The new social contract between governments, universities and society: Has the old one failed?

Minerva

Volumn 36, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 209-228

  Vavakova, Blanka ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040626269     PISSN: 00264695     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1004384519396     Document Type: Article

References (58)

1. This has given rise to numerous conferences, including The Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations, Amsterdam, 4-6 January, 1996.
2. Guston, David and Keniston, Kenneth, The Fragile Contract: University Science and Federal Government (Cambridge, Mass. and London: MIT Press, 1994), p. 32.
3. Guston, David and Keniston, Kenneth, The Fragile Contract: University Science and Federal Government (1994), Ibid., p. 2.
4. See Garfield, Eugene and Welljams-Dorof, Alfred, "Citation Data: Their Use as Quantitative Indicators for Science and Technology Evaluation and Policy-making", Science and Public Policy XIX, 5 (October 1992), pp. 321-327.
5. See World Report on Science 1993 (Paris: Unesco, 1994).
6. World Report on Science 1993 (Ibid.1994). , p. 143.
7. Kline, Stephen, "Innovation is Not a Linear Process", Research Management, XXVIII (July-August 1985), p. 44.
8. Mansfield, Edwin, "Academic Research and Industrial Innovation", Research Policy, XX, 1 (1991), p. 3.
9. Rosenberg, Nathan, "Why do Firms do Basic Research (with Their Own Money)?", Research Policy, XIX, 2 (1990), pp. 165-174.
10. Nelson, Richard R., "The Simple Economics of Basic Scientific Research", reprinted from Journal of Political Economy (June 1959),
11. in Rosenberg, Nathan, The Economics of Technological Change (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1971), pp. 148-163.
12. Pavitt, Keith, "What Do We know about the Usefulness of Science? The Case for Diversity", in Hague, Douglas (ed.), The Management of Science, Proceedings of Section F (Economics) of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Sheffield: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 30-31.
13. On specific points, see Pavitt, Keith, "What Do We know about the Usefulness of Science? The Case for Diversity", in Proceedings of Section F (Economics) of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (1989), ibid., pp. 21-46.
14. See also Pavitt, Keith, "What Makes Basic Research Economically Useful?", Research Policy, XX (1991).
15. Mansfield, E., "Academic Research and Industrial Innovation", Research Policy, 1991 op.cit., pp. 2-3.
16. Narin, Francis and Olivastro, Dominic, "Status Report: Linkages between Technology and Science", Research Policy, XXI (1992), p. 243.
17. It has also required from Japanese firms "high levels of indigenous research and development activities ..., investment, capacity of learning and improving". Pavitt, Keith, "Internationalisation of Technological Innovation", Science and Public Policy, XIX (April 1992), p. 120.
18. Guston, D. and Keniston, K., The Fragile Contract, XIX (1992), p. 120. op. cit.;
19. Brooks, Harvey, "Research Universities and the Social Contract for Science", in Branscomb, L.M. (ed.), Empowering Technology: Implementing a US Strategy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1993), pp. 202-234;
20. Etzkowitz, Henry, "Academic-Industry Relations: A Sociological Paradigm for Economic Development", in Leydesdorff, Loet and van den Besselaar, Peter (eds), Evolutionary Economics and Chaos Theory: New Directions in Technology Studies (London: Pinter, 1994).
21. Brooks, H., "Research Universities", Evolutionary Economics and Chaos Theory: New Directions in Technology Studies 1994. op. cit., p. 204.
22. Guston, D. and Keniston, K., The Fragile Contract, 1994 op. cit., p. 2.
23. Guston, D. and Keniston, K., The Fragile Contract, 1994 p. 2. Ibid.
24. Brooks, H., "Research Universities", The Fragile Contract, 1994 op. cit., pp. 204-205.
25. Guston, D. and Keniston, K., The Fragile Contract, 1994 op. cit., p. 2.
26. Guston, D. and Keniston, K., The Fragile Contract, 1994 Ibid., p. 3.
27. Guston, D. and Keniston, K., The Fragile Contract, 1994 p. 3. Ibid.
28. See Maarten de Vet, Jean, "Globalisation and Local and Regional Competitiveness", STI revue (Paris: OECD, 1993), pp. 89-121.
29. Nevertheless, between 1986-89, American corporations increased their domestic research and development by 6 per cent, but by 33 per cent abroad; see Madeuf, Bernadette, "Internationalisation de la R.D.: réseau global de R.D. et potentiel scientifique et technique national", Colloque Mastech, Lyon, 9-12 September, 1991.
30. Opening speech at National Colloquium for Research and Technology, 13 January, 1982, in Actes du Colloque National Recherche et Technologie (Paris: La Documentation française, 1982), p. 67.
31. Interview with Guitta Plessis-Pasternak, "L'effort de recherche au risque de finance", Le Monde, 3 March, 1990.
32. Vavakova, Blanka, "Building 'Research-Industry' Partnerships Through European Research and Development Programs", International Journal of Technology Management (IJTM), special issue on Evaluation of Research and Technical Change, X, 4-5-6 (Spring 1995).
33. CNRS and its institutes employ 11,386 researchers and 15,081 technical and administrative staff (Projet de loi de finances 1995). Yet 10,000 of those paid by CNRS work outside it, in universities, business firms and in public and private enterprises.
34. Aubert, Guy, "La recherche fondamentale doit être en prise directe avec l'économie", interview by Alain Perez in Les Echos, 13 March, 1995.
35. See Massey, Doreen, Quintas, Paul and Wield, David, High Tech Fantasies: Science Parks in Society, Science and Space (London and New York: Routledge, 1992).
36. Feller, Itvin "Universities as Engines of R&D-based Economic Growth: They Think They Can", Research Policy, XIX (1990), pp. 335-348.
37. David, Ben-Joseph, The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1971).
38. Irvine, John, Martin, B.K. and Isard, Phoebe, Investing in the Future: An International Comparison of Government Funding of Academic Related Research, report of a study sponsored by the United Kingdom Advisory Board for the Research Councils and the United States National Science Foundation (Huntingdon and Vermont: Edward Elgar, 1990).
39. Irvine, John, Martin, B.K. and Isard, Phoebe, Investing in the Future: An International Comparison of Government Funding of Academic Related Research, Ibid.1990). , p. 79,
40. according to Walgate, R., "More for Defence, Less for Science , Nature, CCCXIII (1986).
41. Coles, P., "New French Government's Windfall for Research", Nature, CCCXXXIII (1989).
42. Freeman, Christopher, "Quantitative and Qualitative Factors in National Policies for Science and Technology", in Annerstedt, Jan and Jamison, Andrew (eds), From Research Policy to Social Intelligence: Essays for Stevan Dedijer (London: Macmillan, 1988).
43. OECD, Main Science and Technology Indicatory 1994, 1 and 2 (Paris: OECD, 1994).
44. Projet de Loi de Finances 1995.
45. E.g., INRIA, Institut national pour la recherche agronomique (INRA), Centre national du machinisme agricole, du génie rural et des eaux et forêts (CEMAGREF), and Institut national de recherche sur les transports et leur sécurité (INRETS).
46. Conversely, "research directed toward . . . practical goals has made important contributions to areas that are unhesitatingly categorized as basic"; see Rosenberg, Nathan and Nelson, Richard, R., "American Universities and Technical Advance in Industry", Research Policy, XXIII (1994), p. 332.
47. In 1988, firms in the United Kingdom invested more in research and development than did French companies, but their expenditure on these fell from 1.47 to 1.33 in 1992.
48. Salomon, Jean-Jacques, Le gaulois, le cowboy, et le samouraï: La politique française de technologie (Paris: Economica, 1986).
49. MESR, Recherche et développement dans les entreprises: Résultats 1991 (Paris: MESR, 1994).
50. CNRS, La Note d'information du CNRS, 3 September, 1993.
51. Vavakova, Blanka, "Vocation régionale de la recherche publique en France", Revue Politique et Sociétés, forthcoming.
52. Vavakova, B., "Building 'Research-Industry' Partnerships", Revue Politique et Sociétés, op. cit.
53. CNRS, MRE, "La recherche à objectifs partages et les transferts de technologie", 15 June, 1995.
54. A possible exception is a recent effort by the Ministry of Higher Education and Research to secure prior notification and a right to control all formal contractual international relations of the research organisations and universities falling under the Ministry of Higher Education and Research.
55. MESR, Recherche et developpement dans les Enterprises, op. cit., p. 20.
56. Wortmann, Martin, "Multinationals and the Internationalization of Research and Development: New Developments in German Companies", Research Policy, XIX (1990).
57. The other reasons for foreign investment in research and development are outside my focus here. But it is interesting that a company such as Hoechst in 1992 invested 1,554,126 KECU on research and development.
58. Vavakova, B., "Building 'Research-Industry' Partnerships", op. cit., 1995.