Parties, party systems, and satisfaction with democratic performance in the new Europe

Political Studies

Volumn 46, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 572-588

  Anderson, Christopher J ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040634933     PISSN: 00323217     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-9248.00155     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. Many thanks to Richard I. Hofferbert, participants at the SUNY-Binghamton political science graduate colloquium, and the political science department at Washington University in St. Louis for thoughtful comments on earlier ideas and drafts.
2. H. D. Klingemann, R. Hofferbert, and I. Budge, Parties, Policies, and Democracy (Boulder, CO, Westview, 1994).
3. R. Katz, and P. Mair, 'Changing models of party organization: The emergence of the cartel party', Party Politics 1,1 (1995), 5-28.
4. M. Duverger, Political Parties (New York, Wiley and Sons, 1954). D. W. Rae, The Political Consequences of Electoral Laws (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1967). W. H. Riker, 'The number of political parties: A re-examination of Duverger's law', Comparative Politics 9 (1976): 93-106. A. Lijphart, 'The political consequences of electoral laws, 1945-85', The American Political Science Review 84,9 (1990): 481-496.
5. M. Duverger, Political Parties (New York, Wiley and Sons, 1954). D. W. Rae, The Political Consequences of Electoral Laws (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1967). W. H. Riker, 'The number of political parties: A re-examination of Duverger's law', Comparative Politics 9 (1976): 93-106. A. Lijphart, 'The political consequences of electoral laws, 1945-85', The American Political Science Review 84,9 (1990): 481-496.
6. M. Duverger, Political Parties (New York, Wiley and Sons, 1954). D. W. Rae, The Political Consequences of Electoral Laws (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1967). W. H. Riker, 'The number of political parties: A re-examination of Duverger's law', Comparative Politics 9 (1976): 93-106. A. Lijphart, 'The political consequences of electoral laws, 1945-85', The American Political Science Review 84,9 (1990): 481-496.
7. M. Duverger, Political Parties (New York, Wiley and Sons, 1954). D. W. Rae, The Political Consequences of Electoral Laws (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1967). W. H. Riker, 'The number of political parties: A re-examination of Duverger's law', Comparative Politics 9 (1976): 93-106. A. Lijphart, 'The political consequences of electoral laws, 1945-85', The American Political Science Review 84,9 (1990): 481-496.
8. A. Lijphart, Electoral Systems and Party Systems: A Study of Twenty-Seven Democracies, 1945-1990 (New York, Oxford University Press, 1994).
9. A. Lijphart, 'Constitutional choices for new democracies', Journal of Democracy 2,1 (1991), 72-84. D. W. Rae, Political Consequences of Electoral Laws.
10. A. Lijphart, 'Constitutional choices for new democracies', Journal of Democracy 2,1 (1991), 72-84. D. W. Rae, Political Consequences of Electoral Laws.
11. S. M. Lipset, and S. Rokkan, Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York, Free, 1967). R. Rose, and D. Urwin, 'Persistence and change in western party systems since 1945', Political Studies, 18 (1970), 287-319.
12. S. M. Lipset, and S. Rokkan, Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York, Free, 1967). R. Rose, and D. Urwin, 'Persistence and change in western party systems since 1945', Political Studies, 18 (1970), 287-319.
13. R. J. Dalton, Citizen Politics: Public Opinion and Political Parties Parties in Advanced Industrial Democracies (Chatham, NJ, Chatham House, 1996). R. Inglehart, Modernization and Post-modernization (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1997).
14. R. J. Dalton, Citizen Politics: Public Opinion and Political Parties Parties in Advanced Industrial Democracies (Chatham, NJ, Chatham House, 1996). R. Inglehart, Modernization and Post-modernization (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1997).
15. S. Bartolini, and P. Mair, Identity, Competition, and Electoral Availability: the Stabilisation of European Electorates 1885-1985 (New York, Cambridge University Press, 1990).
16. M. Duverger, Political Parties. A. Lijphart, Electoral Systems and Party Systems: a Study of Twenty-Seven Democracies, 1945-1990 (New York, Oxford University Press, 1994). R. J. Dalton, S. Flanagan, and P. Beck, Electoral Change in Advanced Industrial Societies: Realignment or Dealignment (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1984).
17. M. Duverger, Political Parties. A. Lijphart, Electoral Systems and Party Systems: a Study of Twenty-Seven Democracies, 1945-1990 (New York, Oxford University Press, 1994). R. J. Dalton, S. Flanagan, and P. Beck, Electoral Change in Advanced Industrial Societies: Realignment or Dealignment (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1984).
18. M. Duverger, Political Parties. A. Lijphart, Electoral Systems and Party Systems: a Study of Twenty-Seven Democracies, 1945-1990 (New York, Oxford University Press, 1994). R. J. Dalton, S. Flanagan, and P. Beck, Electoral Change in Advanced Industrial Societies: Realignment or Dealignment (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1984).
19. M. Duverger, Political Parties. D. W. Rae, Political Consequences of Electoral Laws. A. Lijphart, Eletoral Systems and Party Systems.
20. M. Duverger, Political Parties. D. W. Rae, Political Consequences of Electoral Laws. A. Lijphart, Eletoral Systems and Party Systems.
21. M. Duverger, Political Parties. D. W. Rae, Political Consequences of Electoral Laws. A. Lijphart, Eletoral Systems and Party Systems.
22. A. H. Miller, and O. Listhaug, 'Political parties and confidence in government: A comparison of Norway, Sweden and the United States', British Journal of Political Science, 29 (1990), 357-86.
23. F. Weil, 'The sources and structure of legitimation in western democracies: a consolidated model tested with time-series data in six countries since World War II', American Sociological Review, 54 (1989), 82-706.
24. Katz and Mair, 'Changing models of party organizations'.
25. S. Scarrow, and T. Poguntke, 'The politics of anti-party sentiment', European Journal of Political Research, 29,3 (1996): 57-262.
26. A. Lijphart, Democracies (new Haven, Yale University Press, 1984). G. B. Powell, Contemporary Democracies: Participation, Stability and Violence (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press, 1982).
27. A. Lijphart, Democracies (new Haven, Yale University Press, 1984). G. B. Powell, Contemporary Democracies: Participation, Stability and Violence (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press, 1982).
28. Italy was left out of the analysis because it experienced significant electoral volatility, elections under a new electoral law, as well as the fundamental reformation of its party system during the period investigated here. Interested readers may obtain the empirical results with the Italian case included by contacting the author.
29. J. Loosemore and V. Hanby, 'The theoretical limits of maximum distortion: some analytic expressions for electoral systems', British Journal of Political Science, 1 (1971), 467-77.
30. A. Lijphart, Electoral Systems and Party Systems, p. 60.
31. T. Mackie and R. Rose, The International Almanac of Electoral History. rev. 3rd ed. (Washington DC, Congressional Quarterly Press, 1991).
32. M. Laakso and R. Taagepera, 'Effective number of parties: a measure with application to west Europe', Comparative Political Studies, 12 (1979), 3-27.
33. Instead of using the more widely known Rae/Taylor index of party system fractionalization, I measure party system change by changes in the effective number of parliamentary and electoral parties in system. Note, however, that the formula for the effective number of parties carries the same information as Rae's index of party system fractionalization, only expressed in a different metric. The reader can obtain Rae's fractionalization index (F) by substituting the value for the effective number of parties (N) in the following formula: F = 1 - (1/N).
34. A. Lijphart, Democracies, p. 120.
35. R. Taagepera, and M. Shugart, Seats and Votes (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1993), p. 455.
36. M. Pedersen, 'The dynamics of European party systems: changing patterns of electoral volatility', European Journal of Political Research, 7 (1979), 7-26. M. Pedersen, 'Changing patterns of electoral volatility in European party systems, 1945-1977: explorations in explanation', in H. Daalder and P. Mair (eds), West European Party Systems: Continuity and Change (London, Sage, 1983), pp.29-66.
37. M. Pedersen, 'The dynamics of European party systems: changing patterns of electoral volatility', European Journal of Political Research, 7 (1979), 7-26. M. Pedersen, 'Changing patterns of electoral volatility in European party systems, 1945-1977: explorations in explanation', in H. Daalder and P. Mair (eds), West European Party Systems: Continuity and Change (London, Sage, 1983), pp.29-66.
38. The somewhat lower levels of significance reported in some of the analyses may be due to the small number of cases analysed here. Thus, our interpretive strategy examines the direction of size of the correlation coefficient first, and its statistical significance second.
39. The relationship between party system fragmentation and electoral volatility is virtually zero. Thus, it would be difficult to conclude that systems with a greater effective number of parties also display higher levels of electoral volatility.
40. For details, see R. Dalton, Citizen Politics: Public Opinion and Political Parties in Advanced Industrial Democracies, 2nd ed. (Chatham, NJ, Chatham House, 1996).
41. These data are taken from R. Katz, and P. Mair, Party Organisations: a Data Handbook on Party Organisations in Western Democracies, 1960-1990 (London, Sage, 1992).
42. The Pearson correlation coefficient is 0.33 (Western Europe) and 0.46 (all cases; p < 0.1).
43. I use averages here to smooth out any temporary fluctuations that may exist in the data. Note, however, that the substantive conclusions are unchanged when I employ year-by-year data.
44. Studies that have employed the democracy satisfaction measure as a dependent variable include C. J. Anderson, and C. A. Guillory, 'Political institutions and satisfaction with democracy: a cross-national analysis of consensus and majoritarian systems', American Political Science Review, 91,1 (1997), 66-81. H. D. Clarke, N. Dutt, and A. Kornberg, 'The political economy of attitudes toward polity and society in western European countries', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 998-1021. R. Harmel, and J. Robertson, 'Government stability and regime support: a cross-national analysis', Journal of Politics, 48 (1986), 1029-40.
45. Studies that have employed the democracy satisfaction measure as a dependent variable include C. J. Anderson, and C. A. Guillory, 'Political institutions and satisfaction with democracy: a cross-national analysis of consensus and majoritarian systems', American Political Science Review, 91,1 (1997), 66-81. H. D. Clarke, N. Dutt, and A. Kornberg, 'The political economy of attitudes toward polity and society in western European countries', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 998-1021. R. Harmel, and J. Robertson, 'Government stability and regime support: a cross-national analysis', Journal of Politics, 48 (1986), 1029-40.
46. Studies that have employed the democracy satisfaction measure as a dependent variable include C. J. Anderson, and C. A. Guillory, 'Political institutions and satisfaction with democracy: a cross-national analysis of consensus and majoritarian systems', American Political Science Review, 91,1 (1997), 66-81. H. D. Clarke, N. Dutt, and A. Kornberg, 'The political economy of attitudes toward polity and society in western European countries', Journal of Politics, 55 (1993), 998-1021. R. Harmel, and J. Robertson, 'Government stability and regime support: a cross-national analysis', Journal of Politics, 48 (1986), 1029-40.
47. For analyses of support for democratic norms in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, see J. L. Gibson, 'A mile wide but an inch deep (?): The structure of democratic commitments in the former USSR', American Journal of Political Science, 40,2 (1996), 396-420. G. Evans, and S. Whitefieid, 'The politics and economics of democratic commitment: support for democracy in transition societies', British Journal of Political Science, 25,4 (1995), 485-514.
48. For analyses of support for democratic norms in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, see J. L. Gibson, 'A mile wide but an inch deep (?): The structure of democratic commitments in the former USSR', American Journal of Political Science, 40,2 (1996), 396-420. G. Evans, and S. Whitefieid, 'The politics and economics of democratic commitment: support for democracy in transition societies', British Journal of Political Science, 25,4 (1995), 485-514.
49. See F. Weil, 'The sources and structure of legitimation in western democracies'.
50. J.-E. Lane, and S. Ersson, Politics and Society in Western Europe, 2nd ed. (London, Sage, 1991) p. 194.
51. D. Fuchs, G. Guidorossi, and P. Svensson, 'Support for the Democratic System', In H.-D. Klingemann and Dieter Fuchs (eds) Citizens and the State (New York, Oxford University Press, 1995). p. 328.
52. H. D. Clarke, and A. Kornberg, 'Support for the Canadian Federal Progressive Conservative Party since 1988: the impact of economic evaluations and economic issues', Canadian Journal of Political Science, 25 (1992), p. 47, n. 24; and A. Kornberg, and H. D. Clarke, 'Beliefs about democracy and satisfaction with democratic government: the Canadian case', Political Research Quarterly, 47 (1994), 537-63, report on a variety of tests designed to establish construct validity of the satisfaction with democracy question as an indicator of system support. They find that satisfaction with democracy is clearly an indicator of actual system support and not coterminous with support for the incumbent government. Similarly, Fuchs ( D. Fuchs, 'Trends of political support', in D. Berg-Schlosser and R. Rytlewski (eds), Political Culture in Germany (New York, St. Martin s), p. 242) examines the validity of the satisfaction with democracy indicator and finds that the results constitute 'a successful validation of the indicator as a measuring instrument for a generalized attitude towards the political system on the legitimacy dimension'. Weil ('Structure and Sources of Legitimation , pp.692-3) provides some indirect construct validity for the satisfaction with democracy indicator as well by reporting high positive correlations with political trust.
53. H. D. Clarke, and A. Kornberg, 'Support for the Canadian Federal Progressive Conservative Party since 1988: the impact of economic evaluations and economic issues', Canadian Journal of Political Science, 25 (1992), p. 47, n. 24; and A. Kornberg, and H. D. Clarke, 'Beliefs about democracy and satisfaction with democratic government: the Canadian case', Political Research Quarterly, 47 (1994), 537-63, report on a variety of tests designed to establish construct validity of the satisfaction with democracy question as an indicator of system support. They find that satisfaction with democracy is clearly an indicator of actual system support and not coterminous with support for the incumbent government. Similarly, Fuchs ( D. Fuchs, 'Trends of political support', in D. Berg-Schlosser and R. Rytlewski (eds), Political Culture in Germany (New York, St. Martin s), p. 242) examines the validity of the satisfaction with democracy indicator and finds that the results constitute 'a successful validation of the indicator as a measuring instrument for a generalized attitude towards the political system on the legitimacy dimension'. Weil ('Structure and Sources of Legitimation , pp.692-3) provides some indirect construct validity for the satisfaction with democracy indicator as well by reporting high positive correlations with political trust.
54. H. D. Clarke, and A. Kornberg, 'Support for the Canadian Federal Progressive Conservative Party since 1988: the impact of economic evaluations and economic issues', Canadian Journal of Political Science, 25 (1992), p. 47, n. 24; and A. Kornberg, and H. D. Clarke, 'Beliefs about democracy and satisfaction with democratic government: the Canadian case', Political Research Quarterly, 47 (1994), 537-63, report on a variety of tests designed to establish construct validity of the satisfaction with democracy question as an indicator of system support. They find that satisfaction with democracy is clearly an indicator of actual system support and not coterminous with support for the incumbent government. Similarly, Fuchs ( D. Fuchs, 'Trends of political support', in D. Berg-Schlosser and R. Rytlewski (eds), Political Culture in Germany (New York, St. Martin s), p. 242) examines the validity of the satisfaction with democracy indicator and finds that the results constitute 'a successful validation of the indicator as a measuring instrument for a generalized attitude towards the political system on the legitimacy dimension'. Weil ('Structure and Sources of Legitimation , pp.692-3) provides some indirect construct validity for the satisfaction with democracy indicator as well by reporting high positive correlations with political trust.
55. G. Tóka, 'Political support in East-Central Europe', H.-D. Klingemann and D. Fuchs (eds), Citizens and the State (New York, Oxford University Press, 1995). For an overview, see A. H. Miller, V. L. Hesli, and W. M. Reisinger, 'Conceptions of democracy among mass and elite in post-soviet societies', British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 157-90.
56. G. Tóka, 'Political support in East-Central Europe', H.-D. Klingemann and D. Fuchs (eds), Citizens and the State (New York, Oxford University Press, 1995). For an overview, see A. H. Miller, V. L. Hesli, and W. M. Reisinger, 'Conceptions of democracy among mass and elite in post-soviet societies', British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 157-90.
57. S. M. Lipset, Political Man: the Social Bases of Politics (Garden City NY, Doubleday, 1959). G. B. Powell, Contemporary Democracies, G. B. Powell, 'Extremist parties and political turmoil: two puzzles', American Journal of Political Science, 30 (1986), 357-78.
58. S. M. Lipset, Political Man: the Social Bases of Politics (Garden City NY, Doubleday, 1959). G. B. Powell, Contemporary Democracies, G. B. Powell, 'Extremist parties and political turmoil: two puzzles', American Journal of Political Science, 30 (1986), 357-78.
59. S. M. Lipset, Political Man: the Social Bases of Politics (Garden City NY, Doubleday, 1959). G. B. Powell, Contemporary Democracies, G. B. Powell, 'Extremist parties and political turmoil: two puzzles', American Journal of Political Science, 30 (1986), 357-78.
60. W. Mishler and R. Rose, 'Trust, distrust and skepticism: popular evaluations of civil and political institutions in post-communist societies', Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 418-51.
61. C. J. Anderson, and C. A. Guillory, 'Political institutions and satisfaction with democracy'. P. Norris, 'Designing democracies: Institutional arrangements and system support', Paper presented at the JFK School of Government Workshop on Confidence in Democratic Institutions: America in Comparative Perspective, 25-27 August 1997, Washington D.C.
62. C. J. Anderson, and C. A. Guillory, 'Political institutions and satisfaction with democracy'. P. Norris, 'Designing democracies: Institutional arrangements and system support', Paper presented at the JFK School of Government Workshop on Confidence in Democratic Institutions: America in Comparative Perspective, 25-27 August 1997, Washington D.C.