Foreign media exposure and perceptions of Americans in Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Singapore

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 74, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 738-756

  Willnat, Lars ^b   He, Zhou ^b   Xiaoming, Hao ^a  

^a NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY   (Singapore)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040656972     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909707400406     Document Type: Article

References (77)

1. Joseph Man Chan, "National Responses and Accessibility to STAR TV in Asia," Journal of Communication 44 (summer 1994): 112-31.
2. Joseph Straubhaar, "Beyond Media Imperialism: Asymmetrical Interdependence and Cultural Proximity," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (March 1991): 39-59.
3. Armand Mattelart, Multinational Corporations and the Control of Culture (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1979).
4. Luis Ramiro Beltran and Fox de Cardona, "Latin America and the United States: Flaws in the Free Flow of Information," in National Sovereignty and International Communications, ed. Kaarle Nordenstreng and Herbert Schiller (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1979), 33-64; Luis Ramiro Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans: Conservatism, Materialism, and Conformism," Gazette 24 (1,1978): 61-68; Cee J. Hamelink, Cultural Autonomy in Global Communications (New York: Longman, 1983); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, communication and class relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran et al. (London: Arnold, 1977); Herbert Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination (New York: International Arts and Science Press, 1976); Herbert Schiller, Mass Communication and American Empire (New York: Augustus, 1969); Herbert Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialist Era," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (March 1991): 13-28; Herbert Schiller, Culture, Inc. : The Corporate Takeover of Public Expression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Jeremy Tunstall, The Media Are American (London: Constable, 1977).
5. Luis Ramiro Beltran and Fox de Cardona, "Latin America and the United States: Flaws in the Free Flow of Information," in National Sovereignty and International Communications, ed. Kaarle Nordenstreng and Herbert Schiller (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1979), 33-64; Luis Ramiro Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans: Conservatism, Materialism, and Conformism," Gazette 24 (1,1978): 61-68; Cee J. Hamelink, Cultural Autonomy in Global Communications (New York: Longman, 1983); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, communication and class relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran et al. (London: Arnold, 1977); Herbert Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination (New York: International Arts and Science Press, 1976); Herbert Schiller, Mass Communication and American Empire (New York: Augustus, 1969); Herbert Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialist Era," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (March 1991): 13-28; Herbert Schiller, Culture, Inc. : The Corporate Takeover of Public Expression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Jeremy Tunstall, The Media Are American (London: Constable, 1977).
6. Luis Ramiro Beltran and Fox de Cardona, "Latin America and the United States: Flaws in the Free Flow of Information," in National Sovereignty and International Communications, ed. Kaarle Nordenstreng and Herbert Schiller (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1979), 33-64; Luis Ramiro Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans: Conservatism, Materialism, and Conformism," Gazette 24 (1,1978): 61-68; Cee J. Hamelink, Cultural Autonomy in Global Communications (New York: Longman, 1983); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, communication and class relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran et al. (London: Arnold, 1977); Herbert Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination (New York: International Arts and Science Press, 1976); Herbert Schiller, Mass Communication and American Empire (New York: Augustus, 1969); Herbert Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialist Era," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (March 1991): 13-28; Herbert Schiller, Culture, Inc. : The Corporate Takeover of Public Expression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Jeremy Tunstall, The Media Are American (London: Constable, 1977).
7. Luis Ramiro Beltran and Fox de Cardona, "Latin America and the United States: Flaws in the Free Flow of Information," in National Sovereignty and International Communications, ed. Kaarle Nordenstreng and Herbert Schiller (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1979), 33-64; Luis Ramiro Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans: Conservatism, Materialism, and Conformism," Gazette 24 (1,1978): 61-68; Cee J. Hamelink, Cultural Autonomy in Global Communications (New York: Longman, 1983); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, communication and class relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran et al. (London: Arnold, 1977); Herbert Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination (New York: International Arts and Science Press, 1976); Herbert Schiller, Mass Communication and American Empire (New York: Augustus, 1969); Herbert Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialist Era," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (March 1991): 13-28; Herbert Schiller, Culture, Inc. : The Corporate Takeover of Public Expression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Jeremy Tunstall, The Media Are American (London: Constable, 1977).
8. Luis Ramiro Beltran and Fox de Cardona, "Latin America and the United States: Flaws in the Free Flow of Information," in National Sovereignty and International Communications, ed. Kaarle Nordenstreng and Herbert Schiller (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1979), 33-64; Luis Ramiro Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans: Conservatism, Materialism, and Conformism," Gazette 24 (1,1978): 61-68; Cee J. Hamelink, Cultural Autonomy in Global Communications (New York: Longman, 1983); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, communication and class relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran et al. (London: Arnold, 1977); Herbert Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination (New York: International Arts and Science Press, 1976); Herbert Schiller, Mass Communication and American Empire (New York: Augustus, 1969); Herbert Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialist Era," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (March 1991): 13-28; Herbert Schiller, Culture, Inc. : The Corporate Takeover of Public Expression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Jeremy Tunstall, The Media Are American (London: Constable, 1977).
9. Luis Ramiro Beltran and Fox de Cardona, "Latin America and the United States: Flaws in the Free Flow of Information," in National Sovereignty and International Communications, ed. Kaarle Nordenstreng and Herbert Schiller (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1979), 33-64; Luis Ramiro Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans: Conservatism, Materialism, and Conformism," Gazette 24 (1,1978): 61-68; Cee J. Hamelink, Cultural Autonomy in Global Communications (New York: Longman, 1983); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, communication and class relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran et al. (London: Arnold, 1977); Herbert Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination (New York: International Arts and Science Press, 1976); Herbert Schiller, Mass Communication and American Empire (New York: Augustus, 1969); Herbert Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialist Era," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (March 1991): 13-28; Herbert Schiller, Culture, Inc. : The Corporate Takeover of Public Expression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Jeremy Tunstall, The Media Are American (London: Constable, 1977).
10. Luis Ramiro Beltran and Fox de Cardona, "Latin America and the United States: Flaws in the Free Flow of Information," in National Sovereignty and International Communications, ed. Kaarle Nordenstreng and Herbert Schiller (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1979), 33-64; Luis Ramiro Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans: Conservatism, Materialism, and Conformism," Gazette 24 (1,1978): 61-68; Cee J. Hamelink, Cultural Autonomy in Global Communications (New York: Longman, 1983); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, communication and class relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran et al. (London: Arnold, 1977); Herbert Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination (New York: International Arts and Science Press, 1976); Herbert Schiller, Mass Communication and American Empire (New York: Augustus, 1969); Herbert Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialist Era," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (March 1991): 13-28; Herbert Schiller, Culture, Inc. : The Corporate Takeover of Public Expression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Jeremy Tunstall, The Media Are American (London: Constable, 1977).
11. Luis Ramiro Beltran and Fox de Cardona, "Latin America and the United States: Flaws in the Free Flow of Information," in National Sovereignty and International Communications, ed. Kaarle Nordenstreng and Herbert Schiller (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1979), 33-64; Luis Ramiro Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans: Conservatism, Materialism, and Conformism," Gazette 24 (1,1978): 61-68; Cee J. Hamelink, Cultural Autonomy in Global Communications (New York: Longman, 1983); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, communication and class relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran et al. (London: Arnold, 1977); Herbert Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination (New York: International Arts and Science Press, 1976); Herbert Schiller, Mass Communication and American Empire (New York: Augustus, 1969); Herbert Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialist Era," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (March 1991): 13-28; Herbert Schiller, Culture, Inc. : The Corporate Takeover of Public Expression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Jeremy Tunstall, The Media Are American (London: Constable, 1977).
12. Luis Ramiro Beltran and Fox de Cardona, "Latin America and the United States: Flaws in the Free Flow of Information," in National Sovereignty and International Communications, ed. Kaarle Nordenstreng and Herbert Schiller (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1979), 33-64; Luis Ramiro Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans: Conservatism, Materialism, and Conformism," Gazette 24 (1,1978): 61-68; Cee J. Hamelink, Cultural Autonomy in Global Communications (New York: Longman, 1983); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, communication and class relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran et al. (London: Arnold, 1977); Herbert Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination (New York: International Arts and Science Press, 1976); Herbert Schiller, Mass Communication and American Empire (New York: Augustus, 1969); Herbert Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialist Era," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (March 1991): 13-28; Herbert Schiller, Culture, Inc. : The Corporate Takeover of Public Expression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Jeremy Tunstall, The Media Are American (London: Constable, 1977).
13. Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans"; Kaarle Nordenstreng and Tapio Varis, Television Traffic. A One Way Street? Reports and Papers on Mass Communication #70 (Paris: UNESCO, 1973); Tapio Varis, The Impact of Transnational Corporations on Communication, Research Reports No. 10 (Tampere: Peace Research Institute, 1975); The International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, Many Voices, One World (Paris: Kogan Page, 1980); Oliver Boyd-Barrett and Daya Kishan Thussu, Contra-Flow in Global News. International and Regional News Exchange Mechanisms (London: John Libbey, 1992).
14. Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans"; Kaarle Nordenstreng and Tapio Varis, Television Traffic. A One Way Street? Reports and Papers on Mass Communication #70 (Paris: UNESCO, 1973); Tapio Varis, The Impact of Transnational Corporations on Communication, Research Reports No. 10 (Tampere: Peace Research Institute, 1975); The International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, Many Voices, One World (Paris: Kogan Page, 1980); Oliver Boyd-Barrett and Daya Kishan Thussu, Contra-Flow in Global News. International and Regional News Exchange Mechanisms (London: John Libbey, 1992).
15. Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans"; Kaarle Nordenstreng and Tapio Varis, Television Traffic. A One Way Street? Reports and Papers on Mass Communication #70 (Paris: UNESCO, 1973); Tapio Varis, The Impact of Transnational Corporations on Communication, Research Reports No. 10 (Tampere: Peace Research Institute, 1975); The International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, Many Voices, One World (Paris: Kogan Page, 1980); Oliver Boyd-Barrett and Daya Kishan Thussu, Contra-Flow in Global News. International and Regional News Exchange Mechanisms (London: John Libbey, 1992).
16. Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans"; Kaarle Nordenstreng and Tapio Varis, Television Traffic. A One Way Street? Reports and Papers on Mass Communication #70 (Paris: UNESCO, 1973); Tapio Varis, The Impact of Transnational Corporations on Communication, Research Reports No. 10 (Tampere: Peace Research Institute, 1975); The International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, Many Voices, One World (Paris: Kogan Page, 1980); Oliver Boyd-Barrett and Daya Kishan Thussu, Contra-Flow in Global News. International and Regional News Exchange Mechanisms (London: John Libbey, 1992).
17. Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans"; Kaarle Nordenstreng and Tapio Varis, Television Traffic. A One Way Street? Reports and Papers on Mass Communication #70 (Paris: UNESCO, 1973); Tapio Varis, The Impact of Transnational Corporations on Communication, Research Reports No. 10 (Tampere: Peace Research Institute, 1975); The International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, Many Voices, One World (Paris: Kogan Page, 1980); Oliver Boyd-Barrett and Daya Kishan Thussu, Contra-Flow in Global News. International and Regional News Exchange Mechanisms (London: John Libbey, 1992).
18. Varis, "The Impact of Transnational Corporations"; Meheroo Jussawalla and Chee-Wah Cheah, The Calculus of International Communication: A Study in the Political Economy of Transborder Data Flows (Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1987); Steven Wildman and Stephen Siwek, International Trade in Films and Television Programs (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1988); Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialist Era."
19. Varis, "The Impact of Transnational Corporations"; Meheroo Jussawalla and Chee-Wah Cheah, The Calculus of International Communication: A Study in the Political Economy of Transborder Data Flows (Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1987); Steven Wildman and Stephen Siwek, International Trade in Films and Television Programs (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1988); Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialist Era."
20. Varis, "The Impact of Transnational Corporations"; Meheroo Jussawalla and Chee-Wah Cheah, The Calculus of International Communication: A Study in the Political Economy of Transborder Data Flows (Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1987); Steven Wildman and Stephen Siwek, International Trade in Films and Television Programs (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1988); Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialist Era."
21. Varis, "The Impact of Transnational Corporations"; Meheroo Jussawalla and Chee-Wah Cheah, The Calculus of International Communication: A Study in the Political Economy of Transborder Data Flows (Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1987); Steven Wildman and Stephen Siwek, International Trade in Films and Television Programs (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1988); Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialist Era."
22. Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans"; Luis Ramiro Beltran, "Communication and cultural domination: USA-Latin America case," Media Asia 5 (1978): 183-92.
23. Beltran, "TV Etchings in the Minds of Latin Americans"; Luis Ramiro Beltran, "Communication and cultural domination: USA-Latin America case," Media Asia 5 (1978): 183-92.
24. Elihu Katz and Tamara Liebes, "Once Upon a Time in Dallas," Intermedia 12 (1984): 28-32.
25. Christine Ogan, "Cultural Orientation in Turkey: Are the Theorists Right about the Effects of Imported Cultural Products?" (paper presented at the annual conference of AEJMC, Kansas City, August 1993).
26. Yet another study found that Jamaican adolescents' favorite American TV characters and programs had no significant relationship with their aspirations in education, occupation, and consumption patterns. See Cherryl Josephs and Zhou He, "Foreign Television and Adolescents' Lifestyle Aspirations in Jamaica" (paper presented at the annual conference of the International Communication Association, Montreal, Canada, 1997).
27. See for example: Ien Ang, Watching 'Dallas' (London: Methuen, 1985); John Fiske, "Television: Polysemy and Popularity," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 3 (December 1986): 391-408; James Lull, World Families Watch Television (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988); James Lull, Inside Family Viewing (London: Routledge, 1991).
28. See for example: Ien Ang, Watching 'Dallas' (London: Methuen, 1985); John Fiske, "Television: Polysemy and Popularity," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 3 (December 1986): 391-408; James Lull, World Families Watch Television (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988); James Lull, Inside Family Viewing (London: Routledge, 1991).
29. See for example: Ien Ang, Watching 'Dallas' (London: Methuen, 1985); John Fiske, "Television: Polysemy and Popularity," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 3 (December 1986): 391-408; James Lull, World Families Watch Television (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988); James Lull, Inside Family Viewing (London: Routledge, 1991).
30. See for example: Ien Ang, Watching 'Dallas' (London: Methuen, 1985); John Fiske, "Television: Polysemy and Popularity," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 3 (December 1986): 391-408; James Lull, World Families Watch Television (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988); James Lull, Inside Family Viewing (London: Routledge, 1991).
31. Collean Roach, "Cultural imperialism and resistance in media theory and literary theory," Media, Culture & Society 19 (January 1997): 47-65, see 52.
32. David Morley, "Active audience theory: Pendulums and pitfalls," Journal of Communication 43 (fall 1993): 13-19; Ang, Watching 'Dallas'; Armand Mattelart and Mechele Mattelart, Rethinking Media Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992); Ien Ang, "Culture and communication," European Journal of Communication 5 (1990): 239-61.
33. David Morley, "Active audience theory: Pendulums and pitfalls," Journal of Communication 43 (fall 1993): 13-19; Ang, Watching 'Dallas'; Armand Mattelart and Mechele Mattelart, Rethinking Media Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992); Ien Ang, "Culture and communication," European Journal of Communication 5 (1990): 239-61.
34. David Morley, "Active audience theory: Pendulums and pitfalls," Journal of Communication 43 (fall 1993): 13-19; Ang, Watching 'Dallas'; Armand Mattelart and Mechele Mattelart, Rethinking Media Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992); Ien Ang, "Culture and communication," European Journal of Communication 5 (1990): 239-61.
35. David Morley, "Active audience theory: Pendulums and pitfalls," Journal of Communication 43 (fall 1993): 13-19; Ang, Watching 'Dallas'; Armand Mattelart and Mechele Mattelart, Rethinking Media Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992); Ien Ang, "Culture and communication," European Journal of Communication 5 (1990): 239-61.
36. Michael B. Salwen, "Cultural Imperialism: A Media Effects Approach," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (March 1991): 29-38.
37. Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977).
38. Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 22.
39. George Gerbner, Larry Gross, Michael Morgan, and Nancy Signorielli, "Growing Up with Television: The Cultivation Perspective," in Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research, ed. Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1994), 17-41.
40. George Gerbner, Larry Gross, Michael Morgan, and Nancy Signorielli, "Living with Television. The Dynamics of the Cultivation Process," in Perspectives on Media Effects, ed. Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1986),18-19; George Gerbner and Larry Gross, "Editorial Response: A Reply to Newcomb's 'Humanistic Critique,'" Communication Research 6 (1979): 223-30.
41. George Gerbner, Larry Gross, Michael Morgan, and Nancy Signorielli, "Living with Television. The Dynamics of the Cultivation Process," in Perspectives on Media Effects, ed. Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1986),18-19; George Gerbner and Larry Gross, "Editorial Response: A Reply to Newcomb's 'Humanistic Critique,'" Communication Research 6 (1979): 223-30.
42. George Gerbner, Larry Gross, Michael Morgan, and Nancy Signorielli, "The 'Mainstrearning' of America: Violence Profile No. 11," Journal of Communication 30 (summer 1980): 10-29; Robert P. Hawkins and Suzanne Pingree, "Television's Influence on Social Reality," in Television and Behavior. Ten Years of Scientific Progress and Implications for the 80's, vol. II Technical reviews, ed. David Pearl, Lorraine Bouthilet, and Joyce Lazar (Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health, 1982), 224-47; Robert P. Hawkins, Suzanne Pingree, and I. Adler, "Searching for Cognitive Processes in the Cultivation Effect," Human Communication Research 13 (summer 1987): 553-77.
43. George Gerbner, Larry Gross, Michael Morgan, and Nancy Signorielli, "The 'Mainstrearning' of America: Violence Profile No. 11," Journal of Communication 30 (summer 1980): 10-29; Robert P. Hawkins and Suzanne Pingree, "Television's Influence on Social Reality," in Television and Behavior. Ten Years of Scientific Progress and Implications for the 80's, vol. II Technical reviews, ed. David Pearl, Lorraine Bouthilet, and Joyce Lazar (Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health, 1982), 224-47; Robert P. Hawkins, Suzanne Pingree, and I. Adler, "Searching for Cognitive Processes in the Cultivation Effect," Human Communication Research 13 (summer 1987): 553-77.
44. George Gerbner, Larry Gross, Michael Morgan, and Nancy Signorielli, "The 'Mainstrearning' of America: Violence Profile No. 11," Journal of Communication 30 (summer 1980): 10-29; Robert P. Hawkins and Suzanne Pingree, "Television's Influence on Social Reality," in Television and Behavior. Ten Years of Scientific Progress and Implications for the 80's, vol. II Technical reviews, ed. David Pearl, Lorraine Bouthilet, and Joyce Lazar (Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health, 1982), 224-47; Robert P. Hawkins, Suzanne Pingree, and I. Adler, "Searching for Cognitive Processes in the Cultivation Effect," Human Communication Research 13 (summer 1987): 553-77.
45. Although the idea of "categorization"can be found in Lippmann's early analysis of the use of stereotypes in perceptions of groups, this theory is most closely associated with Allport's classic analysis of stereotyping and prejudice and Tajfel's empirical evidence for the impact of categorization process on social perceptions and behavior. See: Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954); Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovitch, 1922); Henri Taifcl, "Cognitive Aspects of Prejudice," Journal of Social Issues 25 (4, 1969): 79-97; Henri Taifel, "Experiments in intergroup discrimination," Scientific American 223 (5, 1969): 96-102.
46. Although the idea of "categorization"can be found in Lippmann's early analysis of the use of stereotypes in perceptions of groups, this theory is most closely associated with Allport's classic analysis of stereotyping and prejudice and Tajfel's empirical evidence for the impact of categorization process on social perceptions and behavior. See: Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954); Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovitch, 1922); Henri Taifcl, "Cognitive Aspects of Prejudice," Journal of Social Issues 25 (4, 1969): 79-97; Henri Taifel, "Experiments in intergroup discrimination," Scientific American 223 (5, 1969): 96-102.
47. Although the idea of "categorization"can be found in Lippmann's early analysis of the use of stereotypes in perceptions of groups, this theory is most closely associated with Allport's classic analysis of stereotyping and prejudice and Tajfel's empirical evidence for the impact of categorization process on social perceptions and behavior. See: Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954); Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovitch, 1922); Henri Taifcl, "Cognitive Aspects of Prejudice," Journal of Social Issues 25 (4, 1969): 79-97; Henri Taifel, "Experiments in intergroup discrimination," Scientific American 223 (5, 1969): 96-102.
48. Although the idea of "categorization"can be found in Lippmann's early analysis of the use of stereotypes in perceptions of groups, this theory is most closely associated with Allport's classic analysis of stereotyping and prejudice and Tajfel's empirical evidence for the impact of categorization process on social perceptions and behavior. See: Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954); Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovitch, 1922); Henri Taifcl, "Cognitive Aspects of Prejudice," Journal of Social Issues 25 (4, 1969): 79-97; Henri Taifel, "Experiments in intergroup discrimination," Scientific American 223 (5, 1969): 96-102.
49. David L. Hamilton and Jeffrey W. Sherman, "Stereotypes," in Handbook of Social Cognition, ed. Robert S. Wyer and Thomas K. Srull (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1984), 3-65, here 6.
50. Peter B. Smith and Michael H. Bond, Social Psychology Across Cultures (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1993), 163.
51. Daniel Bar-Tal, "Development of Social Categories and Stereotypes in Early Childhood: The Case of 'the Arab' Concept Formation, Stereotype and Attitudes by Jewish Children in Israel," International Journal of Intercultural Relations 20 (1996): 341-70.
52. Henri Taifel, Differentiation between Social Groups. Studies in Intergroup Behaviour (London: Academic Press, 1978).
53. In rapidly modernizing areas such as Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Singapore, favorable stereotypes of Westerners may serve a developmental function, standing as a model towards which people in those areas may aspire. See: Michael Bond, "Coping with the threat of Westernization in Hong Kong," International Journal of Intercultural Relations 9 (1986): 356-64.
54. David Katz and K.W. Braly "Verbal Stereotypes and Racial Prejudice," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 28 (1933): 280-90.
55. Suzanne Pingree and Robert P. Hawkins, "U.S. Programs on Australian Television: The Cultivation Effect," Journal of Communication 31 (winter 1981): 97-105; Ewart C. Skinner and Richard Houang, "Use of United States Produced Media in Carribean Society; Exposure and Impact," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 6 (1987): 183-95; Alexis S. Tan, Sarrina Li, and Charles Simpson, "American Television and Social Stereotypes of Americans in Taiwan and Mexico," Journalism Quarterly 63 (winter 1986): 809-814; Alexis S. Tan and Kultida Suarchavarat, "American TV and Social Stereotypes of Americans in Thailand," Journalism Quarterly 65 (fall 1988): 648-54.
56. Suzanne Pingree and Robert P. Hawkins, "U.S. Programs on Australian Television: The Cultivation Effect," Journal of Communication 31 (winter 1981): 97-105; Ewart C. Skinner and Richard Houang, "Use of United States Produced Media in Carribean Society; Exposure and Impact," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 6 (1987): 183-95; Alexis S. Tan, Sarrina Li, and Charles Simpson, "American Television and Social Stereotypes of Americans in Taiwan and Mexico," Journalism Quarterly 63 (winter 1986): 809-814; Alexis S. Tan and Kultida Suarchavarat, "American TV and Social Stereotypes of Americans in Thailand," Journalism Quarterly 65 (fall 1988): 648-54.
57. Suzanne Pingree and Robert P. Hawkins, "U.S. Programs on Australian Television: The Cultivation Effect," Journal of Communication 31 (winter 1981): 97-105; Ewart C. Skinner and Richard Houang, "Use of United States Produced Media in Carribean Society; Exposure and Impact," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 6 (1987): 183-95; Alexis S. Tan, Sarrina Li, and Charles Simpson, "American Television and Social Stereotypes of Americans in Taiwan and Mexico," Journalism Quarterly 63 (winter 1986): 809-814; Alexis S. Tan and Kultida Suarchavarat, "American TV and Social Stereotypes of Americans in Thailand," Journalism Quarterly 65 (fall 1988): 648-54.
58. Suzanne Pingree and Robert P. Hawkins, "U.S. Programs on Australian Television: The Cultivation Effect," Journal of Communication 31 (winter 1981): 97-105; Ewart C. Skinner and Richard Houang, "Use of United States Produced Media in Carribean Society; Exposure and Impact," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 6 (1987): 183-95; Alexis S. Tan, Sarrina Li, and Charles Simpson, "American Television and Social Stereotypes of Americans in Taiwan and Mexico," Journalism Quarterly 63 (winter 1986): 809-814; Alexis S. Tan and Kultida Suarchavarat, "American TV and Social Stereotypes of Americans in Thailand," Journalism Quarterly 65 (fall 1988): 648-54.
59. Tan, Li, and Simpson, "American Television and Social Stereotypes"; Tan and Suarchavarat, "American TV and Social Stereotypes."
60. Tan, Li, and Simpson, "American Television and Social Stereotypes"; Tan and Suarchavarat, "American TV and Social Stereotypes."
61. Tan and Suarchavarat, "American TV and Social Stereotypes," 654.
62. William Ware and Michel Dupagne, "Effects of U.S. Television Programs on Foreign Audiences: A Meta-Analysis," Journalism Quarterly (winter 1994): 947-59.
63. Smith and Bond, Social Psychology Across Cultures, 168.
64. This perspective is supported by a recent content analysis of twenty internationally successful Hollywood productions released between 1995 and 1996. Young and He found that 68 percent of the main American characters in those movies demonstrated positive features, while only 32 percent portrayed negative characteristics. Christine Young and Zhou He, "Stereotypes of Americans in the Movies: A Content Analysis of Hollywood Blockbusters" (manuscript, 1996).
65. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice; Irwin Katz, Stigma: A Socialpsychological Analysis (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates); Lippmann, Public Opinion; Walter G. Stephan, Vladimir Ageyew, Lisa Coates-Shrider, Cookie White Stephan, and Mariana Abalakina, "On the Relationship Between Stereotypes and Prejudice: An International Study," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20 (3,1994): 277-84.
66. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice; Irwin Katz, Stigma: A Socialpsychological Analysis (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates); Lippmann, Public Opinion; Walter G. Stephan, Vladimir Ageyew, Lisa Coates-Shrider, Cookie White Stephan, and Mariana Abalakina, "On the Relationship Between Stereotypes and Prejudice: An International Study," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20 (3,1994): 277-84.
67. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice; Irwin Katz, Stigma: A Socialpsychological Analysis (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates); Lippmann, Public Opinion; Walter G. Stephan, Vladimir Ageyew, Lisa Coates-Shrider, Cookie White Stephan, and Mariana Abalakina, "On the Relationship Between Stereotypes and Prejudice: An International Study," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20 (3,1994): 277-84.
68. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice; Irwin Katz, Stigma: A Socialpsychological Analysis (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates); Lippmann, Public Opinion; Walter G. Stephan, Vladimir Ageyew, Lisa Coates-Shrider, Cookie White Stephan, and Mariana Abalakina, "On the Relationship Between Stereotypes and Prejudice: An International Study," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20 (3,1994): 277-84.
69. Michael Bond, "Mutual Stereotypes And the Facilitation Of Interaction Across Cultural Lines," International Journal of Intercultural Relations 10 (1986): 259-76; Marvin Karlins, Thomas Coffman, and Gary Walters, "On the Fading of Social Stereotypes: Studies in Three Generations of College Studenis," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 13 (1,1969):1-16; Tan, Li, and Simpson, "American Television and Social Stereotypes"; Tan and Suarchavarat, "American TV and Social Stereotypes of Americans."
70. Michael Bond, "Mutual Stereotypes And the Facilitation Of Interaction Across Cultural Lines," International Journal of Intercultural Relations 10 (1986): 259-76; Marvin Karlins, Thomas Coffman, and Gary Walters, "On the Fading of Social Stereotypes: Studies in Three Generations of College Studenis," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 13 (1,1969):1-16; Tan, Li, and Simpson, "American Television and Social Stereotypes"; Tan and Suarchavarat, "American TV and Social Stereotypes of Americans."
71. Michael Bond, "Mutual Stereotypes And the Facilitation Of Interaction Across Cultural Lines," International Journal of Intercultural Relations 10 (1986): 259-76; Marvin Karlins, Thomas Coffman, and Gary Walters, "On the Fading of Social Stereotypes: Studies in Three Generations of College Studenis," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 13 (1,1969):1-16; Tan, Li, and Simpson, "American Television and Social Stereotypes"; Tan and Suarchavarat, "American TV and Social Stereotypes of Americans."
72. Michael Bond, "Mutual Stereotypes And the Facilitation Of Interaction Across Cultural Lines," International Journal of Intercultural Relations 10 (1986): 259-76; Marvin Karlins, Thomas Coffman, and Gary Walters, "On the Fading of Social Stereotypes: Studies in Three Generations of College Studenis," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 13 (1,1969):1-16; Tan, Li, and Simpson, "American Television and Social Stereotypes"; Tan and Suarchavarat, "American TV and Social Stereotypes of Americans."
73. Yolanda F. Niemann, Leilani Jennings, Richard M. Rozelle, James C. Baxter, and Elroy Sullivan, "Use of Free Responses and Cluster Analysis to Determine Stereotypes of Eight Groups," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20 (August 1994): 379-90.
74. Nieman et al., "Use of Free Responses," 389.
75. George E. Marcus, "The Structure of Emotional Response: 1984 Presidential Candidates," American Political Science Review 82 (September 1988): 737-61.
76. A similar scale was constructed to combine positive and negative feelings scores into one overall feelings measure. Note: While the average scores for these two combined scales is only .17 and .19, respectively, the range of the scores is fairly well distributed indicating small but significant differences: The scores for overall stereotypical perceptions (positive minus negative stereotype scale scores) range from -2.10 to 1.93 (possible range:-4 to 4) with a mean of .17, a standard deviation of .54, and a variance of .29. The scores for overall feelings (positive minus negative feelings scale scores) range from -1.50 to 1.75 (possible range: -3 to 3) with a mean of .19, a standard deviation of .46, and a variance of .22.
77. Because this study is correlational by nature, it is not possible to test whether feelings influence or promote the formation of stereotypes or vice versa. This study also could not rule out the possibility that the audience first develops certain feelings and then actively seeks out media information to gratify their perceptive and affective needs.