메뉴 건너뛰기




Volumn 85, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 13-42

Tocqueville, Turner, and Turds: Four stories of manners in early America

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords


EID: 0040677208     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2568430     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (28)

References (160)
  • 1
    • 0003984012 scopus 로고
    • trans. Henry Reeve, rev. Francis Bowen, ed. Phillips Bradley 1840; 2 vols., New York
    • See Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Henry Reeve, rev. Francis Bowen, ed. Phillips Bradley (1835, 1840; 2 vols., New York, 1945).
    • (1835) Democracy in America
    • De Tocqueville, A.1
  • 2
    • 0011457035 scopus 로고
    • "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1893)
    • Frederick Jackson Turner, New York
    • See Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1893), in Frederick Jackson Turner, The Frontier in American History (New York, 1920), 1-38.
    • (1920) The Frontier in American History , pp. 1-38
    • Turner, F.J.1
  • 4
    • 0042815585 scopus 로고
    • Elites and Electorates: Some Plain Truths for Historians of Colonial America
    • ed. David D. Hall, John M. Murrin, and Thad W. Tate New York
    • Joy Gilsdorf and Robert Gilsdorf, "Elites and Electorates: Some Plain Truths for Historians of Colonial America," in Saints and Revolutionaries: Essays on Early American History, ed. David D. Hall, John M. Murrin, and Thad W. Tate (New York, 1984), 207.
    • (1984) Saints and Revolutionaries: Essays on Early American History , pp. 207
    • Gilsdorf, J.1    Gilsdorf, R.2
  • 5
    • 0041813778 scopus 로고
    • Deference, Republicanism, and the Emergence of Popular Politics in Eighteenth-Century America
    • July
    • For a more circumspect appraisal of recent writing, see Richard Beeman, "Deference, Republicanism, and the Emergence of Popular Politics in Eighteenth-Century America," William and Mary Quarterly, 49 (July 1992), 401-30.
    • (1992) William and Mary Quarterly , vol.49 , pp. 401-430
    • Beeman, R.1
  • 7
    • 85050171705 scopus 로고
    • Historians and the Problem of Early American Democracy
    • April
    • For pioneering conceptualizations subsequent to Sydnor's, see, for example, J. R. Pole, "Historians and the Problem of Early American Democracy," American Historical Review, 67 (April 1962), 626-46;
    • (1962) American Historical Review , vol.67 , pp. 626-646
    • Pole, J.R.1
  • 8
  • 9
    • 33746640361 scopus 로고
    • The Classical Theory of Deference
    • June
    • J. G. A. Pocock, "The Classical Theory of Deference," American Historical Review, 81 (June 1976), 516-23;
    • (1976) American Historical Review , vol.81 , pp. 516-523
    • Pocock, J.G.A.1
  • 20
    • 33750151733 scopus 로고
    • Reflections on American Law and the American Revolution
    • Jan.
    • J. R. Pole, "Reflections on American Law and the American Revolution," William and Mary Quarterly, 50 (Jan. 1993), 123-59.
    • (1993) William and Mary Quarterly , vol.50 , pp. 123-159
    • Pole, J.R.1
  • 26
    • 33750194239 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kinship Relations and the Rise of a Planter-Merchant Elite in the Eighteenth-Century Carolina Lowcountry
    • paper presented Salem, N.C., June 1997 (in Michael Zuckerman's possession)
    • For an account contending that kin constellations could monopolize the upper echelons of politics, see Lorri Glover, "Kinship Relations and the Rise of a Planter-Merchant Elite in the Eighteenth-Century Carolina Lowcountry," paper presented at the annual conference of the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, Salem, N.C., June 1997 (in Michael Zuckerman's possession).
    • Annual Conference of the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture
    • Glover, L.1
  • 27
    • 33750157784 scopus 로고
    • Private Worlds in the Middle Colonies: An Introduction to Human Tradition in American History
    • Jan.
    • For an argument that acquiescence could arise from apathetic, apolitical resignation to the status quo as readily as from any regard for its leadership, see Alice Kenney, "Private Worlds in the Middle Colonies: An Introduction to Human Tradition in American History," New York History, 51 (Jan. 1970), 5-31.
    • (1970) New York History , vol.51 , pp. 5-31
    • Kenney, A.1
  • 31
    • 0040483884 scopus 로고
    • Deference
    • ed. J. A. Jackson Cambridge, Mass.
    • and Edward Shils, "Deference," in Social Stratification, ed. J. A. Jackson (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), 104-32.
    • (1968) Social Stratification , pp. 104-132
    • Shils, E.1
  • 32
    • 0007365069 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • The widespread acceptance among recent historians of a deferential understanding of early America disregards a wide array of argument and evidence to the contrary. Three examples must suffice. Bernard Bailyn held that there were no elites in the colonies who could appropriately claim deference. Colonists would have deferred to a class of men who combined social, economic, and political authority, but there was no such class. Those who did come to political power made demands for deference that commoners resented because the claimants were unworthy of it, producing a politics that oscillated between exaggerated demands for respect and exaggerated resistance to those demands. See Bernard Bailyn, The Origins of American Politics (New York, 1968). The Gilsdorfs undertook the most meticulous and statistically sophisticated test of the deference hypothesis that we have. They found that social forces "combined to work strongly against the establishment of a deferential electorate." Indeed, they concluded that their evidence-"demonstrate[d] convincingly that simple deference interpretations of elite-voter relations do not apply" to the Connecticut elections they studied.
    • (1968) The Origins of American Politics
    • Bailyn, B.1
  • 33
    • 33750198366 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Gilsdorf and Gilsdorf, "Elites and Electorates," esp. 243, 242. Richard Beeman examined the actual elections in the Southside region of Virginia that Robert Munford idealized in The Candidates, the play that provided Sydnor the foundation for his presumption of the personal authority of the gentry. Beeman discovered a relentless unruliness that defeated genteel pretensions again and again. He maintained that the triumph of the gentry ideal was "not so much an accurate description of Munford's world as an unfulfilled expression of hope."
    • Elites and Electorates , pp. 243
    • Gilsdorf1    Gilsdorf2
  • 34
    • 84976104288 scopus 로고
    • Robert Munford and the Political Culture of Frontier Virginia
    • (Lawrence), Aug. esp. 183
    • See Richard Beeman, "Robert Munford and the Political Culture of Frontier Virginia," Journal of American Studies (Lawrence), 12 (Aug. 1978), 169-83, esp. 183.
    • (1978) Journal of American Studies , vol.12 , pp. 169-183
    • Beeman, R.1
  • 35
    • 33750196541 scopus 로고
    • The Autobiography of the Reverend Devereux Jarratt, 1732-1763
    • ed. Douglass Adair, July
    • Devereux Jarratt, "The Autobiography of the Reverend Devereux Jarratt, 1732-1763," ed. Douglass Adair, William and Mary Quarterly, 9 (July 1952), 361. In these and subsequent quotations, spelling, punctuation, and capitalization have been modernized; diction and grammar have not.
    • (1952) William and Mary Quarterly , vol.9 , pp. 361
    • Jarratt, D.1
  • 37
    • 33750170253 scopus 로고
    • 'Of a Rude and Quarrellsome Behavior': The Struggle for Authority in Early Orange County, Virginia
    • paper presented Ann Arbor, Mich., June (in Zuckerman's possession)
    • Mary Vaz, "'Of a Rude and Quarrellsome Behavior': The Struggle for Authority in Early Orange County, Virginia," paper presented at the first annual conference of the Institute of Early American History and Culture, Ann Arbor, Mich., June 1995 (in Zuckerman's possession).
    • (1995) First Annual Conference of the Institute of Early American History and Culture
    • Vaz, M.1
  • 40
    • 33750168451 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • trans. Reeve, rev. Bowen, ed. Bradley, II
    • Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Reeve, rev. Bowen, ed. Bradley, II, 112;
    • Democracy in America , pp. 112
    • Tocqueville1
  • 43
    • 26444458641 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also Sydnor's own view that elite candidates for office self-consciously deferred to the voters as elections approached. (This element of Sydnor's complex conception has very nearly vanished in contemporary celebrations of deference.) Sydnor, Gentlemen Freeholders, 27-53.
    • Gentlemen Freeholders , pp. 27-53
    • Sydnor1
  • 48
    • 84881859974 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • trans. Reeve, rev. Bowen, ed. Bradley, II
    • Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Reeve, rev. Bowen, ed. Bradley, II, 230.
    • Democracy in America , pp. 230
    • Tocqueville1
  • 49
    • 33750184839 scopus 로고
    • 'Set Thine House in Order': The Domestication of the Yeomanry in Seventeenth-Century New England
    • ed. Jonathan L. Fairbanks and Robert F. Trent 3 vols., Boston
    • Robert St. George, "'Set Thine House in Order': The Domestication of the Yeomanry in Seventeenth-Century New England," in New England Begins: The Seventeenth Century, ed. Jonathan L. Fairbanks and Robert F. Trent (3 vols., Boston, 1982), II, 160.
    • (1982) New England Begins: The Seventeenth Century
    • St. George, R.1
  • 53
    • 33750186195 scopus 로고
    • ed. and trans. Oscar Handlin and John Clive Cambridge, Mass.
    • Gottlieb Mittelberger, Journey to Pennsylvania, ed. and trans. Oscar Handlin and John Clive (1756; Cambridge, Mass., 1960), 49, 43, 89.
    • (1756) Journey to Pennsylvania , pp. 49
    • Mittelberger, G.1
  • 54
    • 0011572019 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hawke, Everyday Life in Early America, 135-36; Robert Beverley to London Carter, Aug. 1, 1763, Landon Carter Papers (Virginia Historical Society, Charlottesville).
    • Everyday Life in Early America , pp. 135-136
    • Hawke1
  • 56
    • 33750186781 scopus 로고
    • Rater than Riches: Gentility in Eighteenth-Century America
    • ed. Ellen G. Miles Newark, Del.
    • Stephanie Wolf, "Rater than Riches: Gentility in Eighteenth-Century America," in The Portrait in Eighteenth-Century America, ed. Ellen G. Miles (Newark, Del., 1993), 91;
    • (1993) The Portrait in Eighteenth-Century America , pp. 91
    • Wolf, S.1
  • 59
    • 33750147605 scopus 로고
    • Marion Tinling, ed., 2 vols., Charlottesville
    • Marion Tinling, ed., The Correspondence of the Three William Byrds of Westover, Virginia, 1684-1776 (2 vols., Charlottesville, 1977), I, 304. Douglas Greenberg noted that William Smith, the preeminent historian of early New York, knew justices of the peace in that colony who could not even read or write. Greenberg also calculated that, in 1763, there were 328 justices of the peace in the province (outside New York City) and that 194 of them - three of every five - had "no legal knowledge or training at all."
    • (1977) The Correspondence of the Three William Byrds of Westover, Virginia, 1684-1776
  • 60
    • 84918987141 scopus 로고
    • The Effectiveness of Law Enforcement in Eighteenth-Century New York
    • July
    • Douglas Greenberg, "The Effectiveness of Law Enforcement in Eighteenth-Century New York," American Journal of Legal History, 19 (July 1975), 184-85.
    • (1975) American Journal of Legal History , vol.19 , pp. 184-185
    • Greenberg, D.1
  • 64
    • 33750162498 scopus 로고
    • ed. R. H. S. Crossman Ithaca, N.Y.
    • Walter Bagehot, The English Constitution, ed. R. H. S. Crossman (1867; Ithaca, N.Y., 1966), 250.
    • (1867) The English Constitution , pp. 250
    • Bagehot, W.1
  • 72
    • 33750198663 scopus 로고
    • Theodore Tappert and John Doberstein, trans., 3 vols., Philadelphia
    • Theodore Tappert and John Doberstein, trans., The Journals of Henry Melchior Muhlenberg (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1942-1958), I, 346-47;
    • (1942) The Journals of Henry Melchior Muhlenberg
  • 75
    • 33750172751 scopus 로고
    • The Administration of Criminal Justice in North Carolina, 1720-1740
    • April
    • Donna Spindel, "The Administration of Criminal Justice in North Carolina, 1720-1740," American Journal of Legal History, 25 (April 1981), 151-52;
    • (1981) American Journal of Legal History , vol.25 , pp. 151-152
    • Spindel, D.1
  • 81
    • 42649102734 scopus 로고
    • Crime, Law Enforcement, and Social Control in Colonial America
    • Oct.
    • Douglas Greenberg, "Crime, Law Enforcement, and Social Control in Colonial America," American Journal of Legal History, 26 (Oct. 1982), 301;
    • (1982) American Journal of Legal History , vol.26 , pp. 301
    • Greenberg, D.1
  • 92
    • 33750179593 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ed. Klepp and Smith
    • Moraley, Infortunate, ed. Klepp and Smith, 1-3, 8-10.
    • Infortunate , pp. 1-3
    • Moraley1
  • 93
    • 33750171385 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Moraley, Infortunate, Ibid., 34, 114-15. Moraley never even got the governor's name right. He referred to him as Crosby.
    • Infortunate , vol.34 , pp. 114-115
    • Moraley1
  • 96
    • 33750153290 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Moraley, Infortunate, 34, 82. Ibid. As the editors, Klepp and Smith, point out, running away was a routine means of denying deference and indeed of departing the master's authority altogether.
    • Infortunate , vol.34 , pp. 82
    • Moraley1
  • 97
    • 33750173919 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • From 1727 to 1737, at least three other servants also absconded from this "generous" master: Moraley, Infortunate, ibid., 30, 97, 163-64.
    • Infortunate , vol.30 , pp. 97
    • Moraley1
  • 101
  • 102
  • 103
    • 33750170252 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Moraley, Infortunate, 30, Ibid., 115, 113-14.
    • Infortunate , vol.30 , pp. 115
    • Moraley1
  • 106
    • 33750154755 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For other references to "the family" in the inclusive sense that Harrower took from his master at p. 56, see Harrower, Journal of John Harrower, ibid., 85, 112.
    • Journal of John Harrower , pp. 85
    • Harrower1
  • 107
    • 0011606406 scopus 로고
    • William Byrd's Family
    • esp. 274-88
    • Daingerfield did not distinguish his nuclear family from his larger plantation family, and neither did other planters of the period; see Michael Zuckerman, "William Byrd's Family," Perspectives in American History, 12 (1979), 253-311, esp. 274-88.
    • (1979) Perspectives in American History , vol.12 , pp. 253-311
    • Zuckerman, M.1
  • 117
    • 33750196930 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Harrower, Journal of John Harrower, Ibid., 138. It might be objected that the overseer was able to insist on his independence because he had no family. More broadly, it might be observed that Moraley and Harrower, and Roberts and Fitch as well, were men without women, and that single young men were the least likely to submit to demands for deference. But such an objection misses too much. In fact, Harrower was neither young nor single. He was forty-four when he died of a disease that "baffle[d] all the powers of medicine," and to the day of his death his "fondest desire" had been "to bring his wife and family to Virginia."
    • Journal of John Harrower , pp. 138
    • Harrower1
  • 118
    • 33750168141 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Harrower, Journal of John Harrower, Ibid., xix. In fact, the overseer chose to be single precisely because he preferred the independence of bachelorhood to the pleasures promised by a good wife. And in fact, in a part of the world where men did not marry till their mid-twenties, where they died before they were fifty, and where they were often widowers, a significant part of the male population over sixteen at any moment was single.
    • Journal of John Harrower
    • Harrower1
  • 123
    • 33750175258 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Roberts, Memoirs of Captain Lemuel Roberts, Ibid., 11-14. Roberts devoted half of the first eighteen pages of his memoir to his hunting exploits. They were plainly the most salient aspect of his young life. By contrast, he allocated but a single (prideful) sentence to the fact that he took over his father's frontier farm and supported the family for six years after his father was disabled.
    • Memoirs of Captain Lemuel Roberts , pp. 11-14
    • Roberts1
  • 130
  • 131
    • 33750172447 scopus 로고
    • M.A. thesis, Claremont Graduate University
    • For other episodes of disregard for rank and disrespect for the character and judgment of officers and for other instances of insubordination, even to the point of mutiny, even against a fellow townsman who was paying and provisioning the men, see Mark Robison, "Life during the Siege of Louisbourg, 1745" (M.A. thesis, Claremont Graduate University, 1995), 23, 35.
    • (1995) Life during the Siege of Louisbourg, 1745 , pp. 23
    • Robison, M.1
  • 133
    • 33750175258 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also Roberts, Memoirs of Captain Lemuel Roberts, ibid., 35, for a corporal "who did not seem to have much of a stomach to face the enemy" and a lieutenant whom Roberts had to nursemaid through sickness.
    • Memoirs of Captain Lemuel Roberts , pp. 35
    • Roberts1
  • 143
    • 33750185424 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fitch, Autobiography of John Fitch, Ibid., 28-29. Fitch referred to Gov. Wolcott as Woolcutt; his spelling was perhaps mere testimony to the vagaries of eighteenth-century orthography, perhaps a deliberate jibe. The mounting of the "scarlet rag" on the post was perhaps a cartoon of a menstrual cloth - an advertisement, like the pierced copper coin, of the governor's problematic masculinity - but it was assuredly a travesty of the "scarlet coat" in which the man paraded to the capital - an aspersion on his status pretension.
    • Autobiography of John Fitch , pp. 28-29
    • Fitch1
  • 147
    • 33750185424 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fitch, Autobiography of John Fitch, Ibid., 38. Over a period of forty yeats, at least fifty different women worked for the Drinkers in Philadelphia, and only eight of them remained in the service of that relatively kindly and exceedingly affluent family for more than a year;
    • Autobiography of John Fitch , pp. 38
    • Fitch1
  • 148
    • 33750196249 scopus 로고
    • 'Send No More Women': Female Servants in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia
    • April
    • see Sharon Salinger, "'Send No More Women': Female Servants in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 107 (April 1983), 34.
    • (1983) Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography , vol.107 , pp. 34
    • Salinger, S.1
  • 149
    • 33750165580 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • During the French and Indian War, George Washington urged the British to enlist servants, warning the authorities that if they did not, the servants "would run off and enlist in the regular army anyway." Washington took for granted that the lower sort were not loyal to their masters and only stayed so long as they had no more attractive - or countervailingly powerful - alternative: John van der Zee, Bound Over: Indentured Servitude and American Conscience (New York, 1985), 32.
    • (1985) Bound Over: Indentured Servitude and American Conscience , pp. 32
    • Van Zee, J.D.1


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.