Habitat relationships of moose on the Copper River Delta in coastal South-Central Alaska

Wildlife Monographs

Volumn , Issue 136, 1997, Pages 1-52

  MacCracken, James G ^a,c   Van Ballenberghe, Victor ^b   Peek, James M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IDAHO   (United States)

^b PACIFIC NORTHWEST RESEARCH STATION   (United States)

^c Longview Fibre Co   (United States)

Author keywords

Activity; Alaska; Alces alces gigas; Calf survival; Carrying capacity; Disturbance; Habitat selection; Moose; Scale effects

Indexed keywords

ALCES ALCES; URSUS ARCTOS;

EID: 0040600465     PISSN: 00840173     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (142)

1. ABRAMSKY, Z., M. L. ROSENZWEIG, B. PINSHOW, J. S. BROWN, B. KOLTER, AND W. A. MITCHELL. 1990. Habitat selection: an experimental field test with two gerbil species. Ecology 71:2358-2369.
2. ALLDREDGE, J. R., AND J. T. RATTI. 1986. Comparison of some statistical techniques for analysis of resource selection. J. Wildl. Manage. 50:157-165.
3. _, AND _. 1992. Further comparisons of some statistical techniques for analysis of resource selection. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:1-9.
4. BALLARD, W. B. 1992. Bear predation on moose: a review of recent North American studies and their management implications. Alces Suppl. 1: 162-167.
5. _, A. W. FRANZMANN, K. P. TAYLOR, T. SPRAKER, C. C. SCHWARTZ, AND R. O. PETERSON. 1979. Comparison of techniques utilized to determine moose calf mortality in Alaska. Proc. North Am. Moose Conf. Workshop 15:362-387.
6. _, AND D. G. LARSEN. 1987. Implications of predator-prey relationships to moose management. Swed. Wildl. Res. Suppl. 1:581-602.
7. _, AND S. D. MILLER. 1990. Effects of reducing brown bear density on moose calf survival. Alces 26:9-13.
8. _, AND R. W. TOBEY. 1981. Decreased calf production of moose immobilized with Anectine from a helicopter. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 9:207-209.
9. _, J. S. WHITMAN, AND D. J. REED. 1991. Population dynamics of moose in south-central Alaska. Wildl. Monogr. 114. 49pp.
10. BEIER, P., AND D. R. MCCULLOUGH. 1988. Motion-sensitive radio collars for estimating white-tailed deer activity. J. Wildl. Manage. 52:11-13.
11. BELOVSKY, G. E. 1981. A possible population response of moose to sodium availability. J. Mammal. 62:631-633.
12. _, AND P. A. JORDAN. 1978. The time-energy budget of a moose. Theor. Popul. Biol. 14:76-104.
13. _, AND _. 1981. Sodium dynamics and adaptations of a moose population. J. Mammal. 62: 613-621.
14. BERG, N. E., AND R. L. PHILLIPS. 1974. Habitat use by moose in northwestern Minnesota with reference to other heavily willowed areas. Nat. Can. (Que.) 101:101-116.
15. BEVINS, J. S., A. W. FRANZMANN, AND C. C. SCHWARTZ. 1988. Determining moose activity budgets using leg-mounted tip-switch transmitters and a computerized data acquisition system. Alces 24:22-33.
16. _, C. C. SCHWARTZ, AND A. W. FRANZMANN. 1990. Seasonal activity patterns of moose on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Alces 26:14-23.
17. BORMANN, F. H., AND G. E. LIKENS. 1981. Pattern and process in a forested ecosystem. Springer-Verlag, New York, N.Y. 253pp.
18. BOULANGER, J. G., AND G. C. WHITE. 1990. A comparison of home-range estimators using Monte Carlo simulation. J. Wildl. Manage. 54:310-315.
19. BRADY, N. C. 1974. The nature and properties of soils. MacMillan Publ. Co., New York, N.Y. 639pp.
20. BRYANT, J. P., P. REICHARDT, AND T. P. CLAUSEN. 1992. Chemically mediated interactions between woody plants and browsing mammals. J. Range Manage. 45:18-24.
21. _, J. TAHVANAINEA, M. SULKINOJA, R. JULKINEA-THTTO, P. REICHARDT, AND J. GREEN. 1989. Biogeographic evidence for the evolution of chemical defense by boreal birch and willow against mammalian browsing. Am. Nat. 134:18-24.
22. BURRIS, O. E., AND D. E. MCKNIGHT. 1973. Game transplants in Alaska. Alas. Dep. Fish and Game, Game Tech. Bull. 4. 57pp.
23. CAREY, J. R. 1985. Program DC80. Dep. Wildl. Ecol., Univ. Wis., Madison. 7pp.
24. CAUGHLEY, G. 1976. Wildlife management and the dynamics of ungulate populations. Pages 183-246 in T. H. Coaker, ed. Applied biology. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.
25. CEDERLUND, G., R. BERGSTRÖM, AND F. SANDGREN. 1989. Winter activity patterns in two moose populations. Can J. Zool. 67:1516-1522.
26. _, AND P. A. LEMNELL. 1980. Activity recording of radio-tagged animals. Biotelem. Patient Monit. 7:206-214.
27. CHAPIN, III, F. S., L. R. WALKER, C. L. FASTIE, AND L. C. SHARMAN. 1994. Mechanisms of primary succession following deglaciation at Glacier Bay, Alaska. Ecol. Monogr. 64:149-175.
28. COADY, J. W. 1982. Moose, Alces alces. Pages 902-922 in J. A. Chapman and G. A. Feldhammer, eds. Wild mammals of North America: biology, management, and economics. John Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, Md.
29. CONOVER, W. J., AND R. L. IMAN. 1981. Rank transformations as a bridge between parametric and nonparametric statistics. Am. Stat. 35:124-129.
30. COOK, H. W., R. A. RAUSCH, AND B. E. BAKER. 1970. Moose (Alces alces) milk. Gross composition, fatty acid, and mineral constitution. Can. J. Zool. 48:213-215.
31. COUGHENOUR, M. B. 1991. Spatial components of plant-herbivore interactions in pastoral, ranching, and native ungulate ecosystems. J. Range Manage. 44:530-542.
32. COWARDIN, L. M., V. CARTER, F. C. GOLET, AND E. T. LAROE. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Res. Rep. FWS/OBS 79/31. 103pp.
33. CRÊTE, M. 1989. Approximation of K carrying capacity for moose in eastern Quebec. Can. J. Zool. 67:373-380.
34. _, R. J. TAYLOR, AND P. A. JORDAN. 1981. Optimization of moose harvest in southwestern Quebec. J. Wildl. Manage. 45:598-611.
35. CROW, J. H. 1968. Plant ecology of the Copper River Delta. Ph.D. Thesis, Washington State Univ., Pullman. 120pp.
36. DENSMORE, R. V., B. J. NEILAND, J. C. ZASADA, AND M. A. MASTERS. 1987. Planting willow for moose habitat restoration on the North Slope of Alaska, U.S.A. Arct. and Alp. Res. 19:537-543.
37. DIXON, K. R., AND J. A. CHAPMAN. 1980. Harmonic-mean measure of animal activity areas. Ecology 61:1040-1044.
38. DOERR, J. G. 1983. Home range size, movements, and habitat use in two Moose, Alces alces, populations in southeastern Alaska. Can. Field-Nat. 97:79-88.
39. FABER, W., Å. PERSON, G. CEDERLUND, AND P. A. JORDAN. 1988. Aquatic feeding by moose in Sweden - with implications concerning sodium. Alces 24:126-132.
40. FESTA-BIANCHET, M. 1988. Seasonal range selection in bighorn sheep: conflicts between forage quality, forage quantity, and predator avoidance. Oecologia (Berlin) 75:580-586.
41. FLYNN, A., A. W. FRANZMANN, P. D. ARNESON, AND J. L. OLDEMEYER. 1977. Indications of copper deficiency in a subpopulation of Alaskan moose. J. Nutr. 107:1182-1189.
42. FORMAN, R. T. T., AND M. GODRON. 1986. Landscape ecology. John Wiley and Sons, New York, N.Y. 619pp.
43. FORTHOFER, R. N., AND R. G. LEHNEN. 1981. Public program analysis: a new categorical data approach. Wadsworth Publ. Co., Belmont, Calif. 294pp.
44. FRANZMANN, A. W., AND C. C. SCHWARTZ. 1985. Moose twinning rates: a possible population condition assessment. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:394-396.
45. _, _, AND D. C. JOHNSON. 1987. Monitoring status (condition, nutrition, health) of moose via blood. Swed. Wildl. Res. Suppl. 1:281-287.
46. _, _, AND R. O. PETERSON. 1980. Moose calf mortality in summer on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 44:764-768.
47. FRASER, D., B. K. THOMPSON, AND D. ARTHUR. 1982. Aquatic feeding by moose: seasonal variation in relation to plant chemical composition and use of mineral licks. Can. J. Zool. 60:3121-3126.
48. FREDDY, D. J., W. M. BRONAUGH, AND M. C. FOWLER. 1986. Responses of mule deer to disturbance by persons afoot and snowmobiles. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 14:63-68.
49. FRETWELL, S. D. 1972. Populations in a seasonal environment. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, N.J. 217pp.
50. GASAWAY, W. C., R. D. BOERTJE, D. V. GRANGAARD, D. G. KELLEYHOUSE, R. O. STEPHENSON, AND D. G. LARSEN. 1992. The role of predation in limiting moose at low densities in Alaska and Yukon and implications for conservation. Wildl. Monogr. 120. 59pp.
51. _, R. O. STEPHENSON, J. L. DAVIS, P. E. K. SHEPHERD, AND O. E. BURRIS. 1983. Interrelationships of wolves, prey, and man in interior Alaska. Wildl. Monogr. 84. 50pp.
52. GILLINGHAM, M. P., AND F. L. BUNNELL. 1985. Reliability of motion-sensitive radio collars for estimating activity of black-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:951-958.
53. GOERING, H. K., AND P. J. VAN SOEST. 1970. Forage fiber analyses. U.S. Dep. Agric., Agric. Handb. 379. 52pp.
54. HANLEY. T. A. 1982. The nutritional basis for food selection by ungulates. J. Range Manage. 35: 146-151.
55. _, C. T. ROBBINS, A. E. HAGERMAN, AND C. MCARTHUR. 1992. Predicting digestible protein and digestible dry matter in tannin-containing forages consumed by ruminants. Ecology 73: 537-541.
56. HANSEN, H. A., P. E. K. SHEPHERD, J. G. KING, AND W. A. TROYER. 1971. The trumpeter swan in Alaska. Wildl. Monogr. 26. 83pp.
57. HANSEN, M. C., G. W. GARNER, AND S. G. FANCY. 1992. Comparison of 3 methods for evaluating activity of Dall's sheep. J. Wildl. Manage. 56: 661-668.
58. HEISEY, D. M., AND T. K. FULLER. 1985. Evaluation of survival and cause-specific mortality rates using telemetry data. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:668-674.
59. HOBBS, N. T., AND T. A. HANLEY. 1990. Habitat evaluation: do use/availability data reflect carrying capacity? J. Wildl. Manage. 54:515-522.
60. HOFMANN, R. R. 1989. Evolutionary steps of ecophysiological adaptation of ruminants: a comparative view of their digestive system. Oecologia (Berlin) 78:443-457.
61. HONACKI, J. H., K. E. KINMAN, AND J. W. KOEPPL. 1982. Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. Allen Press, Lawrence, Kans. 694pp.
62. HUBBERT, M. E. 1987. The effect of diet on energy partitioning in moose. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks. 158pp.
63. HULTÉN, E. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories. Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford, Calif. 1008pp.
64. JAKIMCHUK, R. D., S. H. FERGUSON, AND L. G. SOPUCK. 1987. Differential habitat use and sexual segregation in the Central Arctic caribou herd. Can. J. Zool. 65:534-541.
65. JOHNSON, D. H. 1980. The comparison of usage and availability measurements for evaluating resource preference. Ecology 61:65-71.
66. JORDAN, P. A. 1987. Aquatic foraging and the sodium ecology of moose: a review. Swed. Wildl. Res. Suppl. 1:119-137.
67. KELSALL, J. P. 1969. Structural adaptation of moose and deer for snow. J. Mammal. 50:302-310.
68. KING, M. M., AND H. D. SMITH. 1980. Differential habitat utilization by the sexes of mule deer. Great Basin Nat. 40:350-367.
69. KISTCHINSKI, A. H. 1974. The moose in northeast Siberia. Nat. Can. (Que.) 101:179-184.
70. KLEIN, D. R. 1965. Post-glacial distribution patterns of mammals in the southern coastal regions of Alaska. Arctic 18:9-18.
71. LERESCHE, R. E., R. H. BISHOP, AND J. W. COADY. 1974. Distribution and habitats of moose in Alaska. Nat. Can. (Que.) 101:143-178.
72. LUTZ, H. J. 1960. History of the early occurrence of moose on the Kenai Peninsula and in other sections of Alaska. U.S. For. Serv. Misc. Publ. 1. 25pp.
73. MACCRACKEN, J. G. 1992. Ecology of moose on the Copper River Delta, Alaska. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 338pp.
74. _, AND R. M. HANSEN. 1984. Seasonal foods of blacktail jackrabbits and Nuttall cottontails in southeastern Idaho. J. Range Manage. 37:256-259.
75. _, T. R. STEPHENSON, AND V. VAN BALLENBERGHE. 1994. Peculiar antler cast by moose on the Copper River Delta, Alaska. Alces 30:13-19.
76. _, AND V. VAN BALLENBERGHE. 1993a. Mass-diameter regressions for moose browse on the Copper River Delta, Alaska. J. Range Manage. 46:302-308.
77. _, AND _. 1993b. Comparison of rumen and fecal analysis to estimate moose diets. Northwest Sci. 64:256-261.
78. _, _, AND J. M. PEEK. 1993. Use of aquatic plants by moose: sodium hunger or foraging efficiency? Can. J. Zool. 71:2345-2351.
79. _, AND L. A. VIERECK. 1990. Browse regrowth and use by moose following fire in interior Alaska. Northwest Sci. 64:11-18.
80. MARCUM, C. L., AND D. O. LOFTSGAARDEN. 1980. A nonmapping technique for studying habitat preference. J. Wildl. Manage. 44:963-968.
81. MAUTZ, W. W. 1978. Nutrition and carrying capacity. Pages 321-348 in J. L. Schmidt and D. L. Gilbert, eds. Big game of North America: ecology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa.
82. MCINNIS, M. L., L. L. LARSON, AND M. VAVRA. 1990. Classifying herbivore diets using hierarchical cluster analysis. J. Range Manage. 43:271-274.
83. MCLAREN, B. E., AND R. O. PETERSON. 1994. Wolves, moose and tree rings on Isle Royale. Science 266:155,5-1558.
84. MILKE, G. C. 1969. Some moose-willow relationships in the interior of Alaska. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks. 79pp.
85. MILLER, S. D., AND W. B. BALLARD. 1982. Homing of transplanted Alaskan brown bears. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:896-876.
86. MIQUELLE, D. G. 1990. Behavioral ecology of moose in Denali National Park and Preserve. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 141pp.
87. _, J. M. PEEK, AND V. VAN BALLENBERGHE. 1992. Sexual segregation in Alaskan moose. Wildl. Monogr. 122. 57pp.
88. _, AND V. VAN BALLENBERGHE. 1989. Impact of bark stripping by moose on aspen-spruce communities. J. Wildl. Manage. 53:577-586.
89. MOHR, C. O. 1947. Table of equivalent populations of North American mammals. Am. Midl. Nat. 37: 223-249.
90. MOULD, E. D., AND C. T. ROBBINS. 1981. Evaluation of detergent analysis in estimating nutritional value of browse. J. Wildl. Manage. 45:937-947.
91. NEAL, A. K., G. C. WHITE, R. B. GILL, D. F. REED, AND J. H. OLTERMAN. 1993. Evaluation of mark-resight model assumptions for estimating mountain sheep numbers. J. Wildl. Manage. 57:436-450.
92. NOWLIN, R. A. 1993. Game Managment Unit 6. Pages 47-58 in S. M. Abbott, ed. Furbearers. Alaska Dep. Fish and Game, Juueau, Fed. Aid in Wildl. Restor. Survey-inventory Manage. Rep., Proj. W-23-3, W-23-4.
93. OLDEMEYER, J. L., AND W. L. REGELIN. 1980. Response of vegetation to tree crushing in Alaska. Proc. North Am. Moose Conf. Workshop. 16: 429-443.
94. PARKER, K. L., C. T. ROBBINS, AND T. A. HANLEY. 1984. Energy expenditures for locomotion by mule deer and elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:474-488.
95. PEEK, J. M. 1971. Moose-snow relationships in northeastern Minnesota. Pages 39-49 in A. O. Haugen, ed. Proc. snow and ice in relation to wildlife and recreation symposium. Iowa State Univ., Ames.
96. _. 1974a. On the nature of winter habitats of shiras moose. Nat. Can. (Que.) 101:131-141.
97. _. 1974b. A review of moose food habits studies in North America. Nat. Can. (Que.) 101:195-215.
98. _, R. J. MACKIE, AND G. I. DUSEK. 1992. Overwinter survival strategies of North American cervidae. Alces Suppl. 1:156-162.
99. PIELOU, E. C. 1975. Ecological diversity. John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y. 259pp.
100. PLAFKER, G. 1990. Regional vertical tectonic displacement of shorelines in south-central Alaska during and between great earthquakes. Northwest Sci. 64:250-257.
101. RAUSCH, R. A. 1976. Alaska wildlife management plans-southcentral Alaska. Alas. Dep. Fish and Game, Juneau. 52pp.
102. REGELIN, W. L., M. E. HUBBERT, C. C. SCHWARTZ, AND D. J. REED. 1987b. Field test of a moose carrying capacity model. Alces 23:243-284.
103. _, C. C. SCHWARTZ, AND A. W. FRANZMANN. 1987a. Effects of forest succession on nutritional dynamics of moose forage. Swed. Wildl. Res. Suppl. 1:247-263.
104. RENECKER, L. A., AND R. J. HUDSON. 1985. Estimation of dry matter intake of free-ranging moose. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:785-792.
105. _, AND _. 1986. Seasonal energy expenditures and thermoregulatory responses of moose. Can. J. Zool. 64:322-327.
106. _, AND _. 1989a. Ecological metabolism of moose in aspen-dominated boreal forests, central Alberta. Can. J. Zool. 67:1923-1928.
107. _, AND _. 1989b. Seasonal activity budgets of moose in aspen-dominated boreal forests. J. Wildl. Manage. 53:296-302.
108. RISENHOOVER, K. L. 1986. Winter activity patterns of moose in interior Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 50: 727-734.
109. _. 1987. Winter foraging strategies of moose in subarctic and boreal forest habitats. Ph.D. Thesis, Michigan Technological Univ., Houghton. 107pp.
110. _. 1989. Composition and quality of moose winter diets in interior Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 53: 568-577.
111. ROBBINS, C. T. 1983. Wildlife feeding and nutrition. Academic Press, Orlando, Fla. 343pp.
112. _, T. A. HANLEY, A. E. HAGERMAN, O. HJELJORD, D. L. BAKER, C. C. SCHWARTZ, AND W. W. MAUTZ. 1987b. Role of tannins in defending plants against ruminants: reduction in protein availability. Ecology 68:98-107.
113. _, S. MOLE, A. E. HAGERMAN, AND T. A. HANLEY. 1987a. Role of tannins in defending plants against ruminants: reduction in dry matter digestion? Ecology 68:1606-1615.
114. ROMESBURG, H. C. 1984. Cluster analysis for researcher. Kreiger Publ. Co., Malabar, Fla. 334pp.
115. ROSENZWEIG, M. L. 1985. Some theoretical aspects of habitat selection. Pages 517-540 in M. L. Cody, ed. Habitat selection in birds. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.
116. SAS INSTITUTE, INC. 1988. SAS/STAT user's guide, release 6.03 ed. SAS Inst., Inc., Carey, N.C. 1028pp.
117. SCHULTZ, R. D., AND J. A. BAILEY. 1978. Responses of national park elk to human activity. J. Wildl. Manage. 42:91-100.
118. SCHWARTZ, C. C. 1992. Physiological and nutritional adaptations of moose to northern environments. Alces Suppl. 1:177-192.
119. _. 1993. Constructing simple population models for moose management. Alces 29:235-242.
120. _, AND A. W. FRANZMANN. 1989. Bears, wolves, moose, and forest succession, some management considerations on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Alces 25:1-10.
121. _, M. E. HUBBERT, AND A. W. FRANZMANN. 1988. Changes in body composition of moose during winter. Alces 24:178-187.
122. _, W. L. REGELIN, A. W. FRANZMANN. 1984. Seasonal dynamics of food intake in moose. Alces 20:223-242.
123. _, _, _, AND M. E. HUBBERT. 1987. Nutritional energetics of moose. Swed. Wildl. Res. Suppl. 1:265-279.
124. STEPHENSON, T. R. 1995. Nutritional ecology of moose and vegetation succession on the Copper River Delta, Alaska. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 172pp.
125. TAYLOR, K. P., AND W. B. BALLARD. 1979. Moose movements and habitat use along the Susitna River near Devil's Canyon. Proc. North Am. Moose Conf. Workshop. 15:169-186.
126. TELFER, E. S. 1969. Twig-weight diameter relationships for browse species. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 917-921.
127. _. 1984. Circumpolar distribution and habitat requirements of moose (Alces alces). Pages 145-182 in R. Olsen, R. Hastings, and F. Geddes, eds. Northern ecology and resource management. Univ. Alberta Press, Edmonton, Can.
128. _, AND J. P. KELSALL. 1979. Studies of morphological parameters affecting ungulate locomotion in snow. Can. J. Zool. 57:2153-2159.
129. THILENIUS, J. F. 1990. Woody plant succession on earthquake-uplifted coastal wetlands of the Copper River Delta, Alaska. For. Ecol. Manage. 33/34:439-162.
130. THOMAS, D. L., AND E. J. TAYLOR. 1990. Study designs and tests for comparing resource use and availability. J. Wildl. Manage. 54:322-330.
131. TURNER, M. G., W. H. ROMME, R. H. GARDNER, R. V. O'NEILL, AND T. K. KRATZ. 1993. A revised concept of landscape equilibrium: disturbance and stability on scaled landscapes. Landscape Ecol. 8:213-227.
132. VAN BALLENBERGHE, V. 1977. Migratory behavior of moose in southcentral Alaska. Cong. Game Biol. 13:103-109.
133. _. 1987. Effects of predation on moose numbers: a review of recent North American studies. Swed. Wildl. Res. Suppl. 1:431-460.
134. _. 1989. Twenty years of moose immobilization with succinylcholine chloride. Alces 25:25-30.
135. _, AND W. B. BALLARD. 1994. Limitation and regulation of moose populations: the role of predation. Can. J. Zool. 72:2071-2077.
136. _, AND J. G. MACCRACKEN. 1989. Habitat enhancement for moose on the Copper River Delta, Alaska. Feasibility Rep., U.S. For. Serv., Inst. of North. For., Fairbanks, Alas. 43pp.
137. _, AND D. G. MIQUELLE. 1990. Activity of moose during spring and summer in interior Alaska. J. Wildl. Mange. 54:391-396.
138. _, _, AND J. G. MACCRACKEN. 1989. Heavy utilization of woody plants by moose during summer at Denali National Park, Alaska. Alces 25:31-35.
139. VAN HORNE, B. 1983. Density as a misleading indicator of habitat quality. J. Wildl. Manage. 47: 893-901.
140. VIERECK, L. A., C. T. DYRNESS, AND A. R. BATTEN. 1992. The Alaska vegetation classification. U.S. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-286. 278pp.
141. _, AND E. L. LITTLE, JR. 1972. Alaska trees and shrubs. U.S. For. Serv., Washinton, D.C., Agric. Handb. 410. 265pp.
142. WOLFF, J. O., AND J. C. ZASADA. 1979. Moose habitat and forest succession on the Tanana River flood-plain and Yukon-Tanana uplands. Proc. North Am. Moose Conf. Workshop 15:213-244.