Making savages of us all: White women, Pueblo Indians, and the controversy over Indian dances in the 1920s

Frontiers

Volumn 17, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 178-209

  Jacobs, Margaret D ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040655163     PISSN: 01609009     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3346887     Document Type: Article

References (192)

1. Statement of Evelyn Bentley, September 30, 1920, E. M. Sweet, Jr., collection, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. The Pueblos include both the Hopis of Arizona and all of the Pueblo peoples of New Mexico. Even though all of these groups are considered Pueblos, there are many significant differences of language, religion, social structure, and ceremonial cycle between the Hopi and the Rio Grande Pueblos and among the Rio Grande Pueblos. See Edward Dozier, The Pueblo Indians of North America (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970). The only other historical article I know of that has drawn upon the so-called Secret Dance File (the Sweet collection) is Martin Bauml Duberman, "Documents in Hopi Indian Sexuality: Imperialism, Culture, and Resistance," Radical History Review 20 (spring/summer 1979): 99-130. This article reprints some of the affidavits in the Secret Dance File but provides little analysis.
2. Statement of Evelyn Bentley, September 30, 1920, E. M. Sweet, Jr., collection, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. The Pueblos include both the Hopis of Arizona and all of the Pueblo peoples of New Mexico. Even though all of these groups are considered Pueblos, there are many significant differences of language, religion, social structure, and ceremonial cycle between the Hopi and the Rio Grande Pueblos and among the Rio Grande Pueblos. See Edward Dozier, The Pueblo Indians of North America (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970). The only other historical article I know of that has drawn upon the so-called Secret Dance File (the Sweet collection) is Martin Bauml Duberman, "Documents in Hopi Indian Sexuality: Imperialism, Culture, and Resistance," Radical History Review 20 (spring/summer 1979): 99-130. This article reprints some of the affidavits in the Secret Dance File but provides little analysis.
3. John Collier, who became Commissioner of Indian Affairs under Franklin Roosevelt in 1933, railed against the Secret Dance File as "subterranean propaganda." See "For two years, the public has heard," n.t. (1923), and John Collier, letter to the editor, New York Times, November 14, 1924, carton 1, "Collier, Pueblos and Religious Persecution," California League of American Indian (CLAI) Papers, Bancroft Library, Berkeley, California.
4. John Collier, who became Commissioner of Indian Affairs under Franklin Roosevelt in 1933, railed against the Secret Dance File as "subterranean propaganda." See "For two years, the public has heard," n.t. (1923), and John Collier, letter to the editor, New York Times, November 14, 1924, carton 1, "Collier, Pueblos and Religious Persecution," California League of American Indian (CLAI) Papers, Bancroft Library, Berkeley, California.
5. Circular 1665, John Collier papers (Sanford, N.C.: Microfilming Corporation of America, 1980), reel 5.
6. Circular 1665 and supplement, Collier papers, reel 5.
7. Mary Austin, Land of Journey's Ending (New York: The Century Company, 1924), 444. These new Indian advocacy organizations included the American Indian Defense Association (AIDA), the New Mexico Association on Indian Affairs (NMAIA), the Eastern Association on Indian Affairs (EAIA), and the Indian Welfare committee of the General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC).
8. Lawrence C. Kelly, The Assault on Assimilation: John Collier and the Origins of Indian Policy Reform (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983), 298-339; Kenneth Philp, John Collier's Crusade for Indian Reform (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977), 57-65; and David M. Strausfeld, "Reformers in Conflict: The Pueblo Dance Controversy," in The Aggressions of Civilization: Federal Indian Policy Since the 1880s, ed. Sandra Cadwalader and Vine Deloria, Jr. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984), 19-43.
9. Lawrence C. Kelly, The Assault on Assimilation: John Collier and the Origins of Indian Policy Reform (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983), 298-339; Kenneth Philp, John Collier's Crusade for Indian Reform (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977), 57-65; and David M. Strausfeld, "Reformers in Conflict: The Pueblo Dance Controversy," in The Aggressions of Civilization: Federal Indian Policy Since the 1880s, ed. Sandra Cadwalader and Vine Deloria, Jr. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984), 19-43.
10. Lawrence C. Kelly, The Assault on Assimilation: John Collier and the Origins of Indian Policy Reform (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983), 298-339; Kenneth Philp, John Collier's Crusade for Indian Reform (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977), 57-65; and David M. Strausfeld, "Reformers in Conflict: The Pueblo Dance Controversy," in The Aggressions of Civilization: Federal Indian Policy Since the 1880s, ed. Sandra Cadwalader and Vine Deloria, Jr. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984), 19-43.
11. Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Paul Robinson, The Modernization of Sex: Havelock Ellis, Alfred Kinsey, William Masters and Virginia Johnson (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 1-41; Elaine Tyler May, Great Expectations: Marriage and Divorce in Post-Victorian America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Peter Gabriel Filene, Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1974), 1-168; Ellen K. Rothman, Hands and Hearts: A History of Courtship in America (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 179-311; John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 171-274; William L. O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), especially 163-84; Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The New Woman as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender Crisis, 1870-1936," in Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America, ed. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985), 245-96.
12. Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Paul Robinson, The Modernization of Sex: Havelock Ellis, Alfred Kinsey, William Masters and Virginia Johnson (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 1-41; Elaine Tyler May, Great Expectations: Marriage and Divorce in Post-Victorian America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Peter Gabriel Filene, Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1974), 1-168; Ellen K. Rothman, Hands and Hearts: A History of Courtship in America (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 179-311; John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 171-274; William L. O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), especially 163-84; Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The New Woman as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender Crisis, 1870-1936," in Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America, ed. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985), 245-96.
13. Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Paul Robinson, The Modernization of Sex: Havelock Ellis, Alfred Kinsey, William Masters and Virginia Johnson (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 1-41; Elaine Tyler May, Great Expectations: Marriage and Divorce in Post-Victorian America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Peter Gabriel Filene, Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1974), 1-168; Ellen K. Rothman, Hands and Hearts: A History of Courtship in America (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 179-311; John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 171-274; William L. O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), especially 163-84; Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The New Woman as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender Crisis, 1870-1936," in Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America, ed. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985), 245-96.
14. Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Paul Robinson, The Modernization of Sex: Havelock Ellis, Alfred Kinsey, William Masters and Virginia Johnson (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 1-41; Elaine Tyler May, Great Expectations: Marriage and Divorce in Post-Victorian America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Peter Gabriel Filene, Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1974), 1-168; Ellen K. Rothman, Hands and Hearts: A History of Courtship in America (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 179-311; John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 171-274; William L. O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), especially 163-84; Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The New Woman as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender Crisis, 1870-1936," in Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America, ed. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985), 245-96.
15. Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Paul Robinson, The Modernization of Sex: Havelock Ellis, Alfred Kinsey, William Masters and Virginia Johnson (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 1-41; Elaine Tyler May, Great Expectations: Marriage and Divorce in Post-Victorian America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Peter Gabriel Filene, Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1974), 1-168; Ellen K. Rothman, Hands and Hearts: A History of Courtship in America (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 179-311; John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 171-274; William L. O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), especially 163-84; Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The New Woman as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender Crisis, 1870-1936," in Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America, ed. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985), 245-96.
16. Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Paul Robinson, The Modernization of Sex: Havelock Ellis, Alfred Kinsey, William Masters and Virginia Johnson (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 1-41; Elaine Tyler May, Great Expectations: Marriage and Divorce in Post-Victorian America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Peter Gabriel Filene, Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1974), 1-168; Ellen K. Rothman, Hands and Hearts: A History of Courtship in America (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 179-311; John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 171-274; William L. O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), especially 163-84; Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The New Woman as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender Crisis, 1870-1936," in Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America, ed. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985), 245-96.
17. Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Paul Robinson, The Modernization of Sex: Havelock Ellis, Alfred Kinsey, William Masters and Virginia Johnson (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 1-41; Elaine Tyler May, Great Expectations: Marriage and Divorce in Post-Victorian America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Peter Gabriel Filene, Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1974), 1-168; Ellen K. Rothman, Hands and Hearts: A History of Courtship in America (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 179-311; John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 171-274; William L. O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), especially 163-84; Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The New Woman as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender Crisis, 1870-1936," in Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America, ed. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985), 245-96.
18. Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Paul Robinson, The Modernization of Sex: Havelock Ellis, Alfred Kinsey, William Masters and Virginia Johnson (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 1-41; Elaine Tyler May, Great Expectations: Marriage and Divorce in Post-Victorian America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Peter Gabriel Filene, Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1974), 1-168; Ellen K. Rothman, Hands and Hearts: A History of Courtship in America (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 179-311; John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 171-274; William L. O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), especially 163-84; Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The New Woman as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender Crisis, 1870-1936," in Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America, ed. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985), 245-96.
19. Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Paul Robinson, The Modernization of Sex: Havelock Ellis, Alfred Kinsey, William Masters and Virginia Johnson (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 1-41; Elaine Tyler May, Great Expectations: Marriage and Divorce in Post-Victorian America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Peter Gabriel Filene, Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1974), 1-168; Ellen K. Rothman, Hands and Hearts: A History of Courtship in America (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 179-311; John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 171-274; William L. O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), especially 163-84; Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The New Woman as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender Crisis, 1870-1936," in Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America, ed. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985), 245-96.
20. Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Paul Robinson, The Modernization of Sex: Havelock Ellis, Alfred Kinsey, William Masters and Virginia Johnson (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 1-41; Elaine Tyler May, Great Expectations: Marriage and Divorce in Post-Victorian America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Peter Gabriel Filene, Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1974), 1-168; Ellen K. Rothman, Hands and Hearts: A History of Courtship in America (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 179-311; John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 171-274; William L. O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), especially 163-84; Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The New Woman as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender Crisis, 1870-1936," in Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America, ed. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985), 245-96.
21. While historians Joan Wallach Scott and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg have argued in several essays about ways in which discourses use gender, sexuality, and the body as metaphors for other political and economic conflicts, this article argues that the reverse can be true as well. Discourses about other conflicts can also be used for debating matters of gender and sexuality. See Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," in Gender and the Politics of History, ed. Joan Wallach Scott (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 28-52; and Smith-Rosenberg, "Hearing Women's Words: A Feminist Reconstruction of History," in Disorderly Conduct, 11-52.
22. While historians Joan Wallach Scott and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg have argued in several essays about ways in which discourses use gender, sexuality, and the body as metaphors for other political and economic conflicts, this article argues that the reverse can be true as well. Discourses about other conflicts can also be used for debating matters of gender and sexuality. See Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," in Gender and the Politics of History, ed. Joan Wallach Scott (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 28-52; and Smith-Rosenberg, "Hearing Women's Words: A Feminist Reconstruction of History," in Disorderly Conduct, 11-52.
23. Many anthropologists have observed that the Pueblos customarily designated certain men as the spokesmen of their pueblos to outsiders. See Alice Marriott, Maria: The Potter of San Ildefonso (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1948), 119. On the differences between men's and women's roles, see M. Jane Young, "Women, Reproduction, and Religion in Western Puebloan Society," Journal of American Folklore 100 (October-December 1987); and Alice Schlegel, "Male and Female in Hopi Thought and Action," in Sexual Stratification: A Cross-Cultural View, ed. Alice Schlegel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977).
24. Many anthropologists have observed that the Pueblos customarily designated certain men as the spokesmen of their pueblos to outsiders. See Alice Marriott, Maria: The Potter of San Ildefonso (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1948), 119. On the differences between men's and women's roles, see M. Jane Young, "Women, Reproduction, and Religion in Western Puebloan Society," Journal of American Folklore 100 (October-December 1987); and Alice Schlegel, "Male and Female in Hopi Thought and Action," in Sexual Stratification: A Cross-Cultural View, ed. Alice Schlegel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977).
25. Many anthropologists have observed that the Pueblos customarily designated certain men as the spokesmen of their pueblos to outsiders. See Alice Marriott, Maria: The Potter of San Ildefonso (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1948), 119. On the differences between men's and women's roles, see M. Jane Young, "Women, Reproduction, and Religion in Western Puebloan Society," Journal of American Folklore 100 (October-December 1987); and Alice Schlegel, "Male and Female in Hopi Thought and Action," in Sexual Stratification: A Cross-Cultural View, ed. Alice Schlegel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977).
26. Mary Dissette to Miss Willard, March 3, 1924, Indian Rights Association (IRA) papers (Glen Rock, N.J.: Microfilming Corporation of America, 1975), reel 40.
27. Amelia Stone Quinton, "Care of the Indian," in Woman's Work in America, ed. Annie Nathan Meyer (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1891), 373-91; Valerie Sherer Mathes, "Nineteenth Century Women and Reform: The Women's National Indian Association, American Indian Quarterly 14:1 (1990), 3-18; Helen Wanken, "Woman's Sphere and Indian Reform: The Women's National Indian Association, 1879-1901" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1981), 7-38; and Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1030 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 7-10.
28. Amelia Stone Quinton, "Care of the Indian," in Woman's Work in America, ed. Annie Nathan Meyer (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1891), 373-91; Valerie Sherer Mathes, "Nineteenth Century Women and Reform: The Women's National Indian Association, American Indian Quarterly 14:1 (1990), 3-18; Helen Wanken, "Woman's Sphere and Indian Reform: The Women's National Indian Association, 1879-1901" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1981), 7-38; and Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1030 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 7-10.
29. Amelia Stone Quinton, "Care of the Indian," in Woman's Work in America, ed. Annie Nathan Meyer (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1891), 373-91; Valerie Sherer Mathes, "Nineteenth Century Women and Reform: The Women's National Indian Association, American Indian Quarterly 14:1 (1990), 3-18; Helen Wanken, "Woman's Sphere and Indian Reform: The Women's National Indian Association, 1879-1901" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1981), 7-38; and Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1030 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 7-10.
30. Amelia Stone Quinton, "Care of the Indian," in Woman's Work in America, ed. Annie Nathan Meyer (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1891), 373-91; Valerie Sherer Mathes, "Nineteenth Century Women and Reform: The Women's National Indian Association, American Indian Quarterly 14:1 (1990), 3-18; Helen Wanken, "Woman's Sphere and Indian Reform: The Women's National Indian Association, 1879-1901" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1981), 7-38; and Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1030 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 7-10.
31. Frederick Hoxie, "The Curious Story of Reformers and the American Indians," in Indians in American History, ed. Frederick Hoxie (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 1988), 213; Brian Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and United States Indian Policy (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1982), 108-11, 161-76; Francis Paul Prucha, "Indian Policy Reform and American Protestantism, 1880-1900," in People of the Plains and Mountains: Essays in the History of the West, ed. Ray Allen Billington (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973), 126-29, 134-39; Lisa Emmerich, "'To respect and love and seek the ways of white women': Field Matrons, the Office of Indian Affairs, and Civilization Policy, 1890-1938" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1987), 12-13; and Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Policy in Crisis: Christian Reformers and the Indian, 1865-1900 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), 169-401.
32. Frederick Hoxie, "The Curious Story of Reformers and the American Indians," in Indians in American History, ed. Frederick Hoxie (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 1988), 213; Brian Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and United States Indian Policy (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1982), 108-11, 161-76; Francis Paul Prucha, "Indian Policy Reform and American Protestantism, 1880-1900," in People of the Plains and Mountains: Essays in the History of the West, ed. Ray Allen Billington (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973), 126-29, 134-39; Lisa Emmerich, "'To respect and love and seek the ways of white women': Field Matrons, the Office of Indian Affairs, and Civilization Policy, 1890-1938" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1987), 12-13; and Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Policy in Crisis: Christian Reformers and the Indian, 1865-1900 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), 169-401.
33. Frederick Hoxie, "The Curious Story of Reformers and the American Indians," in Indians in American History, ed. Frederick Hoxie (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 1988), 213; Brian Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and United States Indian Policy (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1982), 108-11, 161-76; Francis Paul Prucha, "Indian Policy Reform and American Protestantism, 1880-1900," in People of the Plains and Mountains: Essays in the History of the West, ed. Ray Allen Billington (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973), 126-29, 134-39; Lisa Emmerich, "'To respect and love and seek the ways of white women': Field Matrons, the Office of Indian Affairs, and Civilization Policy, 1890-1938" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1987), 12-13; and Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Policy in Crisis: Christian Reformers and the Indian, 1865-1900 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), 169-401.
34. Frederick Hoxie, "The Curious Story of Reformers and the American Indians," in Indians in American History, ed. Frederick Hoxie (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 1988), 213; Brian Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and United States Indian Policy (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1982), 108-11, 161-76; Francis Paul Prucha, "Indian Policy Reform and American Protestantism, 1880-1900," in People of the Plains and Mountains: Essays in the History of the West, ed. Ray Allen Billington (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973), 126-29, 134-39; Lisa Emmerich, "'To respect and love and seek the ways of white women': Field Matrons, the Office of Indian Affairs, and Civilization Policy, 1890-1938" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1987), 12-13; and Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Policy in Crisis: Christian Reformers and the Indian, 1865-1900 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), 169-401.
35. Frederick Hoxie, "The Curious Story of Reformers and the American Indians," in Indians in American History, ed. Frederick Hoxie (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 1988), 213; Brian Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and United States Indian Policy (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1982), 108-11, 161-76; Francis Paul Prucha, "Indian Policy Reform and American Protestantism, 1880-1900," in People of the Plains and Mountains: Essays in the History of the West, ed. Ray Allen Billington (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973), 126-29, 134-39; Lisa Emmerich, "'To respect and love and seek the ways of white women': Field Matrons, the Office of Indian Affairs, and Civilization Policy, 1890-1938" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1987), 12-13; and Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Policy in Crisis: Christian Reformers and the Indian, 1865-1900 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), 169-401.
36. Quoted in Emmerich, "'To respect and love,'" 24. See also, Helen Bannan, "True Womanhood" on the Reservation: Field Matrons in the U.S. Indian Service, Southwest Institute for Research on Women, Working Paper no. 18 (Tucson: Women's Studies, 1984), 5-6; and Emmerich, "'To repect and love,'" 16-36.
37. Quoted in Emmerich, "'To respect and love,'" 24. See also, Helen Bannan, "True Womanhood" on the Reservation: Field Matrons in the U.S. Indian Service, Southwest Institute for Research on Women, Working Paper no. 18 (Tucson: Women's Studies, 1984), 5-6; and Emmerich, "'To repect and love,'" 16-36.
38. Quoted in Emmerich, "'To respect and love,'" 24. See also, Helen Bannan, "True Womanhood" on the Reservation: Field Matrons in the U.S. Indian Service, Southwest Institute for Research on Women, Working Paper no. 18 (Tucson: Women's Studies, 1984), 5-6; and Emmerich, "'To repect and love,'" 16-36.
39. Dissette to Herbert Welsh, June 18, 1894, Dissette to Mrs. Miller, March 14, 1894, and Dissette to "Friend," April 7, 1894, IRA papers, reel 11; Dissette to Welsh, February 5, 1896, and Dissette to D. R. James, June 4, 1895, IRA papers, reel 12; Dissette to Welsh, April 25, 1898, IRA papers, reel 13; and Dissette to Miss Willard, March 3, 1924, IRA papers, reel 40.
40. See Record Group (RG) 75, Pueblo Records, Superintendent's Correspondence with Day School Employees (entry 40), box 5, Paguate 1914 folder, and box 8, Santo Domingo 1914 folders, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Rocky Mountain Branch, Denver; "Dissette Collection of Indian Photographs," El Palacio 51 (March 1944): 60; and Fred Kabotie with Bill Belknap, Fred Kabotie: Hopi Indian Artist (Flagstaff: Museum of Arizona Press, 1977), 29. Dissette died in 1944.
41. See Record Group (RG) 75, Pueblo Records, Superintendent's Correspondence with Day School Employees (entry 40), box 5, Paguate 1914 folder, and box 8, Santo Domingo 1914 folders, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Rocky Mountain Branch, Denver; "Dissette Collection of Indian Photographs," El Palacio 51 (March 1944): 60; and Fred Kabotie with Bill Belknap, Fred Kabotie: Hopi Indian Artist (Flagstaff: Museum of Arizona Press, 1977), 29. Dissette died in 1944.
42. Clara True to Matthew Sniffen, January 29, 1912, IRA papers, reel 25; True to Samuel Brosius, March 22, 1913, IRA papers, reel 27; True to Welsh, April 19, 1922, IRA papers, reel 38; True to Sniffen, June 16, 1919, IRA papers, reel 34; "History of Schools in Santa Clara," Collier papers, reel 29; and True to Superintendent Crandall, August 29, 1902, RG 75, Pueblo Records, entry 38, box 1, NARA, Denver. During her time at Morongo, True oversaw the legendary hunt for "Willie Boy," an Indian man accused of killing his Indian lover and her father. A recent book explores this incident. See James A. Sandos and Larry E. Burgess, The Hunt for Willie Boy: Indian-Hating and Popular Culture (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994). A movie made about the incident, "Tell Them Willie Boy is Here," made True into a "leggy and handsome" emancipated new woman who had a torrid affair with the character played by Robert Redford (Sandos and Burgess, Hunt for Willie Boy, 57, 66). See also Harry Lawton, Willie Boy: A Desert Manhunt (Balboa Island, Calif.: Paisano Press, 1960). For more on both Dissette and True, see Margaret Jacobs, "Uplifting Cultures: Encounters Between White Women and Pueblo Indians, 1890-1935" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Davis, 1996), chap. 2.
43. Clara True to Matthew Sniffen, January 29, 1912, IRA papers, reel 25; True to Samuel Brosius, March 22, 1913, IRA papers, reel 27; True to Welsh, April 19, 1922, IRA papers, reel 38; True to Sniffen, June 16, 1919, IRA papers, reel 34; "History of Schools in Santa Clara," Collier papers, reel 29; and True to Superintendent Crandall, August 29, 1902, RG 75, Pueblo Records, entry 38, box 1, NARA, Denver. During her time at Morongo, True oversaw the legendary hunt for "Willie Boy," an Indian man accused of killing his Indian lover and her father. A recent book explores this incident. See James A. Sandos and Larry E. Burgess, The Hunt for Willie Boy: Indian-Hating and Popular Culture (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994). A movie made about the incident, "Tell Them Willie Boy is Here," made True into a "leggy and handsome" emancipated new woman who had a torrid affair with the character played by Robert Redford (Sandos and Burgess, Hunt for Willie Boy, 57, 66). See also Harry Lawton, Willie Boy: A Desert Manhunt (Balboa Island, Calif.: Paisano Press, 1960). For more on both Dissette and True, see Margaret Jacobs, "Uplifting Cultures: Encounters Between White Women and Pueblo Indians, 1890-1935" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Davis, 1996), chap. 2.
44. Clara True to Matthew Sniffen, January 29, 1912, IRA papers, reel 25; True to Samuel Brosius, March 22, 1913, IRA papers, reel 27; True to Welsh, April 19, 1922, IRA papers, reel 38; True to Sniffen, June 16, 1919, IRA papers, reel 34; "History of Schools in Santa Clara," Collier papers, reel 29; and True to Superintendent Crandall, August 29, 1902, RG 75, Pueblo Records, entry 38, box 1, NARA, Denver. During her time at Morongo, True oversaw the legendary hunt for "Willie Boy," an Indian man accused of killing his Indian lover and her father. A recent book explores this incident. See James A. Sandos and Larry E. Burgess, The Hunt for Willie Boy: Indian-Hating and Popular Culture (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994). A movie made about the incident, "Tell Them Willie Boy is Here," made True into a "leggy and handsome" emancipated new woman who had a torrid affair with the character played by Robert Redford (Sandos and Burgess, Hunt for Willie Boy, 57, 66). See also Harry Lawton, Willie Boy: A Desert Manhunt (Balboa Island, Calif.: Paisano Press, 1960). For more on both Dissette and True, see Margaret Jacobs, "Uplifting Cultures: Encounters Between White Women and Pueblo Indians, 1890-1935" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Davis, 1996), chap. 2.
45. Clara True to Matthew Sniffen, January 29, 1912, IRA papers, reel 25; True to Samuel Brosius, March 22, 1913, IRA papers, reel 27; True to Welsh, April 19, 1922, IRA papers, reel 38; True to Sniffen, June 16, 1919, IRA papers, reel 34; "History of Schools in Santa Clara," Collier papers, reel 29; and True to Superintendent Crandall, August 29, 1902, RG 75, Pueblo Records, entry 38, box 1, NARA, Denver. During her time at Morongo, True oversaw the legendary hunt for "Willie Boy," an Indian man accused of killing his Indian lover and her father. A recent book explores this incident. See James A. Sandos and Larry E. Burgess, The Hunt for Willie Boy: Indian-Hating and Popular Culture (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994). A movie made about the incident, "Tell Them Willie Boy is Here," made True into a "leggy and handsome" emancipated new woman who had a torrid affair with the character played by Robert Redford (Sandos and Burgess, Hunt for Willie Boy, 57, 66). See also Harry Lawton, Willie Boy: A Desert Manhunt (Balboa Island, Calif.: Paisano Press, 1960). For more on both Dissette and True, see Margaret Jacobs, "Uplifting Cultures: Encounters Between White Women and Pueblo Indians, 1890-1935" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Davis, 1996), chap. 2.
46. Mathes, "Nineteenth Century Women," 1-3; and Wanken, "Woman's Sphere," 7-12.
47. Mathes, "Nineteenth Century Women," 1-3; and Wanken, "Woman's Sphere," 7-12.
48. See Jacobs, "Uplifting Cultures," chap. 2.
49. Robert M. Utley, The Indian Frontier of the American West, 1846-1890 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984), 220, 243. The Ghost Dance movement, which started among the Paiutes in Nevada, promised that God would kill off all the whites, bring dead Indians back to life, and return the earth to the Indians. Philip Weeks, Farewell, My Nation: The American Indian and the United States, 1820-1800 (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, Inc., 1990), 109-92, 232; and Hazel Hertzberg, The Search for an American Indian Identity: Modern Pan-Indian Movements (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1971), 10-14. A circular issued by Commissioner of Indian Affairs W. A. Jones in 1902, entitled "Long Hair Prohibited," mentioned briefly at the end that Indian dances should be prohibited. This circular, however, did not specify which dances it found in need of prohibition, and it did not mention sexual immorality as a justification for banning Indian dances. See Circular 13, January 1920, Special Collections, Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene. Thanks to Annette Reed-Crum for bringing this document to my attention.
50. Robert M. Utley, The Indian Frontier of the American West, 1846-1890 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984), 220, 243. The Ghost Dance movement, which started among the Paiutes in Nevada, promised that God would kill off all the whites, bring dead Indians back to life, and return the earth to the Indians. Philip Weeks, Farewell, My Nation: The American Indian and the United States, 1820-1800 (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, Inc., 1990), 109-92, 232; and Hazel Hertzberg, The Search for an American Indian Identity: Modern Pan-Indian Movements (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1971), 10-14. A circular issued by Commissioner of Indian Affairs W. A. Jones in 1902, entitled "Long Hair Prohibited," mentioned briefly at the end that Indian dances should be prohibited. This circular, however, did not specify which dances it found in need of prohibition, and it did not mention sexual immorality as a justification for banning Indian dances. See Circular 13, January 1920, Special Collections, Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene. Thanks to Annette Reed-Crum for bringing this document to my attention.
51. Robert M. Utley, The Indian Frontier of the American West, 1846-1890 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984), 220, 243. The Ghost Dance movement, which started among the Paiutes in Nevada, promised that God would kill off all the whites, bring dead Indians back to life, and return the earth to the Indians. Philip Weeks, Farewell, My Nation: The American Indian and the United States, 1820-1800 (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, Inc., 1990), 109-92, 232; and Hazel Hertzberg, The Search for an American Indian Identity: Modern Pan-Indian Movements (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1971), 10-14. A circular issued by Commissioner of Indian Affairs W. A. Jones in 1902, entitled "Long Hair Prohibited," mentioned briefly at the end that Indian dances should be prohibited. This circular, however, did not specify which dances it found in need of prohibition, and it did not mention sexual immorality as a justification for banning Indian dances. See Circular 13, January 1920, Special Collections, Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene. Thanks to Annette Reed-Crum for bringing this document to my attention.
52. Superintendent, Santa Fe Indian School, "Memorandum for Supervisor Rosenkranz," December 26, 1913, RG 75, Santa Fe Indian School Day School Correspondence, 1913-1914 (entry 42), box 2, folder "S," NARA, Denver; and Commissioner Price to Pedro Sanchez, U.S. Indian Agent, Pueblo Agency, June 27, 1883, RG 75, Northern Pueblos, Misc. Reports and Correspondence, 1868-1934, box 5, folder 103, NARA, Denver. In The Pueblo Indians of North America, Dozier writes that up until 1900, Protestant missionaries did not "apparently object to the ceremonies of the pueblos" (105-6). I do not find evidence of concern about Pueblo dances on the part of missionaries until 1915.
53. "Exhibit D," Sweet collection.
54. Rosendo Vargas to Santa Fe Indian School, November 20, 1915, enclosed in Frederic Snyder to Superintendent Lonergan, Pueblo Day Schools, November 23, 1915, RG 75, Southern Pueblos Agency, General Correspondence Files, 1911-1935 (entry 90), box 21, folder 070, NARA, Denver.
55. Dissette to Brosius, April 18, 1913, IRA papers, reel 27; Dissette to Brosius, December 3, 1910, and True to Brosius, December 1, 1910, IRA papers, reel 23; and True to Sniffen, June 2, 1919, and True to Brosius, October 18, 1919, IRA papers, reel 34.
56. For some of the publicity that reformers wrote in condemnation of the dances, see Flora Seymour, "The Delusion of the Sentimentalists," Forum 71 (March 1924): 273-80; William E. Johnson, "Those Sacred Indian Ceremonials," The Native American 24 (20 September 1924): 173-77; William E. Johnson, "Civilizing Indian Dances and White Writers," typewritten ms., carton 1, "Pueblo Indian Religious Persecution Re. 'Pussyfoot'" folder, CLAI papers; Herbert Welsh, letters to the editor of The Herald and New York Times, August 22 and October 15, 1924, and "Indian Dances Degrading, Says Y.W.C.A. Leader," New York Times, November 25, 1923, clippings in Collier papers, reel 9; Hubert Work, "Our American Indians," The Saturday Evening Post, May 31, 1924, p. 92; and letter from Secretary of the Interior Work to San Ildefonso Pueblo, reprinted in Indian Truth 1 (March 1924): 4, Indian Truth 1 (April 1924): 4, and Indian Truth 1 (June 1924): 1-2. Indian Truth was an official publication of the Indian Rights Association. See also, G. E. E. Lindquist, The Red Man in the United States: An Intimate Study of the Social, Economic and Religious Life of the American Indian (New York: George H. Doran Co., 1923), 68, 267-68, 273, 287. This book published the results of an American Indian Survey begun in 1919 by the Interchurch World Movement.
57. For some of the publicity that reformers wrote in condemnation of the dances, see Flora Seymour, "The Delusion of the Sentimentalists," Forum 71 (March 1924): 273-80; William E. Johnson, "Those Sacred Indian Ceremonials," The Native American 24 (20 September 1924): 173-77; William E. Johnson, "Civilizing Indian Dances and White Writers," typewritten ms., carton 1, "Pueblo Indian Religious Persecution Re. 'Pussyfoot'" folder, CLAI papers; Herbert Welsh, letters to the editor of The Herald and New York Times, August 22 and October 15, 1924, and "Indian Dances Degrading, Says Y.W.C.A. Leader," New York Times, November 25, 1923, clippings in Collier papers, reel 9; Hubert Work, "Our American Indians," The Saturday Evening Post, May 31, 1924, p. 92; and letter from Secretary of the Interior Work to San Ildefonso Pueblo, reprinted in Indian Truth 1 (March 1924): 4, Indian Truth 1 (April 1924): 4, and Indian Truth 1 (June 1924): 1-2. Indian Truth was an official publication of the Indian Rights Association. See also, G. E. E. Lindquist, The Red Man in the United States: An Intimate Study of the Social, Economic and Religious Life of the American Indian (New York: George H. Doran Co., 1923), 68, 267-68, 273, 287. This book published the results of an American Indian Survey begun in 1919 by the Interchurch World Movement.
58. For some of the publicity that reformers wrote in condemnation of the dances, see Flora Seymour, "The Delusion of the Sentimentalists," Forum 71 (March 1924): 273-80; William E. Johnson, "Those Sacred Indian Ceremonials," The Native American 24 (20 September 1924): 173-77; William E. Johnson, "Civilizing Indian Dances and White Writers," typewritten ms., carton 1, "Pueblo Indian Religious Persecution Re. 'Pussyfoot'" folder, CLAI papers; Herbert Welsh, letters to the editor of The Herald and New York Times, August 22 and October 15, 1924, and "Indian Dances Degrading, Says Y.W.C.A. Leader," New York Times, November 25, 1923, clippings in Collier papers, reel 9; Hubert Work, "Our American Indians," The Saturday Evening Post, May 31, 1924, p. 92; and letter from Secretary of the Interior Work to San Ildefonso Pueblo, reprinted in Indian Truth 1 (March 1924): 4, Indian Truth 1 (April 1924): 4, and Indian Truth 1 (June 1924): 1-2. Indian Truth was an official publication of the Indian Rights Association. See also, G. E. E. Lindquist, The Red Man in the United States: An Intimate Study of the Social, Economic and Religious Life of the American Indian (New York: George H. Doran Co., 1923), 68, 267-68, 273, 287. This book published the results of an American Indian Survey begun in 1919 by the Interchurch World Movement.
59. For some of the publicity that reformers wrote in condemnation of the dances, see Flora Seymour, "The Delusion of the Sentimentalists," Forum 71 (March 1924): 273-80; William E. Johnson, "Those Sacred Indian Ceremonials," The Native American 24 (20 September 1924): 173-77; William E. Johnson, "Civilizing Indian Dances and White Writers," typewritten ms., carton 1, "Pueblo Indian Religious Persecution Re. 'Pussyfoot'" folder, CLAI papers; Herbert Welsh, letters to the editor of The Herald and New York Times, August 22 and October 15, 1924, and "Indian Dances Degrading, Says Y.W.C.A. Leader," New York Times, November 25, 1923, clippings in Collier papers, reel 9; Hubert Work, "Our American Indians," The Saturday Evening Post, May 31, 1924, p. 92; and letter from Secretary of the Interior Work to San Ildefonso Pueblo, reprinted in Indian Truth 1 (March 1924): 4, Indian Truth 1 (April 1924): 4, and Indian Truth 1 (June 1924): 1-2. Indian Truth was an official publication of the Indian Rights Association. See also, G. E. E. Lindquist, The Red Man in the United States: An Intimate Study of the Social, Economic and Religious Life of the American Indian (New York: George H. Doran Co., 1923), 68, 267-68, 273, 287. This book published the results of an American Indian Survey begun in 1919 by the Interchurch World Movement.
60. For some of the publicity that reformers wrote in condemnation of the dances, see Flora Seymour, "The Delusion of the Sentimentalists," Forum 71 (March 1924): 273-80; William E. Johnson, "Those Sacred Indian Ceremonials," The Native American 24 (20 September 1924): 173-77; William E. Johnson, "Civilizing Indian Dances and White Writers," typewritten ms., carton 1, "Pueblo Indian Religious Persecution Re. 'Pussyfoot'" folder, CLAI papers; Herbert Welsh, letters to the editor of The Herald and New York Times, August 22 and October 15, 1924, and "Indian Dances Degrading, Says Y.W.C.A. Leader," New York Times, November 25, 1923, clippings in Collier papers, reel 9; Hubert Work, "Our American Indians," The Saturday Evening Post, May 31, 1924, p. 92; and letter from Secretary of the Interior Work to San Ildefonso Pueblo, reprinted in Indian Truth 1 (March 1924): 4, Indian Truth 1 (April 1924): 4, and Indian Truth 1 (June 1924): 1-2. Indian Truth was an official publication of the Indian Rights Association. See also, G. E. E. Lindquist, The Red Man in the United States: An Intimate Study of the Social, Economic and Religious Life of the American Indian (New York: George H. Doran Co., 1923), 68, 267-68, 273, 287. This book published the results of an American Indian Survey begun in 1919 by the Interchurch World Movement.
61. For some of the publicity that reformers wrote in condemnation of the dances, see Flora Seymour, "The Delusion of the Sentimentalists," Forum 71 (March 1924): 273-80; William E. Johnson, "Those Sacred Indian Ceremonials," The Native American 24 (20 September 1924): 173-77; William E. Johnson, "Civilizing Indian Dances and White Writers," typewritten ms., carton 1, "Pueblo Indian Religious Persecution Re. 'Pussyfoot'" folder, CLAI papers; Herbert Welsh, letters to the editor of The Herald and New York Times, August 22 and October 15, 1924, and "Indian Dances Degrading, Says Y.W.C.A. Leader," New York Times, November 25, 1923, clippings in Collier papers, reel 9; Hubert Work, "Our American Indians," The Saturday Evening Post, May 31, 1924, p. 92; and letter from Secretary of the Interior Work to San Ildefonso Pueblo, reprinted in Indian Truth 1 (March 1924): 4, Indian Truth 1 (April 1924): 4, and Indian Truth 1 (June 1924): 1-2. Indian Truth was an official publication of the Indian Rights Association. See also, G. E. E. Lindquist, The Red Man in the United States: An Intimate Study of the Social, Economic and Religious Life of the American Indian (New York: George H. Doran Co., 1923), 68, 267-68, 273, 287. This book published the results of an American Indian Survey begun in 1919 by the Interchurch World Movement.
62. For some of the publicity that reformers wrote in condemnation of the dances, see Flora Seymour, "The Delusion of the Sentimentalists," Forum 71 (March 1924): 273-80; William E. Johnson, "Those Sacred Indian Ceremonials," The Native American 24 (20 September 1924): 173-77; William E. Johnson, "Civilizing Indian Dances and White Writers," typewritten ms., carton 1, "Pueblo Indian Religious Persecution Re. 'Pussyfoot'" folder, CLAI papers; Herbert Welsh, letters to the editor of The Herald and New York Times, August 22 and October 15, 1924, and "Indian Dances Degrading, Says Y.W.C.A. Leader," New York Times, November 25, 1923, clippings in Collier papers, reel 9; Hubert Work, "Our American Indians," The Saturday Evening Post, May 31, 1924, p. 92; and letter from Secretary of the Interior Work to San Ildefonso Pueblo, reprinted in Indian Truth 1 (March 1924): 4, Indian Truth 1 (April 1924): 4, and Indian Truth 1 (June 1924): 1-2. Indian Truth was an official publication of the Indian Rights Association. See also, G. E. E. Lindquist, The Red Man in the United States: An Intimate Study of the Social, Economic and Religious Life of the American Indian (New York: George H. Doran Co., 1923), 68, 267-68, 273, 287. This book published the results of an American Indian Survey begun in 1919 by the Interchurch World Movement.
63. For some of the publicity that reformers wrote in condemnation of the dances, see Flora Seymour, "The Delusion of the Sentimentalists," Forum 71 (March 1924): 273-80; William E. Johnson, "Those Sacred Indian Ceremonials," The Native American 24 (20 September 1924): 173-77; William E. Johnson, "Civilizing Indian Dances and White Writers," typewritten ms., carton 1, "Pueblo Indian Religious Persecution Re. 'Pussyfoot'" folder, CLAI papers; Herbert Welsh, letters to the editor of The Herald and New York Times, August 22 and October 15, 1924, and "Indian Dances Degrading, Says Y.W.C.A. Leader," New York Times, November 25, 1923, clippings in Collier papers, reel 9; Hubert Work, "Our American Indians," The Saturday Evening Post, May 31, 1924, p. 92; and letter from Secretary of the Interior Work to San Ildefonso Pueblo, reprinted in Indian Truth 1 (March 1924): 4, Indian Truth 1 (April 1924): 4, and Indian Truth 1 (June 1924): 1-2. Indian Truth was an official publication of the Indian Rights Association. See also, G. E. E. Lindquist, The Red Man in the United States: An Intimate Study of the Social, Economic and Religious Life of the American Indian (New York: George H. Doran Co., 1923), 68, 267-68, 273, 287. This book published the results of an American Indian Survey begun in 1919 by the Interchurch World Movement.
64. For some of the publicity that reformers wrote in condemnation of the dances, see Flora Seymour, "The Delusion of the Sentimentalists," Forum 71 (March 1924): 273-80; William E. Johnson, "Those Sacred Indian Ceremonials," The Native American 24 (20 September 1924): 173-77; William E. Johnson, "Civilizing Indian Dances and White Writers," typewritten ms., carton 1, "Pueblo Indian Religious Persecution Re. 'Pussyfoot'" folder, CLAI papers; Herbert Welsh, letters to the editor of The Herald and New York Times, August 22 and October 15, 1924, and "Indian Dances Degrading, Says Y.W.C.A. Leader," New York Times, November 25, 1923, clippings in Collier papers, reel 9; Hubert Work, "Our American Indians," The Saturday Evening Post, May 31, 1924, p. 92; and letter from Secretary of the Interior Work to San Ildefonso Pueblo, reprinted in Indian Truth 1 (March 1924): 4, Indian Truth 1 (April 1924): 4, and Indian Truth 1 (June 1924): 1-2. Indian Truth was an official publication of the Indian Rights Association. See also, G. E. E. Lindquist, The Red Man in the United States: An Intimate Study of the Social, Economic and Religious Life of the American Indian (New York: George H. Doran Co., 1923), 68, 267-68, 273, 287. This book published the results of an American Indian Survey begun in 1919 by the Interchurch World Movement.
65. For some of the publicity that reformers wrote in condemnation of the dances, see Flora Seymour, "The Delusion of the Sentimentalists," Forum 71 (March 1924): 273-80; William E. Johnson, "Those Sacred Indian Ceremonials," The Native American 24 (20 September 1924): 173-77; William E. Johnson, "Civilizing Indian Dances and White Writers," typewritten ms., carton 1, "Pueblo Indian Religious Persecution Re. 'Pussyfoot'" folder, CLAI papers; Herbert Welsh, letters to the editor of The Herald and New York Times, August 22 and October 15, 1924, and "Indian Dances Degrading, Says Y.W.C.A. Leader," New York Times, November 25, 1923, clippings in Collier papers, reel 9; Hubert Work, "Our American Indians," The Saturday Evening Post, May 31, 1924, p. 92; and letter from Secretary of the Interior Work to San Ildefonso Pueblo, reprinted in Indian Truth 1 (March 1924): 4, Indian Truth 1 (April 1924): 4, and Indian Truth 1 (June 1924): 1-2. Indian Truth was an official publication of the Indian Rights Association. See also, G. E. E. Lindquist, The Red Man in the United States: An Intimate Study of the Social, Economic and Religious Life of the American Indian (New York: George H. Doran Co., 1923), 68, 267-68, 273, 287. This book published the results of an American Indian Survey begun in 1919 by the Interchurch World Movement.
66. Circular 1665 and supplement, Collier papers, reel 5.
67. Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 32-69.
68. Circular 1665 and supplement, Collier papers, reel 5.
69. Peiss, Cheap Amusements, 163-84.
70. Filene, Him/Her/Self, 303.
71. Katsinas (more commonly spelled "kachinas") are supernatural beings who live in sacred areas near some of the pueblos. They visit the pueblos at certain times of year for religious ceremonies. According to Frederick J. Dockstader, in The Kachina and the White Man: The Influences of White Culture on the Hopi Kachina Religion (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985), "these beings have the power to bring rain, exercise control over the weather, help in many of the everyday activities of the villages, punish offenders of ceremonial or social laws, and in general act as a link between gods and mortals" (9). What anthropologists have called the "kachina cult" is strongest among the Hopi and Zuni, takes a modified form among the Rio Grande Pueblos, and seems to fade out among the northeasternmost pueblos of Taos and Picuris. Kachinas also refer to the masked impersonators of the supernatural beings who perform at some Pueblo ceremonies. Sometimes the kachinas entertain the crowd alongside the clowns. Dolls representing the masked impersonators of the spirits have become a major tourist item for sale in the Southwest. See also, Alfonso Ortiz, The Tewa World: Space, Time, Being, and Becoming in a Pueblo Society (Chicgo: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 18; and Fred Eggan, "Pueblos: Introduction," in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 9, ed. Alfonso Ortiz (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1979), 227-30.
72. Katsinas (more commonly spelled "kachinas") are supernatural beings who live in sacred areas near some of the pueblos. They visit the pueblos at certain times of year for religious ceremonies. According to Frederick J. Dockstader, in The Kachina and the White Man: The Influences of White Culture on the Hopi Kachina Religion (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985), "these beings have the power to bring rain, exercise control over the weather, help in many of the everyday activities of the villages, punish offenders of ceremonial or social laws, and in general act as a link between gods and mortals" (9). What anthropologists have called the "kachina cult" is strongest among the Hopi and Zuni, takes a modified form among the Rio Grande Pueblos, and seems to fade out among the northeasternmost pueblos of Taos and Picuris. Kachinas also refer to the masked impersonators of the supernatural beings who perform at some Pueblo ceremonies. Sometimes the kachinas entertain the crowd alongside the clowns. Dolls representing the masked impersonators of the spirits have become a major tourist item for sale in the Southwest. See also, Alfonso Ortiz, The Tewa World: Space, Time, Being, and Becoming in a Pueblo Society (Chicgo: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 18; and Fred Eggan, "Pueblos: Introduction," in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 9, ed. Alfonso Ortiz (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1979), 227-30.
73. Katsinas (more commonly spelled "kachinas") are supernatural beings who live in sacred areas near some of the pueblos. They visit the pueblos at certain times of year for religious ceremonies. According to Frederick J. Dockstader, in The Kachina and the White Man: The Influences of White Culture on the Hopi Kachina Religion (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985), "these beings have the power to bring rain, exercise control over the weather, help in many of the everyday activities of the villages, punish offenders of ceremonial or social laws, and in general act as a link between gods and mortals" (9). What anthropologists have called the "kachina cult" is strongest among the Hopi and Zuni, takes a modified form among the Rio Grande Pueblos, and seems to fade out among the northeasternmost pueblos of Taos and Picuris. Kachinas also refer to the masked impersonators of the supernatural beings who perform at some Pueblo ceremonies. Sometimes the kachinas entertain the crowd alongside the clowns. Dolls representing the masked impersonators of the spirits have become a major tourist item for sale in the Southwest. See also, Alfonso Ortiz, The Tewa World: Space, Time, Being, and Becoming in a Pueblo Society (Chicgo: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 18; and Fred Eggan, "Pueblos: Introduction," in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 9, ed. Alfonso Ortiz (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1979), 227-30.
74. Statement of Johnson Tuwaletstiwa, August 14, 1920, Sweet collection.
75. Statement of Kuwanwikvaya, August 26, 1920, Sweet collection.
76. Statement of Tuwaletstiwa, August 14, 1920. See also, Statement of Mango, August 12, 1920, both in the Sweet collection.
77. Statement of Tuwaletstiwa, August 14, 1920. See also Statement of Talasnimtiwa, August 12, 1920, both in the Sweet collection.
78. Statement of Tuwaletstiwa, August 14, 1920, Sweet collection.
79. On female moral reformers' views of Indian women as victims, see Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, Bannan, "True Womanhood"; and Emmerich, "'To respect and love. '" Kathy Peiss and Christina Simmons argue that before the 1920s, middle-class white women contrasted their own "purity" with other "subordinate groups," whom they "depicted as loose, rowdy, carnal, and debased." See "Passion and Power: An Introduction," in Passion and Power: Sexuality in History, ed. Kathy Peiss and Christina Simmons (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 3-13. While this may have been true of their depictions of working-class women and black women, interestingly white middle-class women did not seem to "sexualize" Indian women until the 1920s.
80. On female moral reformers' views of Indian women as victims, see Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, Bannan, "True Womanhood"; and Emmerich, "'To respect and love. '" Kathy Peiss and Christina Simmons argue that before the 1920s, middle-class white women contrasted their own "purity" with other "subordinate groups," whom they "depicted as loose, rowdy, carnal, and debased." See "Passion and Power: An Introduction," in Passion and Power: Sexuality in History, ed. Kathy Peiss and Christina Simmons (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 3-13. While this may have been true of their depictions of working-class women and black women, interestingly white middle-class women did not seem to "sexualize" Indian women until the 1920s.
81. On female moral reformers' views of Indian women as victims, see Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, Bannan, "True Womanhood"; and Emmerich, "'To respect and love. '" Kathy Peiss and Christina Simmons argue that before the 1920s, middle-class white women contrasted their own "purity" with other "subordinate groups," whom they "depicted as loose, rowdy, carnal, and debased." See "Passion and Power: An Introduction," in Passion and Power: Sexuality in History, ed. Kathy Peiss and Christina Simmons (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 3-13. While this may have been true of their depictions of working-class women and black women, interestingly white middle-class women did not seem to "sexualize" Indian women until the 1920s.
82. On female moral reformers' views of Indian women as victims, see Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, Bannan, "True Womanhood"; and Emmerich, "'To respect and love. '" Kathy Peiss and Christina Simmons argue that before the 1920s, middle-class white women contrasted their own "purity" with other "subordinate groups," whom they "depicted as loose, rowdy, carnal, and debased." See "Passion and Power: An Introduction," in Passion and Power: Sexuality in History, ed. Kathy Peiss and Christina Simmons (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 3-13. While this may have been true of their depictions of working-class women and black women, interestingly white middle-class women did not seem to "sexualize" Indian women until the 1920s.
83. Dissette to Willard, March 3, 1924, IRA papers, reel 40.
84. Dissette to Williard, March 3, 1924.
85. Filene, Him/Her/Self, 165.
86. Statement of Quoyawyma, April 16, 1921, Sweet collection.
87. Dissette to Willard, March 3, 1924, IRA papers, reel 40. In this period, sexologist Havelock Ellis, Judge Ben Lindsey, and anthropologist Elsie Clews Parsons all had advocated the notion of "trial marriage," a "legal marriage with birth control and with the right to divorce by mutual consent for a childless couple." See Robinson, The Modernization of Sex, 30; Filene, Him/Her/Self, 70, 166; Fass, The Damned, 260-90; and Rosemary Lévy Zumwalt, Wealth and Rebellion: Elsie Clews Parsons, Anthropologist and Folklorist (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 46. Parsons, a "new feminist" and an anthropologist who studied the Pueblos, was also a defender of their dances.
88. Dissette to Willard, March 3, 1924, IRA papers, reel 40. In this period, sexologist Havelock Ellis, Judge Ben Lindsey, and anthropologist Elsie Clews Parsons all had advocated the notion of "trial marriage," a "legal marriage with birth control and with the right to divorce by mutual consent for a childless couple." See Robinson, The Modernization of Sex, 30; Filene, Him/Her/Self, 70, 166; Fass, The Damned, 260-90; and Rosemary Lévy Zumwalt, Wealth and Rebellion: Elsie Clews Parsons, Anthropologist and Folklorist (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 46. Parsons, a "new feminist" and an anthropologist who studied the Pueblos, was also a defender of their dances.
89. Dissette to Willard, March 3, 1924, IRA papers, reel 40. In this period, sexologist Havelock Ellis, Judge Ben Lindsey, and anthropologist Elsie Clews Parsons all had advocated the notion of "trial marriage," a "legal marriage with birth control and with the right to divorce by mutual consent for a childless couple." See Robinson, The Modernization of Sex, 30; Filene, Him/Her/Self, 70, 166; Fass, The Damned, 260-90; and Rosemary Lévy Zumwalt, Wealth and Rebellion: Elsie Clews Parsons, Anthropologist and Folklorist (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 46. Parsons, a "new feminist" and an anthropologist who studied the Pueblos, was also a defender of their dances.
90. Dissette to Willard, March 3, 1924, IRA papers, reel 40. In this period, sexologist Havelock Ellis, Judge Ben Lindsey, and anthropologist Elsie Clews Parsons all had advocated the notion of "trial marriage," a "legal marriage with birth control and with the right to divorce by mutual consent for a childless couple." See Robinson, The Modernization of Sex, 30; Filene, Him/Her/Self, 70, 166; Fass, The Damned, 260-90; and Rosemary Lévy Zumwalt, Wealth and Rebellion: Elsie Clews Parsons, Anthropologist and Folklorist (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 46. Parsons, a "new feminist" and an anthropologist who studied the Pueblos, was also a defender of their dances.
91. May, Great Expections, 2; Filene, Him/Her/Self, 42-44; O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era, 3, 31, 33-63; and Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 37.
92. May, Great Expections, 2; Filene, Him/Her/Self, 42-44; O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era, 3, 31, 33-63; and Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 37.
93. May, Great Expections, 2; Filene, Him/Her/Self, 42-44; O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era, 3, 31, 33-63; and Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 37.
94. May, Great Expections, 2; Filene, Him/Her/Self, 42-44; O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era, 3, 31, 33-63; and Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 37.
95. D'Emilio and Freedman, Intimate Matters, 204-15, 233-34.
96. Filene, Him/Her/Self, 149-50. See also, Joanne J. Meyerowitz, Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880-1030 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); and Regina Kunzel, Fallen Women, Problem Girls: Unmarried Mothers and the Professionalization of Social Work, 1800-1045 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).
97. Filene, Him/Her/Self, 149-50. See also, Joanne J. Meyerowitz, Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880-1030 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); and Regina Kunzel, Fallen Women, Problem Girls: Unmarried Mothers and the Professionalization of Social Work, 1800-1045 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).
98. Filene, Him/Her/Self, 149-50. See also, Joanne J. Meyerowitz, Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880-1030 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); and Regina Kunzel, Fallen Women, Problem Girls: Unmarried Mothers and the Professionalization of Social Work, 1800-1045 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).
99. Quoted in Fass, The Damned, 23.
100. Quoted in Stanley Coben, The Rebellion Against Victorianism: The Impetus for Cultural Change in 19203 America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 76. During this time period, social commentators also linked jazz dancing to the spread of black culture, which they deemed another type of "savagery." Thanks to an anonymous reader at Frontiers for pointing this out. See also David Levering Lewis, When Harlem Was in Vogue (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979, 1981).
101. Quoted in Stanley Coben, The Rebellion Against Victorianism: The Impetus for Cultural Change in 19203 America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 76. During this time period, social commentators also linked jazz dancing to the spread of black culture, which they deemed another type of "savagery." Thanks to an anonymous reader at Frontiers for pointing this out. See also David Levering Lewis, When Harlem Was in Vogue (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979, 1981).
102. Stella Atwood speech, June 10, 1924, at 17th Biennial Convention, General Federation of Women's Clubs, Los Angeles, GFWC papers, archives, GFWC International, Washington, D.C. Atwood once wrote to Mabel Dodge Luhan that she was a conservative and was not always comfortable with the radicalism of those she worked with in Indian affairs. See Atwood to Mabel Dodge Sterne [Luhan], December 21, 1922, Mabel Dodge Luhan papers, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
103. Statement of "The American Indian Policies Association" (later the AIDA), February 14, 1923, box 2A, Amelia E. White papers, School of American Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
104. Erna Fergusson, Dancing Gods: Indian Ceremonials of New Mexico and Arizona (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1931), xiv.
105. Austin, Land of journey s Ending, 258.
106. On explanations of Pueblo clowning as a fertility rite, see Alfonso Ortiz, "Ritual Drama and the Pueblo World View," in New Perspectives on the Pueblo, ed. Alfonso Ortiz (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972), 152; Barbara Babcock, "Arrange Me Into Disorder: Fragments and Reflections on Ritual Clowning," in Rite, Drama Festival Spectacle: Rehearsals Toward a Theory of Cultural Performance, ed. John J. MacAloon (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1984), 112; Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 151; Young," Women, Reproduction, and Religion," 436-38; and Emory Sekaquaptewa, "One More Smile for a Hopi Clown," in The South Corner of Time: Hopi, Navajo, Papago, Yaqui Tribal Literature, ed. Larry Evers (Tucson: Sun Tracks, 1980), 14-17. For explanations of clowns as a means of social control, see Vera Laski, Seeking Life, memoirs of the American Folklore Society, vol. 50. (Philadelphia: American Folklore Society, 1958), 13-14; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157-58.
107. On explanations of Pueblo clowning as a fertility rite, see Alfonso Ortiz, "Ritual Drama and the Pueblo World View," in New Perspectives on the Pueblo, ed. Alfonso Ortiz (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972), 152; Barbara Babcock, "Arrange Me Into Disorder: Fragments and Reflections on Ritual Clowning," in Rite, Drama Festival Spectacle: Rehearsals Toward a Theory of Cultural Performance, ed. John J. MacAloon (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1984), 112; Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 151; Young," Women, Reproduction, and Religion," 436-38; and Emory Sekaquaptewa, "One More Smile for a Hopi Clown," in The South Corner of Time: Hopi, Navajo, Papago, Yaqui Tribal Literature, ed. Larry Evers (Tucson: Sun Tracks, 1980), 14-17. For explanations of clowns as a means of social control, see Vera Laski, Seeking Life, memoirs of the American Folklore Society, vol. 50. (Philadelphia: American Folklore Society, 1958), 13-14; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157-58.
108. On explanations of Pueblo clowning as a fertility rite, see Alfonso Ortiz, "Ritual Drama and the Pueblo World View," in New Perspectives on the Pueblo, ed. Alfonso Ortiz (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972), 152; Barbara Babcock, "Arrange Me Into Disorder: Fragments and Reflections on Ritual Clowning," in Rite, Drama Festival Spectacle: Rehearsals Toward a Theory of Cultural Performance, ed. John J. MacAloon (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1984), 112; Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 151; Young," Women, Reproduction, and Religion," 436-38; and Emory Sekaquaptewa, "One More Smile for a Hopi Clown," in The South Corner of Time: Hopi, Navajo, Papago, Yaqui Tribal Literature, ed. Larry Evers (Tucson: Sun Tracks, 1980), 14-17. For explanations of clowns as a means of social control, see Vera Laski, Seeking Life, memoirs of the American Folklore Society, vol. 50. (Philadelphia: American Folklore Society, 1958), 13-14; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157-58.
109. On explanations of Pueblo clowning as a fertility rite, see Alfonso Ortiz, "Ritual Drama and the Pueblo World View," in New Perspectives on the Pueblo, ed. Alfonso Ortiz (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972), 152; Barbara Babcock, "Arrange Me Into Disorder: Fragments and Reflections on Ritual Clowning," in Rite, Drama Festival Spectacle: Rehearsals Toward a Theory of Cultural Performance, ed. John J. MacAloon (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1984), 112; Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 151; Young," Women, Reproduction, and Religion," 436-38; and Emory Sekaquaptewa, "One More Smile for a Hopi Clown," in The South Corner of Time: Hopi, Navajo, Papago, Yaqui Tribal Literature, ed. Larry Evers (Tucson: Sun Tracks, 1980), 14-17. For explanations of clowns as a means of social control, see Vera Laski, Seeking Life, memoirs of the American Folklore Society, vol. 50. (Philadelphia: American Folklore Society, 1958), 13-14; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157-58.
110. On explanations of Pueblo clowning as a fertility rite, see Alfonso Ortiz, "Ritual Drama and the Pueblo World View," in New Perspectives on the Pueblo, ed. Alfonso Ortiz (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972), 152; Barbara Babcock, "Arrange Me Into Disorder: Fragments and Reflections on Ritual Clowning," in Rite, Drama Festival Spectacle: Rehearsals Toward a Theory of Cultural Performance, ed. John J. MacAloon (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1984), 112; Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 151; Young," Women, Reproduction, and Religion," 436-38; and Emory Sekaquaptewa, "One More Smile for a Hopi Clown," in The South Corner of Time: Hopi, Navajo, Papago, Yaqui Tribal Literature, ed. Larry Evers (Tucson: Sun Tracks, 1980), 14-17. For explanations of clowns as a means of social control, see Vera Laski, Seeking Life, memoirs of the American Folklore Society, vol. 50. (Philadelphia: American Folklore Society, 1958), 13-14; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157-58.
111. On explanations of Pueblo clowning as a fertility rite, see Alfonso Ortiz, "Ritual Drama and the Pueblo World View," in New Perspectives on the Pueblo, ed. Alfonso Ortiz (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972), 152; Barbara Babcock, "Arrange Me Into Disorder: Fragments and Reflections on Ritual Clowning," in Rite, Drama Festival Spectacle: Rehearsals Toward a Theory of Cultural Performance, ed. John J. MacAloon (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1984), 112; Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 151; Young," Women, Reproduction, and Religion," 436-38; and Emory Sekaquaptewa, "One More Smile for a Hopi Clown," in The South Corner of Time: Hopi, Navajo, Papago, Yaqui Tribal Literature, ed. Larry Evers (Tucson: Sun Tracks, 1980), 14-17. For explanations of clowns as a means of social control, see Vera Laski, Seeking Life, memoirs of the American Folklore Society, vol. 50. (Philadelphia: American Folklore Society, 1958), 13-14; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157-58.
112. On explanations of Pueblo clowning as a fertility rite, see Alfonso Ortiz, "Ritual Drama and the Pueblo World View," in New Perspectives on the Pueblo, ed. Alfonso Ortiz (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972), 152; Barbara Babcock, "Arrange Me Into Disorder: Fragments and Reflections on Ritual Clowning," in Rite, Drama Festival Spectacle: Rehearsals Toward a Theory of Cultural Performance, ed. John J. MacAloon (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1984), 112; Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 151; Young," Women, Reproduction, and Religion," 436-38; and Emory Sekaquaptewa, "One More Smile for a Hopi Clown," in The South Corner of Time: Hopi, Navajo, Papago, Yaqui Tribal Literature, ed. Larry Evers (Tucson: Sun Tracks, 1980), 14-17. For explanations of clowns as a means of social control, see Vera Laski, Seeking Life, memoirs of the American Folklore Society, vol. 50. (Philadelphia: American Folklore Society, 1958), 13-14; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157-58.
113. Austin, Land of Journey's Ending, 255-56.
114. Fergusson, Dancing Gods, xv.
115. Elsie Clews Parsons, "Waiyautitsa of Zuni, New Mexico," in Pueblo Mothers and Children: Essays by Elsie Clews Parsons, 1915-1024, ed. Barbara Babcock (Santa Fe: Ancient City Press, 1991), 95.
116. Fergusson, Dancing Gods, 39. Among the Pueblos, there are many dances in which male clowns impersonate women. There are also some dances - the Deer Dance, Corn Dance, Rainbow Dance - in which women themselves dance. Furthermore, there are a few dances in which female clowns perform burlesques and parodies, particularly of the Navajos. Among the Hopi and at San Ildefonso and Santo Domingo pueblos, there are even dances in which women parody men of their pueblo. See Schlegel, "Male and Female" 257; Charlotte J. Frisbie, "Epilogue," in Southwestern Indian Ritual Drama, ed. Charlotte Frisbie (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1980), 319-20; and Donald N. Brown, "Dance as Experience: The Deer Dance of Picuris Pueblo," in Frisbie, Southwestern Indian Ritual Drama, 71-92.
117. Fergusson, Dancing Gods, 39. Among the Pueblos, there are many dances in which male clowns impersonate women. There are also some dances - the Deer Dance, Corn Dance, Rainbow Dance - in which women themselves dance. Furthermore, there are a few dances in which female clowns perform burlesques and parodies, particularly of the Navajos. Among the Hopi and at San Ildefonso and Santo Domingo pueblos, there are even dances in which women parody men of their pueblo. See Schlegel, "Male and Female" 257; Charlotte J. Frisbie, "Epilogue," in Southwestern Indian Ritual Drama, ed. Charlotte Frisbie (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1980), 319-20; and Donald N. Brown, "Dance as Experience: The Deer Dance of Picuris Pueblo," in Frisbie, Southwestern Indian Ritual Drama, 71-92.
118. Fergusson, Dancing Gods, 39. Among the Pueblos, there are many dances in which male clowns impersonate women. There are also some dances - the Deer Dance, Corn Dance, Rainbow Dance - in which women themselves dance. Furthermore, there are a few dances in which female clowns perform burlesques and parodies, particularly of the Navajos. Among the Hopi and at San Ildefonso and Santo Domingo pueblos, there are even dances in which women parody men of their pueblo. See Schlegel, "Male and Female" 257; Charlotte J. Frisbie, "Epilogue," in Southwestern Indian Ritual Drama, ed. Charlotte Frisbie (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1980), 319-20; and Donald N. Brown, "Dance as Experience: The Deer Dance of Picuris Pueblo," in Frisbie, Southwestern Indian Ritual Drama, 71-92.
119. Fergusson, Dancing Gods, 39. Among the Pueblos, there are many dances in which male clowns impersonate women. There are also some dances - the Deer Dance, Corn Dance, Rainbow Dance - in which women themselves dance. Furthermore, there are a few dances in which female clowns perform burlesques and parodies, particularly of the Navajos. Among the Hopi and at San Ildefonso and Santo Domingo pueblos, there are even dances in which women parody men of their pueblo. See Schlegel, "Male and Female" 257; Charlotte J. Frisbie, "Epilogue," in Southwestern Indian Ritual Drama, ed. Charlotte Frisbie (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1980), 319-20; and Donald N. Brown, "Dance as Experience: The Deer Dance of Picuris Pueblo," in Frisbie, Southwestern Indian Ritual Drama, 71-92.
120. Fergusson, Dancing Gods, 39. Among the Pueblos, there are many dances in which male clowns impersonate women. There are also some dances - the Deer Dance, Corn Dance, Rainbow Dance - in which women themselves dance. Furthermore, there are a few dances in which female clowns perform burlesques and parodies, particularly of the Navajos. Among the Hopi and at San Ildefonso and Santo Domingo pueblos, there are even dances in which women parody men of their pueblo. See Schlegel, "Male and Female" 257; Charlotte J. Frisbie, "Epilogue," in Southwestern Indian Ritual Drama, ed. Charlotte Frisbie (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1980), 319-20; and Donald N. Brown, "Dance as Experience: The Deer Dance of Picuris Pueblo," in Frisbie, Southwestern Indian Ritual Drama, 71-92.
121. Parsons, "The Zuni La'mana," in Pueblo Mothers and Children, 43.
122. Mabel Dodge Luhan, Movers and Shakers, vol. 3, Intimate Memories (1936; reprint, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1985), 375.
123. Christina Simmons, "Modern Sexuality and the Myth of Victorian Repression," in Peiss and Simmons, Passion and Power, 158, 164, 169-70; and Estelle Freedman, "'Uncontrolled Desires': The Response to the Sexual Psychopath, 1920-1960," in Peiss and Simmons, Passion and Power, 199-225. Freedman argues that women paid a high price "for recognition of their sexual desire and the removal of female purity as a restraint on male sexuality" (212). Women who were victims of rape or sexual assault were thereafter portrayed as willing participants. Pamela Haag makes a complimentary point, arguing that the so-called sexual liberalization that occurred in the 19205 was still based on older gendered assumptions that associated men with self-mastery and rationality and women with irrationality. In this scenario, women were still not in control of their sexuality. See "In Search of 'The Real Thing': Ideologies of Love, Modern Romance, and Women's Sexual Subjectivity in the United States, 1920-40," Journal of the History of Sexuality 2:4 (1992): 547-77.
124. Christina Simmons, "Modern Sexuality and the Myth of Victorian Repression," in Peiss and Simmons, Passion and Power, 158, 164, 169-70; and Estelle Freedman, "'Uncontrolled Desires': The Response to the Sexual Psychopath, 1920-1960," in Peiss and Simmons, Passion and Power, 199-225. Freedman argues that women paid a high price "for recognition of their sexual desire and the removal of female purity as a restraint on male sexuality" (212). Women who were victims of rape or sexual assault were thereafter portrayed as willing participants. Pamela Haag makes a complimentary point, arguing that the so-called sexual liberalization that occurred in the 19205 was still based on older gendered assumptions that associated men with self-mastery and rationality and women with irrationality. In this scenario, women were still not in control of their sexuality. See "In Search of 'The Real Thing': Ideologies of Love, Modern Romance, and Women's Sexual Subjectivity in the United States, 1920-40," Journal of the History of Sexuality 2:4 (1992): 547-77.
125. Christina Simmons, "Modern Sexuality and the Myth of Victorian Repression," in Peiss and Simmons, Passion and Power, 158, 164, 169-70; and Estelle Freedman, "'Uncontrolled Desires': The Response to the Sexual Psychopath, 1920-1960," in Peiss and Simmons, Passion and Power, 199-225. Freedman argues that women paid a high price "for recognition of their sexual desire and the removal of female purity as a restraint on male sexuality" (212). Women who were victims of rape or sexual assault were thereafter portrayed as willing participants. Pamela Haag makes a complimentary point, arguing that the so-called sexual liberalization that occurred in the 19205 was still based on older gendered assumptions that associated men with self-mastery and rationality and women with irrationality. In this scenario, women were still not in control of their sexuality. See "In Search of 'The Real Thing': Ideologies of Love, Modern Romance, and Women's Sexual Subjectivity in the United States, 1920-40," Journal of the History of Sexuality 2:4 (1992): 547-77.
126. Luhan to Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant, June 10, [1925], Collier papers, reel 5.
127. Mabel Dodge Luhan, Edge of Taos Desert: An Escape to Reality (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1937), 179.
128. See Indian Truth 1 (June 1924): 2, 6; telegram and letter from Sniffen to True, May 24, 1924, and Brosius to Sniffen, May 29, 1924, IRA papers, reel 40; and True to Sniffen, July 1 and 23, 1924, IRA papers, reel 41. Of Spanish descent, Nina Otero married Captain Warren of the U.S. Army in 1904. In addition to working as an inspector for the BIA, she was the chair of the New Mexico Federation of Women's Clubs, the state chair of the women's Republican organization, and from 1917 to 1929 the county superintendent of schools in Santa Fe County. During the 1930s, she directed the literacy project for the Works Progress Administration (WPA). See Women of New Mexico collection, box 2, folder 40, Center for Southwest Research, General Library, University of New Mexico; Ruth Laughlin, Caballeros, 2d. ed. (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1945), 393; and Charlotte Whaley, Nina Otero-Warren of Santa Fe (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994).
129. See Indian Truth 1 (June 1924): 2, 6; telegram and letter from Sniffen to True, May 24, 1924, and Brosius to Sniffen, May 29, 1924, IRA papers, reel 40; and True to Sniffen, July 1 and 23, 1924, IRA papers, reel 41. Of Spanish descent, Nina Otero married Captain Warren of the U.S. Army in 1904. In addition to working as an inspector for the BIA, she was the chair of the New Mexico Federation of Women's Clubs, the state chair of the women's Republican organization, and from 1917 to 1929 the county superintendent of schools in Santa Fe County. During the 1930s, she directed the literacy project for the Works Progress Administration (WPA). See Women of New Mexico collection, box 2, folder 40, Center for Southwest Research, General Library, University of New Mexico; Ruth Laughlin, Caballeros, 2d. ed. (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1945), 393; and Charlotte Whaley, Nina Otero-Warren of Santa Fe (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994).
130. See Indian Truth 1 (June 1924): 2, 6; telegram and letter from Sniffen to True, May 24, 1924, and Brosius to Sniffen, May 29, 1924, IRA papers, reel 40; and True to Sniffen, July 1 and 23, 1924, IRA papers, reel 41. Of Spanish descent, Nina Otero married Captain Warren of the U.S. Army in 1904. In addition to working as an inspector for the BIA, she was the chair of the New Mexico Federation of Women's Clubs, the state chair of the women's Republican organization, and from 1917 to 1929 the county superintendent of schools in Santa Fe County. During the 1930s, she directed the literacy project for the Works Progress Administration (WPA). See Women of New Mexico collection, box 2, folder 40, Center for Southwest Research, General Library, University of New Mexico; Ruth Laughlin, Caballeros, 2d. ed. (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1945), 393; and Charlotte Whaley, Nina Otero-Warren of Santa Fe (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994).
131. True to Sniffen, July 1, 1924, and telegrams from True to Sniffen, June 9 and 10, 1924, IRA papers, reel 41.
132. Charles Lummis, "To the Women of the United States in Biennial Convention Assembled," June 6, 1924, Indian Defense Association of Central and Northern California, private collection of Michael Harrison, Sacramento. Lummis often repeated this sentiment. For just a few examples, see Mesa, Cañon and Pueblo (New York: Century Company, 1925), 158; and Lummis's typewritten letter to the editor of the New York Times, September 18, 1924, CLAI papers.
133. Charles Lummis, "To the Women of the United States in Biennial Convention Assembled," June 6, 1924, Indian Defense Association of Central and Northern California, private collection of Michael Harrison, Sacramento. Lummis often repeated this sentiment. For just a few examples, see Mesa, Cañon and Pueblo (New York: Century Company, 1925), 158; and Lummis's typewritten letter to the editor of the New York Times, September 18, 1924, CLAI papers.
134. Charles Lummis, "To the Women of the United States in Biennial Convention Assembled," June 6, 1924, Indian Defense Association of Central and Northern California, private collection of Michael Harrison, Sacramento. Lummis often repeated this sentiment. For just a few examples, see Mesa, Cañon and Pueblo (New York: Century Company, 1925), 158; and Lummis's typewritten letter to the editor of the New York Times, September 18, 1924, CLAI papers.
135. See, for example, True to Brosius, October 28 and November 27, 1929, IRA papers, reel 45; True to Sniffen, January 12, 1928, IRA papers, reel 44; and Seymour, "Delusion of the Sentimentalists."
136. See, for example, Mary Austin, "The Folly of the Officials," Forum 71 (March 1924): 281-88; Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant, "The Principales Speak," New Republic 33 (7 February 1923): 273-75; and John Collier, "Do Indians Have Rights of Conscience?" Christian Century (12 March 1924): 346-49, clipping in Collier papers, reel 10.
137. See, for example, Mary Austin, "The Folly of the Officials," Forum 71 (March 1924): 281-88; Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant, "The Principales Speak," New Republic 33 (7 February 1923): 273-75; and John Collier, "Do Indians Have Rights of Conscience?" Christian Century (12 March 1924): 346-49, clipping in Collier papers, reel 10.
138. See, for example, Mary Austin, "The Folly of the Officials," Forum 71 (March 1924): 281-88; Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant, "The Principales Speak," New Republic 33 (7 February 1923): 273-75; and John Collier, "Do Indians Have Rights of Conscience?" Christian Century (12 March 1924): 346-49, clipping in Collier papers, reel 10.
139. "Transcript of Proceedings of All-Pueblo Council," Santo Domingo Pueblo, October 6, 1926, Collier papers, reel 8.
140. Statement of Masawistiwa, December 11, 1920, Sweet collection. See also, statements of Judge Hooker Hongeva, December 9, 1920; Salako, December 9, 1920; Siventiwa, December 10, 1920; and Kuwanwikvaya, August 26, 1920, Sweet collection. In Religion and Hopi Life in the Twentieth Century (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), John Loftin argues similarly that Hopi "Friendlies," who supported cooperation with whites, based their actions on what they believed to be Hopi prophecy (xix-xxi, 78).
141. Statement of Hongeva, December 9, 1920, Sweet collection.
142. Statement of Joe Lujan, May 15, 1924, IRA papers, reel 40. For more on the beatings and punishment meted out to Indians who wore western clothing or refused to dance, see Statement of Don Mondragon, May 14, 1924, IRA papers, reel 40; Rosendo Vargas to Santa Fe Indian School, November 20, 1915, enclosed in Frederic Snyder to Superintendent Lonergan, Pueblo Day Schools, November 23, 1915, RG 75, entry 90, box 21, folder 070, NARA, Denver; and Emory Marks to Superintendent Crandall, September 26, 1924, and affidavits from Joe Sandoval, April 1925, and John Gomez, April 9, 1925, RG 75, Northern Pueblos General Correspondence Files, 1912-1938, box 17, folder 070, NARA, Denver.
143. Interview with Martin Vigil, December 10, 1970, Doris Duke American Indian Oral History Project, box 19, folder 754, and January 26, 1971, box 19, folder 764, Center for Southwest Research, General Library, University of New Mexico.
144. Alfonso Ortiz, "Indian/White Relations: A View from the Other Side of the 'Frontier,'" in Indians in American History, ed. Frederick Hoxie (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 1988), 12. Alison Freese's "Send in the Clowns: An Ethnohistorical Analysis of the Sacred Clowns' Role in Cultural Boundary Maintenance Among the Pueblo Indians" (Ph.D. diss., University of New Mexico, 1991), also looks at the role of clowns in dealing with Catholicism, the Spanish, and the first white anthropologists. See also Jill Drayson Sweet, "Burlesquing 'the Other' in Pueblo Performances," Annals of Tourism Research 16 (1989): 62-75.
145. Alfonso Ortiz, "Indian/White Relations: A View from the Other Side of the 'Frontier,'" in Indians in American History, ed. Frederick Hoxie (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 1988), 12. Alison Freese's "Send in the Clowns: An Ethnohistorical Analysis of the Sacred Clowns' Role in Cultural Boundary Maintenance Among the Pueblo Indians" (Ph.D. diss., University of New Mexico, 1991), also looks at the role of clowns in dealing with Catholicism, the Spanish, and the first white anthropologists. See also Jill Drayson Sweet, "Burlesquing 'the Other' in Pueblo Performances," Annals of Tourism Research 16 (1989): 62-75.
146. Alfonso Ortiz, "Indian/White Relations: A View from the Other Side of the 'Frontier,'" in Indians in American History, ed. Frederick Hoxie (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 1988), 12. Alison Freese's "Send in the Clowns: An Ethnohistorical Analysis of the Sacred Clowns' Role in Cultural Boundary Maintenance Among the Pueblo Indians" (Ph.D. diss., University of New Mexico, 1991), also looks at the role of clowns in dealing with Catholicism, the Spanish, and the first white anthropologists. See also Jill Drayson Sweet, "Burlesquing 'the Other' in Pueblo Performances," Annals of Tourism Research 16 (1989): 62-75.
147. Erna Fergusson, "Laughing Priests," Theatre Arts Monthly 17 (August 1933): 662.
148. Fergusson, "Laughing Priests," 658.
149. Quoted in Mary Roberts Coolidge, The Rain Makers: Indians of Arizona and New Mexico (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1929), 168.
150. Statement of Bentley, September 30, 1920, Sweet collection.
151. Louis Hieb explains that the "ritual clowns turn the world topsy-turvy, and their behavior is often described as involving inversion and reversal." See his "Meaning and Mismeaning: Toward an Understanding of the Ritual Clown," in Ortiz, New Perspectives on the Pueblo, 164. See also Dockstader, The Kachina, 26. The clown performances often involved sex role and status reversals. See Ortiz, "Ritual Drama," 148-49; Schlegel, "Male and Female," 257; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157, 203. For the ways in which scholars have analyzed European carnivals as occasions for temporarily reversing hierarchies, see M. M. Bakhtin, Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin, ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981); and Terry Castle, Masquerade and Civilization: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century English Culture and Fiction (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1986). For more on the function of "symbolic inversion," see Barbara A. Babcock, ed., The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978). In Reversible World, "Arrange Me Into Disorder," and "'A Tolerated Margin of Mess': The Trickster and His Tales Reconsidered," Journal of Folklore Research 11:3 (1975): 147-86, Babcock argues that symbolic inversion such as that of Pueblo clowns cannot be understood simply as a "steam valve," that is, as an outlet for otherwise inappropriate behavior. She argues instead that the ambiguity and paradox inherent in symbolic inversion serves as a means of promoting creativity. In Babcock's view, clowns do not just promote conformity to social norms but also "prompt speculation about, reflection on, and reconsideration of the order of things" ("Arrange," 122).
152. Louis Hieb explains that the "ritual clowns turn the world topsy-turvy, and their behavior is often described as involving inversion and reversal." See his "Meaning and Mismeaning: Toward an Understanding of the Ritual Clown," in Ortiz, New Perspectives on the Pueblo, 164. See also Dockstader, The Kachina, 26. The clown performances often involved sex role and status reversals. See Ortiz, "Ritual Drama," 148-49; Schlegel, "Male and Female," 257; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157, 203. For the ways in which scholars have analyzed European carnivals as occasions for temporarily reversing hierarchies, see M. M. Bakhtin, Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin, ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981); and Terry Castle, Masquerade and Civilization: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century English Culture and Fiction (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1986). For more on the function of "symbolic inversion," see Barbara A. Babcock, ed., The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978). In Reversible World, "Arrange Me Into Disorder," and "'A Tolerated Margin of Mess': The Trickster and His Tales Reconsidered," Journal of Folklore Research 11:3 (1975): 147-86, Babcock argues that symbolic inversion such as that of Pueblo clowns cannot be understood simply as a "steam valve," that is, as an outlet for otherwise inappropriate behavior. She argues instead that the ambiguity and paradox inherent in symbolic inversion serves as a means of promoting creativity. In Babcock's view, clowns do not just promote conformity to social norms but also "prompt speculation about, reflection on, and reconsideration of the order of things" ("Arrange," 122).
153. Louis Hieb explains that the "ritual clowns turn the world topsy-turvy, and their behavior is often described as involving inversion and reversal." See his "Meaning and Mismeaning: Toward an Understanding of the Ritual Clown," in Ortiz, New Perspectives on the Pueblo, 164. See also Dockstader, The Kachina, 26. The clown performances often involved sex role and status reversals. See Ortiz, "Ritual Drama," 148-49; Schlegel, "Male and Female," 257; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157, 203. For the ways in which scholars have analyzed European carnivals as occasions for temporarily reversing hierarchies, see M. M. Bakhtin, Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin, ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981); and Terry Castle, Masquerade and Civilization: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century English Culture and Fiction (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1986). For more on the function of "symbolic inversion," see Barbara A. Babcock, ed., The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978). In Reversible World, "Arrange Me Into Disorder," and "'A Tolerated Margin of Mess': The Trickster and His Tales Reconsidered," Journal of Folklore Research 11:3 (1975): 147-86, Babcock argues that symbolic inversion such as that of Pueblo clowns cannot be understood simply as a "steam valve," that is, as an outlet for otherwise inappropriate behavior. She argues instead that the ambiguity and paradox inherent in symbolic inversion serves as a means of promoting creativity. In Babcock's view, clowns do not just promote conformity to social norms but also "prompt speculation about, reflection on, and reconsideration of the order of things" ("Arrange," 122).
154. Louis Hieb explains that the "ritual clowns turn the world topsy-turvy, and their behavior is often described as involving inversion and reversal." See his "Meaning and Mismeaning: Toward an Understanding of the Ritual Clown," in Ortiz, New Perspectives on the Pueblo, 164. See also Dockstader, The Kachina, 26. The clown performances often involved sex role and status reversals. See Ortiz, "Ritual Drama," 148-49; Schlegel, "Male and Female," 257; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157, 203. For the ways in which scholars have analyzed European carnivals as occasions for temporarily reversing hierarchies, see M. M. Bakhtin, Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin, ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981); and Terry Castle, Masquerade and Civilization: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century English Culture and Fiction (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1986). For more on the function of "symbolic inversion," see Barbara A. Babcock, ed., The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978). In Reversible World, "Arrange Me Into Disorder," and "'A Tolerated Margin of Mess': The Trickster and His Tales Reconsidered," Journal of Folklore Research 11:3 (1975): 147-86, Babcock argues that symbolic inversion such as that of Pueblo clowns cannot be understood simply as a "steam valve," that is, as an outlet for otherwise inappropriate behavior. She argues instead that the ambiguity and paradox inherent in symbolic inversion serves as a means of promoting creativity. In Babcock's view, clowns do not just promote conformity to social norms but also "prompt speculation about, reflection on, and reconsideration of the order of things" ("Arrange," 122).
155. Louis Hieb explains that the "ritual clowns turn the world topsy-turvy, and their behavior is often described as involving inversion and reversal." See his "Meaning and Mismeaning: Toward an Understanding of the Ritual Clown," in Ortiz, New Perspectives on the Pueblo, 164. See also Dockstader, The Kachina, 26. The clown performances often involved sex role and status reversals. See Ortiz, "Ritual Drama," 148-49; Schlegel, "Male and Female," 257; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157, 203. For the ways in which scholars have analyzed European carnivals as occasions for temporarily reversing hierarchies, see M. M. Bakhtin, Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin, ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981); and Terry Castle, Masquerade and Civilization: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century English Culture and Fiction (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1986). For more on the function of "symbolic inversion," see Barbara A. Babcock, ed., The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978). In Reversible World, "Arrange Me Into Disorder," and "'A Tolerated Margin of Mess': The Trickster and His Tales Reconsidered," Journal of Folklore Research 11:3 (1975): 147-86, Babcock argues that symbolic inversion such as that of Pueblo clowns cannot be understood simply as a "steam valve," that is, as an outlet for otherwise inappropriate behavior. She argues instead that the ambiguity and paradox inherent in symbolic inversion serves as a means of promoting creativity. In Babcock's view, clowns do not just promote conformity to social norms but also "prompt speculation about, reflection on, and reconsideration of the order of things" ("Arrange," 122).
156. Louis Hieb explains that the "ritual clowns turn the world topsy-turvy, and their behavior is often described as involving inversion and reversal." See his "Meaning and Mismeaning: Toward an Understanding of the Ritual Clown," in Ortiz, New Perspectives on the Pueblo, 164. See also Dockstader, The Kachina, 26. The clown performances often involved sex role and status reversals. See Ortiz, "Ritual Drama," 148-49; Schlegel, "Male and Female," 257; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157, 203. For the ways in which scholars have analyzed European carnivals as occasions for temporarily reversing hierarchies, see M. M. Bakhtin, Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin, ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981); and Terry Castle, Masquerade and Civilization: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century English Culture and Fiction (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1986). For more on the function of "symbolic inversion," see Barbara A. Babcock, ed., The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978). In Reversible World, "Arrange Me Into Disorder," and "'A Tolerated Margin of Mess': The Trickster and His Tales Reconsidered," Journal of Folklore Research 11:3 (1975): 147-86, Babcock argues that symbolic inversion such as that of Pueblo clowns cannot be understood simply as a "steam valve," that is, as an outlet for otherwise inappropriate behavior. She argues instead that the ambiguity and paradox inherent in symbolic inversion serves as a means of promoting creativity. In Babcock's view, clowns do not just promote conformity to social norms but also "prompt speculation about, reflection on, and reconsideration of the order of things" ("Arrange," 122).
157. Louis Hieb explains that the "ritual clowns turn the world topsy-turvy, and their behavior is often described as involving inversion and reversal." See his "Meaning and Mismeaning: Toward an Understanding of the Ritual Clown," in Ortiz, New Perspectives on the Pueblo, 164. See also Dockstader, The Kachina, 26. The clown performances often involved sex role and status reversals. See Ortiz, "Ritual Drama," 148-49; Schlegel, "Male and Female," 257; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157, 203. For the ways in which scholars have analyzed European carnivals as occasions for temporarily reversing hierarchies, see M. M. Bakhtin, Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin, ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981); and Terry Castle, Masquerade and Civilization: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century English Culture and Fiction (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1986). For more on the function of "symbolic inversion," see Barbara A. Babcock, ed., The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978). In Reversible World, "Arrange Me Into Disorder," and "'A Tolerated Margin of Mess': The Trickster and His Tales Reconsidered," Journal of Folklore Research 11:3 (1975): 147-86, Babcock argues that symbolic inversion such as that of Pueblo clowns cannot be understood simply as a "steam valve," that is, as an outlet for otherwise inappropriate behavior. She argues instead that the ambiguity and paradox inherent in symbolic inversion serves as a means of promoting creativity. In Babcock's view, clowns do not just promote conformity to social norms but also "prompt speculation about, reflection on, and reconsideration of the order of things" ("Arrange," 122).
158. Louis Hieb explains that the "ritual clowns turn the world topsy-turvy, and their behavior is often described as involving inversion and reversal." See his "Meaning and Mismeaning: Toward an Understanding of the Ritual Clown," in Ortiz, New Perspectives on the Pueblo, 164. See also Dockstader, The Kachina, 26. The clown performances often involved sex role and status reversals. See Ortiz, "Ritual Drama," 148-49; Schlegel, "Male and Female," 257; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157, 203. For the ways in which scholars have analyzed European carnivals as occasions for temporarily reversing hierarchies, see M. M. Bakhtin, Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin, ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981); and Terry Castle, Masquerade and Civilization: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century English Culture and Fiction (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1986). For more on the function of "symbolic inversion," see Barbara A. Babcock, ed., The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978). In Reversible World, "Arrange Me Into Disorder," and "'A Tolerated Margin of Mess': The Trickster and His Tales Reconsidered," Journal of Folklore Research 11:3 (1975): 147-86, Babcock argues that symbolic inversion such as that of Pueblo clowns cannot be understood simply as a "steam valve," that is, as an outlet for otherwise inappropriate behavior. She argues instead that the ambiguity and paradox inherent in symbolic inversion serves as a means of promoting creativity. In Babcock's view, clowns do not just promote conformity to social norms but also "prompt speculation about, reflection on, and reconsideration of the order of things" ("Arrange," 122).
159. Louis Hieb explains that the "ritual clowns turn the world topsy-turvy, and their behavior is often described as involving inversion and reversal." See his "Meaning and Mismeaning: Toward an Understanding of the Ritual Clown," in Ortiz, New Perspectives on the Pueblo, 164. See also Dockstader, The Kachina, 26. The clown performances often involved sex role and status reversals. See Ortiz, "Ritual Drama," 148-49; Schlegel, "Male and Female," 257; and Dozier, The Pueblo Indians, 157, 203. For the ways in which scholars have analyzed European carnivals as occasions for temporarily reversing hierarchies, see M. M. Bakhtin, Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin, ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981); and Terry Castle, Masquerade and Civilization: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century English Culture and Fiction (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1986). For more on the function of "symbolic inversion," see Barbara A. Babcock, ed., The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978). In Reversible World, "Arrange Me Into Disorder," and "'A Tolerated Margin of Mess': The Trickster and His Tales Reconsidered," Journal of Folklore Research 11:3 (1975): 147-86, Babcock argues that symbolic inversion such as that of Pueblo clowns cannot be understood simply as a "steam valve," that is, as an outlet for otherwise inappropriate behavior. She argues instead that the ambiguity and paradox inherent in symbolic inversion serves as a means of promoting creativity. In Babcock's view, clowns do not just promote conformity to social norms but also "prompt speculation about, reflection on, and reconsideration of the order of things" ("Arrange," 122).
160. Sam Gill has noted that one function of the clowns is to "act Kahopi, that is non-Hopi," thereby teaching the distinctions between Hopi and non-Hopi behavior (Beyond 'The Primitive: The Religions of Nonliterate Peoples [Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1982], 95). See also, Hieb, "Meaning and Mismeaning"; and Ortiz, "Ritual Drama." Joann W. Kealiinohomoku argues that Hopi clowns actually administer a dose of Hopi-style "medicine" to cure inappropriate behavior. Thus kahopi clowning cures kahopi behavior among the Hopi. See her article, "The Drama of the Hopi Ogres," in Frisbie, Southwestern Indian Ritual Drama, 58, 64.
161. Sam Gill has noted that one function of the clowns is to "act Kahopi, that is non-Hopi," thereby teaching the distinctions between Hopi and non-Hopi behavior (Beyond 'The Primitive: The Religions of Nonliterate Peoples [Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1982], 95). See also, Hieb, "Meaning and Mismeaning"; and Ortiz, "Ritual Drama." Joann W. Kealiinohomoku argues that Hopi clowns actually administer a dose of Hopi-style "medicine" to cure inappropriate behavior. Thus kahopi clowning cures kahopi behavior among the Hopi. See her article, "The Drama of the Hopi Ogres," in Frisbie, Southwestern Indian Ritual Drama, 58, 64.
162. Sam Gill has noted that one function of the clowns is to "act Kahopi, that is non-Hopi," thereby teaching the distinctions between Hopi and non-Hopi behavior (Beyond 'The Primitive: The Religions of Nonliterate Peoples [Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1982], 95). See also, Hieb, "Meaning and Mismeaning"; and Ortiz, "Ritual Drama." Joann W. Kealiinohomoku argues that Hopi clowns actually administer a dose of Hopi-style "medicine" to cure inappropriate behavior. Thus kahopi clowning cures kahopi behavior among the Hopi. See her article, "The Drama of the Hopi Ogres," in Frisbie, Southwestern Indian Ritual Drama, 58, 64.
163. For more on boundary maintenance as a way of understanding cultural difference, see Fredrik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference (Boston: Little, Brown, & Company, 1969); and Sylvia Rodriguez, "Land, Water, and Ethnic Identity in Taos," in Land, Water, and Culture: New Perspectives on Hispanic Land Grants, ed. Charles L. Briggs and John R. Van Ness (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987). For a critique of this concept, see Bonnie TuSmith, "Ethnicity and Community," in All My Relatives: Community in Contemporary Ethnic American Literatures, ed. Bonnie TuSmith (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), 6-24.
164. For more on boundary maintenance as a way of understanding cultural difference, see Fredrik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference (Boston: Little, Brown, & Company, 1969);
165. For more on boundary maintenance as a way of understanding cultural difference, see Fredrik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference (Boston: Little, Brown, & Company, 1969); and Sylvia Rodriguez, "Land, Water, and Ethnic Identity in Taos," in Land, Water, and Culture: New Perspectives on Hispanic Land Grants, ed. Charles L. Briggs and John R. Van Ness (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987). For a critique of this concept, see Bonnie TuSmith, "Ethnicity and Community," in All My Relatives: Community in Contemporary Ethnic American Literatures, ed. Bonnie TuSmith (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), 6-24.
166. Otto Lomavitu to Editor, Cococino Sun, Flagstaff, Ariz., August 29, 1923, clipping in carton 1, "Indian Religious Persecution Correspondence" folder, CLAI papers.
167. Proceedings of Council of Santa Clara Indians with Assistant Commissioner E. B. Merritt, October 22, 1927, Collier papers, reel 29. In 1924, the Progressive Party held its own election. The Conservative Party boycotted the election and chose their own governor so that the pueblo then had two governors. See Indian Truth 2 (January 1925): 3; Edward Dozier, "Factionalism at Santa Clara Pueblo," Ethnology 5 (April 1966), 172-85, which describes the genesis and development of the conflict in this pueblo between 1894 and 1935; and True to Sniffen and to Edgar Merritt, both letters, January 2, 1928, IRA papers, reel 44; True to Brosius, May 5 and October 28, 1929, IRA papers, reel 45. Factionalism became even more complicated at Santa Clara in the 19305 when both the Progressive and Conservative parties divided into two wings. See Dozier, "Factionalism"; and Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant, "Memorandum on the Santa Clara Situation," Summer 1935, Collier papers, reel 29.
168. Proceedings of Council of Santa Clara Indians with Assistant Commissioner E. B. Merritt, October 22, 1927, Collier papers, reel 29. In 1924, the Progressive Party held its own election. The Conservative Party boycotted the election and chose their own governor so that the pueblo then had two governors. See Indian Truth 2 (January 1925): 3; Edward Dozier, "Factionalism at Santa Clara Pueblo," Ethnology 5 (April 1966), 172-85, which describes the genesis and development of the conflict in this pueblo between 1894 and 1935; and True to Sniffen and to Edgar Merritt, both letters, January 2, 1928, IRA papers, reel 44; True to Brosius, May 5 and October 28, 1929, IRA papers, reel 45. Factionalism became even more complicated at Santa Clara in the 19305 when both the Progressive and Conservative parties divided into two wings. See Dozier, "Factionalism"; and Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant, "Memorandum on the Santa Clara Situation," Summer 1935, Collier papers, reel 29.
169. Proceedings of Council of Santa Clara Indians with Assistant Commissioner E. B. Merritt, October 22, 1927, Collier papers, reel 29. In 1924, the Progressive Party held its own election. The Conservative Party boycotted the election and chose their own governor so that the pueblo then had two governors. See Indian Truth 2 (January 1925): 3; Edward Dozier, "Factionalism at Santa Clara Pueblo," Ethnology 5 (April 1966), 172-85, which describes the genesis and development of the conflict in this pueblo between 1894 and 1935; and True to Sniffen and to Edgar Merritt, both letters, January 2, 1928, IRA papers, reel 44; True to Brosius, May 5 and October 28, 1929, IRA papers, reel 45. Factionalism became even more complicated at Santa Clara in the 19305 when both the Progressive and Conservative parties divided into two wings. See Dozier, "Factionalism"; and Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant, "Memorandum on the Santa Clara Situation," Summer 1935, Collier papers, reel 29.
170. Proceedings of Council of Santa Clara Indians with Assistant Commissioner E. B. Merritt, October 22, 1927, Collier papers, reel 29. In 1924, the Progressive Party held its own election. The Conservative Party boycotted the election and chose their own governor so that the pueblo then had two governors. See Indian Truth 2 (January 1925): 3; Edward Dozier, "Factionalism at Santa Clara Pueblo," Ethnology 5 (April 1966), 172-85, which describes the genesis and development of the conflict in this pueblo between 1894 and 1935; and True to Sniffen and to Edgar Merritt, both letters, January 2, 1928, IRA papers, reel 44; True to Brosius, May 5 and October 28, 1929, IRA papers, reel 45. Factionalism became even more complicated at Santa Clara in the 19305 when both the Progressive and Conservative parties divided into two wings. See Dozier, "Factionalism"; and Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant, "Memorandum on the Santa Clara Situation," Summer 1935, Collier papers, reel 29.
171. Proceedings of Council of Santa Clara Indians with Assistant Commissioner E. B. Merritt, October 22, 1927, Collier papers, reel 29.
172. Polingaysi Qoyawayma [Elizabeth Q. White], No Turning Back: A True Account of a Hopi Indian Girl's Struggle to Bridge the Gap Between the World of Her People and the World of the White Man, as told to Vada Carlson (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1964), 106;
173. Helen Sekaquaptewa, Me and Mine: The Life Story of Helen Sekaquaptewa, as told to Louise Udall (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1969).
174. E. M. Sweet to William Layne, February 6, 1921, Sweet collection.
175. Qoyawayma, No Turning Back, 74-75, 79-80.
176. Qoyawayma, No Turning Back, 49.
177. Sekaquaptewa, Me and Mine, 91-92, 132-33; and Qoyawayma, No Turning Back, 22-26, 52-54.
178. Sekaquaptewa, Me and Mine, 91-92, 132-33; and Qoyawayma, No Turning Back, 22-26, 52-54.
179. True to Sniffen, July 1, 1924, IRA papers, reel 41.
180. Telegrams from True to Sniffen, June 13 and June 23, 1924, IRA papers, reel 41.
181. Seymour, "The Delusion of the Sentimentalists"; Austin, "The Folly of the Officials"; and Hazel Hertzberg, The Search for an American Indian Identity: Modern Pan-Indian Movements (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1971), 205.
182. Seymour, "The Delusion of the Sentimentalists"; Austin, "The Folly of the Officials"; and Hazel Hertzberg, The Search for an American Indian Identity: Modern Pan-Indian Movements (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1971), 205.
183. Seymour, "The Delusion of the Sentimentalists"; Austin, "The Folly of the Officials"; and Hazel Hertzberg, The Search for an American Indian Identity: Modern Pan-Indian Movements (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1971), 205.
184. "Pueblos Have Right to Run Own Affairs, Court Decides," Santa Fe New Mexican, August 15, 1925, clipping from Ina Sizer Cassidy papers, Laboratory of Anthropology/Museum of Indian Arts and Culture, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
185. On the BIA's suppression of a northern California tribe in the late 1920s and beyond, see Annette Reed-Crum, "Tolowa 'Hush': Native Response to Circular 1665" (paper presented at 35th annual conference of the Western History Association, Denver, Colo., October 11-14, 1995).
186. True to Brosius, December 16, 1926, and True to Welsh, December 17, 1926, IRA papers, reel 43; True to Sniffen, January 2, 1928, True to Merritt, Assistant Commissioner of Indian Affairs, January 2, 1928, and True to Sniffen, January 12, 1928, IRA papers, reel 44; and True to Brosius, November 27, 1929, IRA papers, reel 45. See also, Sniffen, letter to the editor, New York Times, written November 1, 1924, in Collier papers, reel 9; and Kate Leah Cotharin, chair of the Indian Committee for the Women's Auxiliary to the National Council of the Protestant Episcopal Church, letter to the editor, The Independent 116 (May 1, 1926): 531-32.
187. True to Brosius, December 16, 1926, and True to Welsh, December 17, 1926, IRA papers, reel 43; True to Sniffen, January 2, 1928, True to Merritt, Assistant Commissioner of Indian Affairs, January 2, 1928, and True to Sniffen, January 12, 1928, IRA papers, reel 44; and True to Brosius, November 27, 1929, IRA papers, reel 45. See also, Sniffen, letter to the editor, New York Times, written November 1, 1924, in Collier papers, reel 9; and Kate Leah Cotharin, chair of the Indian Committee for the Women's Auxiliary to the National Council of the Protestant Episcopal Church, letter to the editor, The Independent 116 (May 1, 1926): 531-32.
188. The papers of the Southwest Association on Indian Affairs (formerly the New Mexico Association on Indian Affairs, or NMAIA) at the New Mexico State Records Center contain a folder no. 109 of Indian correspondence, 1922-1923. Many Pueblos wrote letters to the NMAIA asking for help in procuring more land or protecting their existing land and water rights. These letters also request assistance in preventing the excavation of burial sites. The minutes of the NMAIA's meetings (folder no. 37) also reveal the way in which Indians made use of the new activists for their own agendas.
189. Sylvia Rodriguez, "Art, Tourism, and Race Relations in Taos: Toward a Sociology of the Art Colony," Journal of Anthropological Research 45:1 (1989): 77-99, and "Land, Water, and Ethnic Identity in Taos," 352. For another account of Taos Pueblo's attempt to recover Blue Lake, see R. C. Gordon-McCutchan, The Taos Indians and the Battle for Blue Lake (Santa Fe: Red Crane Books, 1991). Sam Gill also points out that Indians put the white view of them as "at one with nature" to work for them in battles to regain land (Mother Earth: An American Story [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987], 130, 141, 145). In recent years, by arguing that the land is sacred to them, the Hopi have also tried to stop the expansion of the Snow Bowl ski area on the San Francisco Peaks near Flagstaff, Arizona. Like Taos Pueblo, the Hopis may have found that this argument is more effective than other rationales to prevent development of their prior use-areas. See Loftin, Religion and Hopi Life, 91.
190. Sylvia Rodriguez, "Art, Tourism, and Race Relations in Taos: Toward a Sociology of the Art Colony," Journal of Anthropological Research 45:1 (1989): 77-99, and "Land, Water, and Ethnic Identity in Taos," 352. For another account of Taos Pueblo's attempt to recover Blue Lake, see R. C. Gordon-McCutchan, The Taos Indians and the Battle for Blue Lake (Santa Fe: Red Crane Books, 1991). Sam Gill also points out that Indians put the white view of them as "at one with nature" to work for them in battles to regain land (Mother Earth: An American Story [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987], 130, 141, 145). In recent years, by arguing that the land is sacred to them, the Hopi have also tried to stop the expansion of the Snow Bowl ski area on the San Francisco Peaks near Flagstaff, Arizona. Like Taos Pueblo, the Hopis may have found that this argument is more effective than other rationales to prevent development of their prior use-areas. See Loftin, Religion and Hopi Life, 91.
191. Sylvia Rodriguez, "Art, Tourism, and Race Relations in Taos: Toward a Sociology of the Art Colony," Journal of Anthropological Research 45:1 (1989): 77-99, and "Land, Water, and Ethnic Identity in Taos," 352. For another account of Taos Pueblo's attempt to recover Blue Lake, see R. C. Gordon-McCutchan, The Taos Indians and the Battle for Blue Lake (Santa Fe: Red Crane Books, 1991). Sam Gill also points out that Indians put the white view of them as "at one with nature" to work for them in battles to regain land (Mother Earth: An American Story [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987], 130, 141, 145). In recent years, by arguing that the land is sacred to them, the Hopi have also tried to stop the expansion of the Snow Bowl ski area on the San Francisco Peaks near Flagstaff, Arizona. Like Taos Pueblo, the Hopis may have found that this argument is more effective than other rationales to prevent development of their prior use-areas. See Loftin, Religion and Hopi Life, 91.
192. Sylvia Rodriguez, "Art, Tourism, and Race Relations in Taos: Toward a Sociology of the Art Colony," Journal of Anthropological Research 45:1 (1989): 77-99, and "Land, Water, and Ethnic Identity in Taos," 352. For another account of Taos Pueblo's attempt to recover Blue Lake, see R. C. Gordon-McCutchan, The Taos Indians and the Battle for Blue Lake (Santa Fe: Red Crane Books, 1991). Sam Gill also points out that Indians put the white view of them as "at one with nature" to work for them in battles to regain land (Mother Earth: An American Story [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987], 130, 141, 145). In recent years, by arguing that the land is sacred to them, the Hopi have also tried to stop the expansion of the Snow Bowl ski area on the San Francisco Peaks near Flagstaff, Arizona. Like Taos Pueblo, the Hopis may have found that this argument is more effective than other rationales to prevent development of their prior use-areas. See Loftin, Religion and Hopi Life, 91.