches Jahrbuch (1989), 57-91.
24. On the Drude-Lorentz theory see OCM, 27-31; Michael Eckert, "Das 'freie Elektronengas': Vorquantenmechanische Theorten über die elektrischen Eigenschaften der Metalle," Deutsches Museum, Wissenschaftliches Jahrbuch (1989), 57-91.
25. J. Frenkel, "Beitrag zur Theorie der Metalle," ZP, 29 (1924), 214-240; Ya.I. Frenkel, "Teoriia elektroprovodnosti metallov," Zharnal Russkogo Fiziko-Khimicheskogo Obshchestva. Chast' fizicheskaia, 56 (1924), 505-524; FSW, 2, 54-70.
26. J. Frenkel, "Beitrag zur Theorie der Metalle," ZP, 29 (1924), 214-240; Ya.I. Frenkel, "Teoriia elektroprovodnosti metallov," Zharnal Russkogo Fiziko-Khimicheskogo Obshchestva. Chast' fizicheskaia, 56 (1924), 505-524; FSW, 2, 54-70.
27. J. Frenkel, "Beitrag zur Theorie der Metalle," ZP, 29 (1924), 214-240; Ya.I. Frenkel, "Teoriia elektroprovodnosti metallov," Zharnal Russkogo Fiziko-Khimicheskogo Obshchestva. Chast' fizicheskaia, 56 (1924), 505-524; FSW, 2, 54-70.
28. Bohr's theory of 1913 managed to arrive in Russia despite the interruption of scientific contacts and literature caused by World War I and the revolutions. Frenkel reviewed it for the journal of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society and used it in his first original paper in 1917. Some scientific journals from Germany arrived in the Crimea during the short period in 1918 when the peninsula was occupied by the German army (FPW, 10.) Supplies of foreign scientific literature to Soviet Russia resumed in 1921 and by 1924, when Frenkel was writing his paper, he must have had adequate access to recent journals.
29. FSW, 57-58. The above is my translation from the Russian version of the paper. In its German version, the same passage reads as: "In solcher Weise werden die Valenzelektronen "freie" Elektronen, welche für die elektrische Leitfähigkeit der Metalle verantwortlich sind. Man muß beachten, daß sie nicht "frei" in eigentlichem Sinne werden. Vielmehr sind sie noch stärker mit dem ganzen Metallkörper verbunden als in isolierten Atomen. Aber sie werden von der Alleinherschaft bestimmter Atome emanzipiert; sie gehören nicht mehr den individuellen Atomen an, sondern dem von diesen gebildeten Kollektiv. Was nun den Quantencharakter ihrer Bewegung anbetrifft, so kann dieser, streng genommen, nur "kollektivistisch" bestimmt werden." J. Frenkel, "Beitrag" (ref. 17), 218-219.
30. FSW, 57-58. The above is my translation from the Russian version of the paper. In its German version, the same passage reads as: "In solcher Weise werden die Valenzelektronen "freie" Elektronen, welche für die elektrische Leitfähigkeit der Metalle verantwortlich sind. Man muß beachten, daß sie nicht "frei" in eigentlichem Sinne werden. Vielmehr sind sie noch stärker mit dem ganzen Metallkörper verbunden als in isolierten Atomen. Aber sie werden von der Alleinherschaft bestimmter Atome emanzipiert; sie gehören nicht mehr den individuellen Atomen an, sondern dem von diesen gebildeten Kollektiv. Was nun den Quantencharakter ihrer Bewegung anbetrifft, so kann dieser, streng genommen, nur "kollektivistisch" bestimmt werden." J. Frenkel, "Beitrag" (ref. 17), 218-219.
31. YIF, 10, 15.
32. YIF, 66. With these words, Frenkel expressed his admiration for Paul Ehrenfest. However, they say more about his own preferences than about Ehrenfest's style of doing physics.
33. See Tamm's description of Frenkel's controversial style in I.E. Tamm, "Yakov Il'ich Frenkel," Soviet physics uspekhi, 5 (1962), 173-194, on 174, and A.B. Migdal's belated regret for youthful underestimation of Frenkel, in Ya.I. Frenkel, Vospominaniia, pis'ma, dokumenty, 2nd ed. (Leningrad, 1986), 216-218. Self-conscious about his use of metaphors, Frenkel drafted a paper in 1931, "The method of analogies in physics," which included such theses as "[g]ood ideas are born in the subconscious sphere, without participation of our will, and come out into consciousness without special effort" and "[a]ll genuinely new theories are more or less irrational," in Zh.I. Alferov and V.Ya. Frenkel, et al., eds., Voprosy teoreticheskoi fiziki (St. Petersburg, 1994), 183, 184, 234.
34. See Tamm's description of Frenkel's controversial style in I.E. Tamm, "Yakov Il'ich Frenkel," Soviet physics uspekhi, 5 (1962), 173-194, on 174, and A.B. Migdal's belated regret for youthful underestimation of Frenkel, in Ya.I. Frenkel, Vospominaniia, pis'ma, dokumenty, 2nd ed. (Leningrad, 1986), 216-218. Self-conscious about his use of metaphors, Frenkel drafted a paper in 1931, "The method of analogies in physics," which included such theses as "[g]ood ideas are born in the subconscious sphere, without participation of our will, and come out into consciousness without special effort" and "[a]ll genuinely new theories are more or less irrational," in Zh.I. Alferov and V.Ya. Frenkel, et al., eds., Voprosy teoreticheskoi fiziki (St. Petersburg, 1994), 183, 184, 234.
35. See Tamm's description of Frenkel's controversial style in I.E. Tamm, "Yakov Il'ich Frenkel," Soviet physics uspekhi, 5 (1962), 173-194, on 174, and A.B. Migdal's belated regret for youthful underestimation of Frenkel, in Ya.I. Frenkel, Vospominaniia, pis'ma, dokumenty, 2nd ed. (Leningrad, 1986), 216-218. Self-conscious about his use of metaphors, Frenkel drafted a paper in 1931, "The method of analogies in physics," which included such theses as "[g]ood ideas are born in the subconscious sphere, without participation of our will, and come out into consciousness without special effort" and "[a]ll genuinely new theories are more or less irrational," in Zh.I. Alferov and V.Ya. Frenkel, et al., eds., Voprosy teoreticheskoi fiziki (St. Petersburg, 1994), 183, 184, 234.
36. FSW 2, 58 and 72.
37. Sabine Maasen, "Who is afraid of metaphors," in Maasen, et al., eds. (ref. 10), 11-35.
38. J. Frenkel, "Über die Wärmebewegung in festen and flüssigen Körpern," ZP, 35 (1926), 652-669; FSW, 2, 254-268.
39. J. Frenkel, "Über die Wärmebewegung in festen and flüssigen Körpern," ZP, 35 (1926), 652-669; FSW, 2, 254-268.
40. On Dirac's hole theory see D.F. Moyer, "Evaluations of Dirac's electron, 1928-1932," American journal of physics, 49 (1981), 1055-1062; Helge Kragh, Dirac. A scientific biography (Cambridge, 1990), 87-105. On his visit to the Soviet Union in 1928, see A.B. Kojevnikov, ed., Paul Dirac and Igor Tamm. Correspondence, 1928-1933 (Max-Planck-Institut für Physik, Preprint 93-80, 1993).
41. On Dirac's hole theory see D.F. Moyer, "Evaluations of Dirac's electron, 1928-1932," American journal of physics, 49 (1981), 1055-1062; Helge Kragh, Dirac. A scientific biography (Cambridge, 1990), 87-105. On his visit to the Soviet Union in 1928, see A.B. Kojevnikov, ed., Paul Dirac and Igor Tamm. Correspondence, 1928-1933 (Max-Planck-Institut für Physik, Preprint 93-80, 1993).
42. On Dirac's hole theory see D.F. Moyer, "Evaluations of Dirac's electron, 1928-1932," American journal of physics, 49 (1981), 1055-1062; Helge Kragh, Dirac. A scientific biography (Cambridge, 1990), 87-105. On his visit to the Soviet Union in 1928, see A.B. Kojevnikov, ed., Paul Dirac and Igor Tamm. Correspondence, 1928-1933 (Max-Planck-Institut für Physik, Preprint 93-80, 1993).
43. W. Heisenberg, "Zum Paulischen Ausschließungsprinzip." AP, 10 (1931), 888-904.
44. Laurie M. Brown, Abraham Pais, and Brian Pippard, eds., Twentieth century physics (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1995), 3, 1528-1529; OCM, 255-264.
45. Laurie M. Brown, Abraham Pais, and Brian Pippard, eds., Twentieth century physics (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1995), 3, 1528-1529; OCM, 255-264.
46. On this and other problems of the Drude-Lorentz theory see Lillian H. Hoddeson and G. Baym, "The development of the quantum mechanical electron theory of metals: 1900-28," in BSSP, 8-23.
47. Ehrenfest to A.F. Joffe, 24 Nov 1924, in Erenfest-Ioffe, Nauchnaia perepiska (Leningrad, 1990), 176; A. Sommerfeld, "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle," Die Naturwissenschaften, 15 (1927), 825-832, on 828.
48. Ehrenfest to A.F. Joffe, 24 Nov 1924, in Erenfest-Ioffe, Nauchnaia perepiska (Leningrad, 1990), 176; A. Sommerfeld, "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle," Die Naturwissenschaften, 15 (1927), 825-832, on 828.
49. The same congress at which Bohr first presented his complementarity interpretation of quantum theory.
50. "Le seul genre de liberté, que les électrons puissent acquérir sous ces conditions - c'est pour ainsi dire la liberté de changer leur maître, c'est à dire l'atome, auquel ils peuvent être censés d'appartenir. Tandis que dans l'état gazeux chaque électron appartient à un atome déterminé, dans l'état solide ou liquide il devient l'esclave du collectif, formé par tous les atomes, juissant de la liberté très relative d'ailleurs de passer incéssamment, 'de main en main' c'est à dire d'un atome à l'autre.́ J. Frenkel, ́Nouveaux développements de la théorie électronique des métaux,́ in Atti Congresso Internazionale dei Fisici. Como-Pavia-Roma (Bologna, 1927) 2, 65-103, on 66; FSW, 2, 71-72.
51. "Le seul genre de liberté, que les électrons puissent acquérir sous ces conditions - c'est pour ainsi dire la liberté de changer leur maître, c'est à dire l'atome, auquel ils peuvent être censés d'appartenir. Tandis que dans l'état gazeux chaque électron appartient à un atome déterminé, dans l'état solide ou liquide il devient l'esclave du collectif, formé par tous les atomes, juissant de la liberté très relative d'ailleurs de passer incéssamment, 'de main en main' c'est à dire d'un atome à l'autre.́ J. Frenkel, ́Nouveaux développements de la théorie électronique des métaux,́ in Atti Congresso Internazionale dei Fisici. Como-Pavia-Roma (Bologna, 1927) 2, 65-103, on 66; FSW, 2, 71-72.
52. A. Sommerfeld, "Elekronentheorie der Metalle und des Volta-Effektes nach der Fermi'schen Statistik," in Atti Congresso Internazionale dei Fisici. Como-Pavia-Roma (Bologna, 1927) 2, 449-473. See Frenkel's impression of the conference in Ya.I. Frenkel, "Mezhdunarodnyi fizicheskii kongress v pamiat' A.Vol'ty v g. Komo," (1928), repr. in FPW, 253-256. His 1928 review and the comparison between his and Sommerfeld's theories was recently translated into English as Ya.I. Frenkel, "Theory of metallic conduction" (1928), Physics - Uspekhi, 37 (1994), 360-371.
53. A. Sommerfeld, "Elekronentheorie der Metalle und des Volta-Effektes nach der Fermi'schen Statistik," in Atti Congresso Internazionale dei Fisici. Como-Pavia-Roma (Bologna, 1927) 2, 449-473. See Frenkel's impression of the conference in Ya.I. Frenkel, "Mezhdunarodnyi fizicheskii kongress v pamiat' A.Vol'ty v g. Komo," (1928), repr. in FPW, 253-256. His 1928 review and the comparison between his and Sommerfeld's theories was recently translated into English as Ya.I. Frenkel, "Theory of metallic conduction" (1928), Physics - Uspekhi, 37 (1994), 360-371.
54. A. Sommerfeld, "Elekronentheorie der Metalle und des Volta-Effektes nach der Fermi'schen Statistik," in Atti Congresso Internazionale dei Fisici. Como-Pavia-Roma (Bologna, 1927) 2, 449-473. See Frenkel's impression of the conference in Ya.I. Frenkel, "Mezhdunarodnyi fizicheskii kongress v pamiat' A.Vol'ty v g. Komo," (1928), repr. in FPW, 253-256. His 1928 review and the comparison between his and Sommerfeld's theories was recently translated into English as Ya.I. Frenkel, "Theory of metallic conduction" (1928), Physics - Uspekhi, 37 (1994), 360-371.
55. "Ein 'Volk ohne Raum.' " A. Sommerfeld, "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle," Die Naturwissenschaften, 16 (1928), 374-381, on 375. On Sommerfeld's theory, see Michael Eckert, "Propaganda in science: Sommerfeld and the spread of the electron theory of metals," HSPS, 17:2 (1987), 191-233.
56. "Ein 'Volk ohne Raum.' " A. Sommerfeld, "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle," Die Naturwissenschaften, 16 (1928), 374-381, on 375. On Sommerfeld's theory, see Michael Eckert, "Propaganda in science: Sommerfeld and the spread of the electron theory of metals," HSPS, 17:2 (1987), 191-233.
57. H.A. Bethe, "Recollections of solid state theory, 1926-1933," BSSP, 49-51. See also R.E. Peierls, "Recollections of early solid state physics," BSSP, 28-38, on 29.
58. H.A. Bethe, "Recollections of solid state theory, 1926-1933," BSSP, 49-51. See also R.E. Peierls, "Recollections of early solid state physics," BSSP, 28-38, on 29.
59. Felix Bloch, "Über die Quantenmechanik der Elektronen in Kristallgittern," ZP, 52 (1929), 555-600, on 555-556; J. Frenkel (ref. 32). Frenkel followed the development of quantum mechanics at its source while spending the year 1925/6 in Göttingen and Hamburg as a Rockefeller fellow.
60. Felix Bloch, oral history interview conducted by Thomas Kuhn, AHQP (14 May 1964), 21.
61. William Houston reporting to his mentor about Bloch's yet unpublished theory, in Houston to Sommerfeld, AHQP (30 May 1928).
62. Felix Bloch (ref. 36); F. Bloch, "Wellenmechanische Diskussion der Leitungs-und Photoeffekte," Physikalische Zeitschrift, 32 (1931), 881-886, on 882. Bloch said later, that he "had never understood how anything like free motion could be even approximately true [for electrons in a metal]." F. Bloch, "Memories of electrons in crystals," BSSP, 24-27, on 25.
63. Felix Bloch (ref. 36); F. Bloch, "Wellenmechanische Diskussion der Leitungs-und Photoeffekte," Physikalische Zeitschrift, 32 (1931), 881-886, on 882. Bloch said later, that he "had never understood how anything like free motion could be even approximately true [for electrons in a metal]." F. Bloch, "Memories of electrons in crystals," BSSP, 24-27, on 25.
64. R.E. Peierls, "Zur Theorie der galvanomagnetischen Effekte," ZP, 53 (1929), 255-266; R.E. Peierls, "Zur Theorie des Hall-effekts," Physikalische Zeitschrift, 30 (1929), 273-274; R.E. Peierls, "Zur Theorie der elektrischen und thermischen Leitfähigkeit von Metallen," AP, 4 (1930), 121-148.
65. R.E. Peierls, "Zur Theorie der galvanomagnetischen Effekte," ZP, 53 (1929), 255-266; R.E. Peierls, "Zur Theorie des Hall-effekts," Physikalische Zeitschrift, 30 (1929), 273-274; R.E. Peierls, "Zur Theorie der elektrischen und thermischen Leitfähigkeit von Metallen," AP, 4 (1930), 121-148.
66. R.E. Peierls, "Zur Theorie der galvanomagnetischen Effekte," ZP, 53 (1929), 255-266; R.E. Peierls, "Zur Theorie des Hall-effekts," Physikalische Zeitschrift, 30 (1929), 273-274; R.E. Peierls, "Zur Theorie der elektrischen und thermischen Leitfähigkeit von Metallen," AP, 4 (1930), 121-148.
67. R.E. Peierls, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," Ergebnisse der exakten Naturwissenschaften, 11 (1932), 264-322, on 265. See also F. Bloch, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," Handbuch der Radiologie, 6 (Leipzig 1933), 1-226; Ya.I. Frenkel, "Teoriia metallov" (1932), repr. in FPW, 174-200, on 182.
68. R.E. Peierls, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," Ergebnisse der exakten Naturwissenschaften, 11 (1932), 264-322, on 265. See also F. Bloch, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," Handbuch der Radiologie, 6 (Leipzig 1933), 1-226; Ya.I. Frenkel, "Teoriia metallov" (1932), repr. in FPW, 174-200, on 182.
69. R.E. Peierls, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," Ergebnisse der exakten Naturwissenschaften, 11 (1932), 264-322, on 265. See also F. Bloch, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," Handbuch der Radiologie, 6 (Leipzig 1933), 1-226; Ya.I. Frenkel, "Teoriia metallov" (1932), repr. in FPW, 174-200, on 182.
70. On O.M. Todes recalling his student years in Leningrad in 1929 in Ya.I. Frenkel. Vospominaniia, pis'ma, dokumenty, 2nd ed. (Leningrad, 1986), 94.
71. Tamm's diary specifically mentions his reading of a brochure on "Collectivism" by Jules Guesde, French socialist and one of the founders of the socialist party. See L. Vernskii, "V kabinete i vne ego (Iz razgovorov s dedom i iz semeinogo arkhiva)," in Vospominaniia o Tamme (Moscow, 1995), 79-129, on 99-100.
72. Ibid., 103-105.
73. "I.E. Tamm v dnevnikakh i pis'makh," Priroda, 7 (1995), 134-160, on 143-145; see also E.L. Feinberg, "Rodoslovnaia rossiiskogo intelligenta," ibid., 12-22.
74. "I.E. Tamm v dnevnikakh i pis'makh," Priroda, 7 (1995), 134-160, on 143-145; see also E.L. Feinberg, "Rodoslovnaia rossiiskogo intelligenta," ibid., 12-22.
75. The following detail may give verisimilitude to the story: Tamm confessed that, having struggled all night, he failed to reproduce the full derivation, whereupon the Red leader also admitted that he had forgotten most of his college math and postponed the execution. Vernskii (ref. 43), 105-108.
76. On Dirac's contacts with Soviet physicists see B.V. Medvedev and A.B. Kozhevnikov, eds., Pol' Dirak i fizika XX veka (Moscow, 1990); On Mandelstam: Akademik L.I. Mandel'shtam (k 100-letiiu so dnia rozhdeniia) (Moscow, 1979).
77. On Dirac's contacts with Soviet physicists see B.V. Medvedev and A.B. Kozhevnikov, eds., Pol' Dirak i fizika XX veka (Moscow, 1990); On Mandelstam: Akademik L.I. Mandel'shtam (k 100-letiiu so dnia rozhdeniia) (Moscow, 1979).
78. At about the same time, the effect was observed in liquids by Chandrasekhara V. Raman and Kariamanikkam S. Krishnan in Calcutta and is currently known as the Raman effect. On that history, see I.L. Fabelinskii, "The discovery of combinatorial scattering of light (the Raman effect)," Soviet physics uspekhi, 21 (1978), 780-797; Laurie M. Brown, et al. (ref. 28), 2, 996-997; G. Venkataraman, Raman and his effect (London, 1995).
79. At about the same time, the effect was observed in liquids by Chandrasekhara V. Raman and Kariamanikkam S. Krishnan in Calcutta and is currently known as the Raman effect. On that history, see I.L. Fabelinskii, "The discovery of combinatorial scattering of light (the Raman effect)," Soviet physics uspekhi, 21 (1978), 780-797; Laurie M. Brown, et al. (ref. 28), 2, 996-997; G. Venkataraman, Raman and his effect (London, 1995).
80. Ig. Tamm, "Über die Quantentheorie der molekularen Lichtzerstreuung in festen Körpern," ZP, 60 (1930), 345-363, on 345.
81. I. Tamm, "Novye printsipy statisticheskoi mekhaniki Bose-Einshteina v sviazi s voprosom o fizicheskoi prirode materii," Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk, 6 (1926), 112-141; TCW, 2, 254-286. See also I.E. Tamm, "Elektronnaia teoriia metallov," in Fizika 1 (Moscow-Leningrad, 1928), 62-77.
82. I. Tamm, "Novye printsipy statisticheskoi mekhaniki Bose-Einshteina v sviazi s voprosom o fizicheskoi prirode materii," Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk, 6 (1926), 112-141; TCW, 2, 254-286. See also I.E. Tamm, "Elektronnaia teoriia metallov," in Fizika 1 (Moscow-Leningrad, 1928), 62-77.
83. I. Tamm, "Novye printsipy statisticheskoi mekhaniki Bose-Einshteina v sviazi s voprosom o fizicheskoi prirode materii," Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk, 6 (1926), 112-141; TCW, 2, 254-286. See also I.E. Tamm, "Elektronnaia teoriia metallov," in Fizika 1 (Moscow-Leningrad, 1928), 62-77.
84. J. Frenkel, "On the transformation of light into heat in solids. II," PR, 37 (1931), 1276-1294, on 1289.
85. "It is not in the least intended to convey hereby the impression that such phonons have a real existence. On the contrary, the possibility of their introduction serves to discredit the belief in the real existence of photons." J. Frenkel, Wave mechanics. Elementary theory (Oxford, 1932), 267-268;
86. "Phonon" simultaneously appeared in J. Frenkel, "On the elementary derivation of some relations in the electron theory of metals," PZSU, 2 (1932), 247-253.
87. Positivism, and Mach in particular, was popular not only among non-Marxist Russian socialists (Aleksandr Shreider. Ocherki filosofii narodnichestva (Berlin, 1921)), but also among Mensheviks and some less orthodox Bolsheviks, which was why Lenin attacked this philosophy in his Materialism and empiriocriticism (1909). On accusations against Frenkel, in particular by the Marxist philosopher Mikhail Omel'ianovsky, see A.S. Sonin, Fizicheskii idealizm. Istoriia odnoi ideologicheskoi kampanii (Moscow, 1994), 139.
88. Positivism, and Mach in particular, was popular not only among non-Marxist Russian socialists (Aleksandr Shreider. Ocherki filosofii narodnichestva (Berlin, 1921)), but also among Mensheviks and some less orthodox Bolsheviks, which was why Lenin attacked this philosophy in his Materialism and empiriocriticism (1909). On accusations against Frenkel, in particular by the Marxist philosopher Mikhail Omel'ianovsky, see A.S. Sonin, Fizicheskii idealizm. Istoriia odnoi ideologicheskoi kampanii (Moscow, 1994), 139.
89. Positivism, and Mach in particular, was popular not only among non-Marxist Russian socialists (Aleksandr Shreider. Ocherki filosofii narodnichestva (Berlin, 1921)), but also among Mensheviks and some less orthodox Bolsheviks, which was why Lenin attacked this philosophy in his Materialism and empiriocriticism (1909). On accusations against Frenkel, in particular by the Marxist philosopher Mikhail Omel'ianovsky, see A.S. Sonin, Fizicheskii idealizm. Istoriia odnoi ideologicheskoi kampanii (Moscow, 1994), 139.
90. On Frenkel's critique of dialectical materialism, see YIF, 225-227.
91. See the forthcoming Part II of this study.
92. V.Ya. Frenkel, Yakov Il'ich Frenkel (Moscow-Leningrad, 1966), esp. 251.
93. J. Frenkel, "On the transformation of light into heat in solids. I," PR, 37 (1931), 17-44.
94. J. Frenkel (ref. 51), 1284-1285.
95. Frenkel to his wife, 1 Apr 1931, quoted in B.P. Zakharchenya and V.Ya. Frenkel, "History of the theoretical prediction and experimental discovery of the exciton," Physics of the solid state, 36 (1994), 469-474, on 470; Pauli to Peierls, 1 Jul 1931, in Wolfgang Pauli, Wissenschaftlicher Briefwechsel mit Bohr, Einstein, Heisenberg u.a., vol. 2, ed. Karl von Meyenn (Berlin, 1985), 89.
96. Frenkel to his wife, 1 Apr 1931, quoted in B.P. Zakharchenya and V.Ya. Frenkel, "History of the theoretical prediction and experimental discovery of the exciton," Physics of the solid state, 36 (1994), 469-474, on 470; Pauli to Peierls, 1 Jul 1931, in Wolfgang Pauli, Wissenschaftlicher Briefwechsel mit Bohr, Einstein, Heisenberg u.a., vol. 2, ed. Karl von Meyenn (Berlin, 1985), 89.
97. R. Peierls, "Zur Theorie der Absorptionsspektren fester Körper (Züricher Habilitationsschrift)," AP, 13 (1932), 905-952, on 916 and 942; R. Peierls, "Über die Absorptionsspektren fester Körper," PZSU, 1 (1932), 297-298.
98. R. Peierls, "Zur Theorie der Absorptionsspektren fester Körper (Züricher Habilitationsschrift)," AP, 13 (1932), 905-952, on 916 and 942; R. Peierls, "Über die Absorptionsspektren fester Körper," PZSU, 1 (1932), 297-298.
99. OCM, 119-123.
100. W. Heisenberg, "Zum Paulischen Ausschließungsprinzip" AP, 10 (1931), 888-904; F. Bloch, "Wellenmechanische Diskussion der Leitungs-und Photoeffekte," Physikalische Zeitschrift, 32 (1931), 881-886.
101. W. Heisenberg, "Zum Paulischen Ausschließungsprinzip" AP, 10 (1931), 888-904; F. Bloch, "Wellenmechanische Diskussion der Leitungs-und Photoeffekte," Physikalische Zeitschrift, 32 (1931), 881-886.
102. A.H. Wilson, "The theory of electronic semi-conductors," Royal Society of London, Proceedings, A133 (1931), 458-491, on 458-459; A134 (1932), 277-287.
103. A.H. Wilson, "The theory of electronic semi-conductors," Royal Society of London, Proceedings, A133 (1931), 458-491, on 458-459; A134 (1932), 277-287.
104. J.M. Ziman, Electrons in metals. A short guide to the Fermi surface (London, 1963), 20. On the development of the band theory see OCM, 182-202
105. J.M. Ziman, Electrons in metals. A short guide to the Fermi surface (London, 1963), 20. On the development of the band theory see OCM, 182-202
106. E. Wigner and F. Seitz, "On the constitution of metallic sodium," PR, 43 (1933), 804-810; PR, 46 (1934), 509-524.
107. E. Wigner and F. Seitz, "On the constitution of metallic sodium," PR, 43 (1933), 804-810; PR, 46 (1934), 509-524.
108. R.H. Fowler, "Report on the theory of semiconductors," PZSU, 2 (1932), 507-528, on 508; R.G. Fauler, "Teoriia poluprovodnikov," ZhETF, 3 (1933), 1-15, on 2.
109. R.H. Fowler, "Report on the theory of semiconductors," PZSU, 2 (1932), 507-528, on 508; R.G. Fauler, "Teoriia poluprovodnikov," ZhETF, 3 (1933), 1-15, on 2.
110. Ig. Tamm and S. Schubin, "Zur Theorie des Photoeffektes an Metallen," ZP, 68 (1931), 97-113; J. Frenkel, "Some remarks on the theory of the photoelectric effect," PR, 38 (1931), 309-320, on 315, 317; Ig. Tamm, "Some remarks on the theory of photoelectric effect in metals," PR, 39 (1932), 170-172.
111. Ig. Tamm and S. Schubin, "Zur Theorie des Photoeffektes an Metallen," ZP, 68 (1931), 97-113; J. Frenkel, "Some remarks on the theory of the photoelectric effect," PR, 38 (1931), 309-320, on 315, 317; Ig. Tamm, "Some remarks on the theory of photoelectric effect in metals," PR, 39 (1932), 170-172.
112. Ig. Tamm and S. Schubin, "Zur Theorie des Photoeffektes an Metallen," ZP, 68 (1931), 97-113; J. Frenkel, "Some remarks on the theory of the photoelectric effect," PR, 38 (1931), 309-320, on 315, 317; Ig. Tamm, "Some remarks on the theory of photoelectric effect in metals," PR, 39 (1932), 170-172.
113. Ig. Tamm, "Über eine mögliche Art der Elektronenbindung an Kristalloberflächen," PZSU, 1 (1932), 733-746; ZP, 76 (1932), 849-850; I. Tamm, "O vozmozhnoi sviazi elektronov na poverkhnostiakh kristalla," ZhETF, 3 (1933), 34-35. L.V. Keldysh, "Tammovskie sostoianiia i fizika poverkhnosti tverdogo tela," Priroda, 9 (1985), 17-33; B.A. Volkov, "Tammovskie sostoianiia pod tunnel'nym mikroskopom," Priroda, 7 (1995), 45-47.
114. Ig. Tamm, "Über eine mögliche Art der Elektronenbindung an Kristalloberflächen," PZSU, 1 (1932), 733-746; ZP, 76 (1932), 849-850; I. Tamm, "O vozmozhnoi sviazi elektronov na poverkhnostiakh kristalla," ZhETF, 3 (1933), 34-35. L.V. Keldysh, "Tammovskie sostoianiia i fizika poverkhnosti tverdogo tela," Priroda, 9 (1985), 17-33; B.A. Volkov, "Tammovskie sostoianiia pod tunnel'nym mikroskopom," Priroda, 7 (1995), 45-47.
115. Ig. Tamm, "Über eine mögliche Art der Elektronenbindung an Kristalloberflächen," PZSU, 1 (1932), 733-746; ZP, 76 (1932), 849-850; I. Tamm, "O vozmozhnoi sviazi elektronov na poverkhnostiakh kristalla," ZhETF, 3 (1933), 34-35. L.V. Keldysh, "Tammovskie sostoianiia i fizika poverkhnosti tverdogo tela," Priroda, 9 (1985), 17-33; B.A. Volkov, "Tammovskie sostoianiia pod tunnel'nym mikroskopom," Priroda, 7 (1995), 45-47.
116. Ig. Tamm, "Über eine mögliche Art der Elektronenbindung an Kristalloberflächen," PZSU, 1 (1932), 733-746; ZP, 76 (1932), 849-850; I. Tamm, "O vozmozhnoi sviazi elektronov na poverkhnostiakh kristalla," ZhETF, 3 (1933), 34-35. L.V. Keldysh, "Tammovskie sostoianiia i fizika poverkhnosti tverdogo tela," Priroda, 9 (1985), 17-33; B.A. Volkov, "Tammovskie sostoianiia pod tunnel'nym mikroskopom," Priroda, 7 (1995), 45-47.
117. Ig. Tamm, "Über eine mögliche Art der Elektronenbindung an Kristalloberflächen," PZSU, 1 (1932), 733-746; ZP, 76 (1932), 849-850; I. Tamm, "O vozmozhnoi sviazi elektronov na poverkhnostiakh kristalla," ZhETF, 3 (1933), 34-35. L.V. Keldysh, "Tammovskie sostoianiia i fizika poverkhnosti tverdogo tela," Priroda, 9 (1985), 17-33; B.A. Volkov, "Tammovskie sostoianiia pod tunnel'nym mikroskopom," Priroda, 7 (1995), 45-47.
118. Oral history interviews with A.I. Akhiezer and M.I. Kaganov.
119. L. Landau, "Über die Bewegung der Elektronen im Kristallgitter," PZSU, 3 (1933), 664-65; repr. in Collected papers of L.D. Landau (Oxford, 1965), 67-68.
120. L. Landau, "Über die Bewegung der Elektronen im Kristallgitter," PZSU, 3 (1933), 664-65; repr. in Collected papers of L.D. Landau (Oxford, 1965), 67-68.
121. J. Frenkel, "On the absorption of light and the trapping of electrons and positive holes in crystalline dielectrics," PZSU, 9 (1936), 158-186; Ya.I. Frenkel, "O pogloshchenii sveta i prilipanii elektronov i polozhitel'nykh dyrok v kristallicheskikh dielektrikakh," ZhETF, 6 (1936), 647-655, in FSW, 2, 182-200.
122. J. Frenkel, "On the absorption of light and the trapping of electrons and positive holes in crystalline dielectrics," PZSU, 9 (1936), 158-186; Ya.I. Frenkel, "O pogloshchenii sveta i prilipanii elektronov i polozhitel'nykh dyrok v kristallicheskikh dielektrikakh," ZhETF, 6 (1936), 647-655, in FSW, 2, 182-200.
123. J. Frenkel, "On the absorption of light and the trapping of electrons and positive holes in crystalline dielectrics," PZSU, 9 (1936), 158-186; Ya.I. Frenkel, "O pogloshchenii sveta i prilipanii elektronov i polozhitel'nykh dyrok v kristallicheskikh dielektrikakh," ZhETF, 6 (1936), 647-655, in FSW, 2, 182-200.
124. Ya.I. Frenkel, Kineticheskaia teoriia zhidkostei (1945), FSW, 3, 62-63. In the same book, holes and dislocations in the atomic lattice are called "offenders of order" ("narushiteli poriadka," the Soviet militia's term for hooligans), ibid., 25. English translation is J. Frenkel, Kinetic theory of liquids (Oxford, 1946), 52.
125. Ya.I. Frenkel, Kineticheskaia teoriia zhidkostei (1945), FSW, 3, 62-63. In the same book, holes and dislocations in the atomic lattice are called "offenders of order" ("narushiteli poriadka," the Soviet militia's term for hooligans), ibid., 25. English translation is J. Frenkel, Kinetic theory of liquids (Oxford, 1946), 52.
126. Ya.I. Frenkel, Kineticheskaia teoriia zhidkostei (1945), FSW, 3, 62-63. In the same book, holes and dislocations in the atomic lattice are called "offenders of order" ("narushiteli poriadka," the Soviet militia's term for hooligans), ibid., 25. English translation is J. Frenkel, Kinetic theory of liquids (Oxford, 1946), 52.
127. Ibid., 62-63. Incredible as it seems, the phenomenon of "self-arrest" could occur in Stalinist Russia during the insane chaos of the Great Terror. A case of a woman, who, unsure of her own political loyalty, denounced herself to the state prosecutor, is described in Jochen Hellbeck, "Writing the self in the time of terror," in Laura Engelstein and Stephanie Sandler, eds., Self and story in Russian history (Ithaca, forthcoming). The cycle of consecutive arrests and releases was a more common occurrence, especially among scientists and engineers who worked in so-called sharashki, privileged labor camps for arrested specialists put to work on secret military projects. Frenkel might well have been aware of this social phenomenon, known in the folklore of radio engineers as the "Mints cycle," after Aleksandr L. Mints (1895-1974), who reportedly went through this experience thrice and each time he was in captivity he built another more powerful radio transmitter.
128. Ibid., 62-63. Incredible as it seems, the phenomenon of "self-arrest" could occur in Stalinist Russia during the insane chaos of the Great Terror. A case of a woman, who, unsure of her own political loyalty, denounced herself to the state prosecutor, is described in Jochen Hellbeck, "Writing the self in the time of terror," in Laura Engelstein and Stephanie Sandler, eds., Self and story in Russian history (Ithaca, forthcoming). The cycle of consecutive arrests and releases was a more common occurrence, especially among scientists and engineers who worked in so-called sharashki, privileged labor camps for arrested specialists put to work on secret military projects. Frenkel might well have been aware of this social phenomenon, known in the folklore of radio engineers as the "Mints cycle," after Aleksandr L. Mints (1895-1974), who reportedly went through this experience thrice and each time he was in captivity he built another more powerful radio transmitter.
129. S. Pekar, "Avtolokalizatsiia elektrona v dielektricheskoi inertsionno poliarizuiushcheisia srede," ZhETF, 16 (1946), 335-340; S. Pekar, "Lokal'nye kvantovye sostoianiia elektrona v ideal'nom ionnom kristalle," ZhETF, 16 (1946), 341-347; S. Pekar, "Local quantum states of an electron in an ideal ionic crystal," Journal of physics, 10 (1946), 341-346; S. Pekar, "Autolocalization of an electron in a dielectric inertially polarizing medium," Journal of physics, 1 (1946), 347-350.
130. S. Pekar, "Avtolokalizatsiia elektrona v dielektricheskoi inertsionno poliarizuiushcheisia srede," ZhETF, 16 (1946), 335-340; S. Pekar, "Lokal'nye kvantovye sostoianiia elektrona v ideal'nom ionnom kristalle," ZhETF, 16 (1946), 341-347; S. Pekar, "Local quantum states of an electron in an ideal ionic crystal," Journal of physics, 10 (1946), 341-346; S. Pekar, "Autolocalization of an electron in a dielectric inertially polarizing medium," Journal of physics, 1 (1946), 347-350.
131. S. Pekar, "Avtolokalizatsiia elektrona v dielektricheskoi inertsionno poliarizuiushcheisia srede," ZhETF, 16 (1946), 335-340; S. Pekar, "Lokal'nye kvantovye sostoianiia elektrona v ideal'nom ionnom kristalle," ZhETF, 16 (1946), 341-347; S. Pekar, "Local quantum states of an electron in an ideal ionic crystal," Journal of physics, 10 (1946), 341-346; S. Pekar, "Autolocalization of an electron in a dielectric inertially polarizing medium," Journal of physics, 1 (1946), 347-350.
132. S. Pekar, "Avtolokalizatsiia elektrona v dielektricheskoi inertsionno poliarizuiushcheisia srede," ZhETF, 16 (1946), 335-340; S. Pekar, "Lokal'nye kvantovye sostoianiia elektrona v ideal'nom ionnom kristalle," ZhETF, 16 (1946), 341-347; S. Pekar, "Local quantum states of an electron in an ideal ionic crystal," Journal of physics, 10 (1946), 341-346; S. Pekar, "Autolocalization of an electron in a dielectric inertially polarizing medium," Journal of physics, 1 (1946), 347-350.
133. S.I. Pekar recollection in Ya.I. Frenkel Vospominaniya, pis'ma, dokumenty (Leningrad, 1986), 198. On excitons being "practically incompatible" with band theory, see also É.I. Rashba, "The prediction of excitons (On the 90th birthday of Ya.I. Frenkel)," Soviet physics uspekhi, 27 (1985), 790-796, 792.
134. S.I. Pekar recollection in Ya.I. Frenkel Vospominaniya, pis'ma, dokumenty (Leningrad, 1986), 198. On excitons being "practically incompatible" with band theory, see also É.I. Rashba, "The prediction of excitons (On the 90th birthday of Ya.I. Frenkel)," Soviet physics uspekhi, 27 (1985), 790-796, 792.
135. J. Frenkel (ref. 70).
136. Ibid., 161.
137. Gregory H. Wannier, "The structure of electronic excitation levels in insulating crystals," PR, 52 (1937), 191-197, on 191; J.C. Slater and W. Shockley, "Optical absorption by the alkali halides," PR, 50 (1936), 705-719.
138. Gregory H. Wannier, "The structure of electronic excitation levels in insulating crystals," PR, 52 (1937), 191-197, on 191; J.C. Slater and W. Shockley, "Optical absorption by the alkali halides," PR, 50 (1936), 705-719.
139. "We find it most satisfactory to treat electrons in the closed shells as belonging to the ions, and reserve the collective electron treatment for the electrons in the conduction band." N.F. Mott, "Energy levels in real and ideal crystals," Faraday Society, Transactions, 34 (1938), 822-827, repr. in Sir Nevill Mott. 65 years in physics (Singapore, 1995), 145-151.
140. "We find it most satisfactory to treat electrons in the closed shells as belonging to the ions, and reserve the collective electron treatment for the electrons in the conduction band." N.F. Mott, "Energy levels in real and ideal crystals," Faraday Society, Transactions, 34 (1938), 822-827, repr. in Sir Nevill Mott. 65 years in physics (Singapore, 1995), 145-151.
141. E.F. Gross and N.A. Karyev, "Pogloschenie sveta kristallom zakisi medi v infrakrasnoi vidimoi chasti spektra," Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, 84 (1952), 261-264; The same year the exciton spectra was also reported in Masakazu Hayashi and Kiichirô Katsuki, "Hydrogen-like absorption spectrum of cupruous oxide," Journal of the Physical Society of Japan, 7 (1952), 599-603. On the initial rejection of the experimental results on excitons and difficulties with publication see E.F. Gross, in Vospominaniia ob A.F. Ioffe (Leningrad, 1973), 141-153, on 147-148; B.P. Zakharchenya and V.Ya. Frenkel (ref. 58), 473.
142. E.F. Gross and N.A. Karyev, "Pogloschenie sveta kristallom zakisi medi v infrakrasnoi vidimoi chasti spektra," Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, 84 (1952), 261-264; The same year the exciton spectra was also reported in Masakazu Hayashi and Kiichirô Katsuki, "Hydrogen-like absorption spectrum of cupruous oxide," Journal of the Physical Society of Japan, 7 (1952), 599-603. On the initial rejection of the experimental results on excitons and difficulties with publication see E.F. Gross, in Vospominaniia ob A.F. Ioffe (Leningrad, 1973), 141-153, on 147-148; B.P. Zakharchenya and V.Ya. Frenkel (ref. 58), 473.
143. E.F. Gross and N.A. Karyev, "Pogloschenie sveta kristallom zakisi medi v infrakrasnoi vidimoi chasti spektra," Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, 84 (1952), 261-264; The same year the exciton spectra was also reported in Masakazu Hayashi and Kiichirô Katsuki, "Hydrogen-like absorption spectrum of cupruous oxide," Journal of the Physical Society of Japan, 7 (1952), 599-603. On the initial rejection of the experimental results on excitons and difficulties with publication see E.F. Gross, in Vospominaniia ob A.F. Ioffe (Leningrad, 1973), 141-153, on 147-148; B.P. Zakharchenya and V.Ya. Frenkel (ref. 58), 473.
144. J. Frenkel (ref. 70), 158-159.
145. Ibid., 171.
146. Ya.I. Frenkel, Vvedenie v teoriiu metallov, 4th ed. (Leningrad, 1972), 8, 124.
147. Ibid., 7, 153. "Wholesale collectivization" was a term in Soviet political language denoting admittedly wrong and violent "excesses" of the collectivization campaign of 1930. Another careless phrase by Frenkel, "forced collectivization of electrons," was critized at the Polytechnic Institute's academic council as mocking the Soviet collective farm system. See R.A. Suris, V.Ya. Frenkel, "Ya.I. Frenkel's studies of the theory of the electric conductivity of metals," Physics-Uspekhi, 37 (1994), 357-373, on 371.
148. Ibid., 7, 153. "Wholesale collectivization" was a term in Soviet political language denoting admittedly wrong and violent "excesses" of the collectivization campaign of 1930. Another careless phrase by Frenkel, "forced collectivization of electrons," was critized at the Polytechnic Institute's academic council as mocking the Soviet collective farm system. See R.A. Suris, V.Ya. Frenkel, "Ya.I. Frenkel's studies of the theory of the electric conductivity of metals," Physics-Uspekhi, 37 (1994), 357-373, on 371.
149. These issues will be discussed in Part II of this study.