Sexuality, gender, and identity in great plains history and myth

Great Plains Quarterly

Volumn 18, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 327-340

  Boag, Peter ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0040599006     PISSN: 02757664     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (86)

1. Walter L. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), pp. 2, 3, 88, 131-34, 233-49. On the berdache as a third gender, see also Charles Callender and Leo M. Kochems, "Men and Not-Men: Male Gender-Mixing Statuses and Homosexuality," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 165-78. On the berdache in general and other aspects of Native American male and female sexuality, see David F. Greenherg, "Why Was the Berdache Ridiculed?" Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 179-89; for various primary accounts, Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., A Documentary History, rev. ed. (New York: Meridian Books, 1992), pp. 281-334; Robert Lynch, "Seeing Twice: Shamanism, Berdache, and Homoeroticism in American Indian Culture," Southern Exposure 13, no. 6 (1985): 90-93; Robert Fulton and Steven W. Anderson, "The Amerindian 'Man-Woman': Gender, Liminality, and Cultural Continuity," Current Anthropology 33, no. 5 (1992): 603-10; Paula Gunn Allen, "Lesbians in American Indian Culture" in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990), pp. 106-117; Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); and Will Roscoe, "Bibliography of Berdache and Alternative Gender Roles Among North American Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 14, nos. 3/4 (1987): 81-171. For more specifically Great Plains and Prairies studies of the berdache, see Will Roscoe, '"That is My Road': The Life and Times of a Crow Berdache," Montana 40, no. 1 (1990): 46-55; Raymond E. Hauser, "The Berdache and the Illinois Indian Tribe during the Last Half of the Seventeenth Century," Ethnohistory 37, no. 1, (1990): 45-65; and Walter L. Williams, "Persistence and Change in the Berdache Tradition among Contemporary Lakota Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 191-200.
2. Walter L. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), pp. 2, 3, 88, 131-34, 233-49. On the berdache as a third gender, see also Charles Callender and Leo M. Kochems, "Men and Not-Men: Male Gender-Mixing Statuses and Homosexuality," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 165-78. On the berdache in general and other aspects of Native American male and female sexuality, see David F. Greenherg, "Why Was the Berdache Ridiculed?" Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 179-89; for various primary accounts, Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., A Documentary History, rev. ed. (New York: Meridian Books, 1992), pp. 281-334; Robert Lynch, "Seeing Twice: Shamanism, Berdache, and Homoeroticism in American Indian Culture," Southern Exposure 13, no. 6 (1985): 90-93; Robert Fulton and Steven W. Anderson, "The Amerindian 'Man-Woman': Gender, Liminality, and Cultural Continuity," Current Anthropology 33, no. 5 (1992): 603-10; Paula Gunn Allen, "Lesbians in American Indian Culture" in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990), pp. 106-117; Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); and Will Roscoe, "Bibliography of Berdache and Alternative Gender Roles Among North American Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 14, nos. 3/4 (1987): 81-171. For more specifically Great Plains and Prairies studies of the berdache, see Will Roscoe, '"That is My Road': The Life and Times of a Crow Berdache," Montana 40, no. 1 (1990): 46-55; Raymond E. Hauser, "The Berdache and the Illinois Indian Tribe during the Last Half of the Seventeenth Century," Ethnohistory 37, no. 1, (1990): 45-65; and Walter L. Williams, "Persistence and Change in the Berdache Tradition among Contemporary Lakota Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 191-200.
3. Walter L. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), pp. 2, 3, 88, 131-34, 233-49. On the berdache as a third gender, see also Charles Callender and Leo M. Kochems, "Men and Not-Men: Male Gender-Mixing Statuses and Homosexuality," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 165-78. On the berdache in general and other aspects of Native American male and female sexuality, see David F. Greenherg, "Why Was the Berdache Ridiculed?" Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 179-89; for various primary accounts, Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., A Documentary History, rev. ed. (New York: Meridian Books, 1992), pp. 281-334; Robert Lynch, "Seeing Twice: Shamanism, Berdache, and Homoeroticism in American Indian Culture," Southern Exposure 13, no. 6 (1985): 90-93; Robert Fulton and Steven W. Anderson, "The Amerindian 'Man-Woman': Gender, Liminality, and Cultural Continuity," Current Anthropology 33, no. 5 (1992): 603-10; Paula Gunn Allen, "Lesbians in American Indian Culture" in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990), pp. 106-117; Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); and Will Roscoe, "Bibliography of Berdache and Alternative Gender Roles Among North American Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 14, nos. 3/4 (1987): 81-171. For more specifically Great Plains and Prairies studies of the berdache, see Will Roscoe, '"That is My Road': The Life and Times of a Crow Berdache," Montana 40, no. 1 (1990): 46-55; Raymond E. Hauser, "The Berdache and the Illinois Indian Tribe during the Last Half of the Seventeenth Century," Ethnohistory 37, no. 1, (1990): 45-65; and Walter L. Williams, "Persistence and Change in the Berdache Tradition among Contemporary Lakota Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 191-200.
4. Walter L. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), pp. 2, 3, 88, 131-34, 233-49. On the berdache as a third gender, see also Charles Callender and Leo M. Kochems, "Men and Not-Men: Male Gender-Mixing Statuses and Homosexuality," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 165-78. On the berdache in general and other aspects of Native American male and female sexuality, see David F. Greenherg, "Why Was the Berdache Ridiculed?" Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 179-89; for various primary accounts, Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., A Documentary History, rev. ed. (New York: Meridian Books, 1992), pp. 281-334; Robert Lynch, "Seeing Twice: Shamanism, Berdache, and Homoeroticism in American Indian Culture," Southern Exposure 13, no. 6 (1985): 90-93; Robert Fulton and Steven W. Anderson, "The Amerindian 'Man-Woman': Gender, Liminality, and Cultural Continuity," Current Anthropology 33, no. 5 (1992): 603-10; Paula Gunn Allen, "Lesbians in American Indian Culture" in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990), pp. 106-117; Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); and Will Roscoe, "Bibliography of Berdache and Alternative Gender Roles Among North American Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 14, nos. 3/4 (1987): 81-171. For more specifically Great Plains and Prairies studies of the berdache, see Will Roscoe, '"That is My Road': The Life and Times of a Crow Berdache," Montana 40, no. 1 (1990): 46-55; Raymond E. Hauser, "The Berdache and the Illinois Indian Tribe during the Last Half of the Seventeenth Century," Ethnohistory 37, no. 1, (1990): 45-65; and Walter L. Williams, "Persistence and Change in the Berdache Tradition among Contemporary Lakota Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 191-200.
5. Walter L. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), pp. 2, 3, 88, 131-34, 233-49. On the berdache as a third gender, see also Charles Callender and Leo M. Kochems, "Men and Not-Men: Male Gender-Mixing Statuses and Homosexuality," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 165-78. On the berdache in general and other aspects of Native American male and female sexuality, see David F. Greenherg, "Why Was the Berdache Ridiculed?" Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 179-89; for various primary accounts, Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., A Documentary History, rev. ed. (New York: Meridian Books, 1992), pp. 281-334; Robert Lynch, "Seeing Twice: Shamanism, Berdache, and Homoeroticism in American Indian Culture," Southern Exposure 13, no. 6 (1985): 90-93; Robert Fulton and Steven W. Anderson, "The Amerindian 'Man-Woman': Gender, Liminality, and Cultural Continuity," Current Anthropology 33, no. 5 (1992): 603-10; Paula Gunn Allen, "Lesbians in American Indian Culture" in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990), pp. 106-117; Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); and Will Roscoe, "Bibliography of Berdache and Alternative Gender Roles Among North American Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 14, nos. 3/4 (1987): 81-171. For more specifically Great Plains and Prairies studies of the berdache, see Will Roscoe, '"That is My Road': The Life and Times of a Crow Berdache," Montana 40, no. 1 (1990): 46-55; Raymond E. Hauser, "The Berdache and the Illinois Indian Tribe during the Last Half of the Seventeenth Century," Ethnohistory 37, no. 1, (1990): 45-65; and Walter L. Williams, "Persistence and Change in the Berdache Tradition among Contemporary Lakota Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 191-200.
6. Walter L. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), pp. 2, 3, 88, 131-34, 233-49. On the berdache as a third gender, see also Charles Callender and Leo M. Kochems, "Men and Not-Men: Male Gender-Mixing Statuses and Homosexuality," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 165-78. On the berdache in general and other aspects of Native American male and female sexuality, see David F. Greenherg, "Why Was the Berdache Ridiculed?" Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 179-89; for various primary accounts, Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., A Documentary History, rev. ed. (New York: Meridian Books, 1992), pp. 281-334; Robert Lynch, "Seeing Twice: Shamanism, Berdache, and Homoeroticism in American Indian Culture," Southern Exposure 13, no. 6 (1985): 90-93; Robert Fulton and Steven W. Anderson, "The Amerindian 'Man-Woman': Gender, Liminality, and Cultural Continuity," Current Anthropology 33, no. 5 (1992): 603-10; Paula Gunn Allen, "Lesbians in American Indian Culture" in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990), pp. 106-117; Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); and Will Roscoe, "Bibliography of Berdache and Alternative Gender Roles Among North American Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 14, nos. 3/4 (1987): 81-171. For more specifically Great Plains and Prairies studies of the berdache, see Will Roscoe, '"That is My Road': The Life and Times of a Crow Berdache," Montana 40, no. 1 (1990): 46-55; Raymond E. Hauser, "The Berdache and the Illinois Indian Tribe during the Last Half of the Seventeenth Century," Ethnohistory 37, no. 1, (1990): 45-65; and Walter L. Williams, "Persistence and Change in the Berdache Tradition among Contemporary Lakota Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 191-200.
7. Walter L. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), pp. 2, 3, 88, 131-34, 233-49. On the berdache as a third gender, see also Charles Callender and Leo M. Kochems, "Men and Not-Men: Male Gender-Mixing Statuses and Homosexuality," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 165-78. On the berdache in general and other aspects of Native American male and female sexuality, see David F. Greenherg, "Why Was the Berdache Ridiculed?" Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 179-89; for various primary accounts, Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., A Documentary History, rev. ed. (New York: Meridian Books, 1992), pp. 281-334; Robert Lynch, "Seeing Twice: Shamanism, Berdache, and Homoeroticism in American Indian Culture," Southern Exposure 13, no. 6 (1985): 90-93; Robert Fulton and Steven W. Anderson, "The Amerindian 'Man-Woman': Gender, Liminality, and Cultural Continuity," Current Anthropology 33, no. 5 (1992): 603-10; Paula Gunn Allen, "Lesbians in American Indian Culture" in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990), pp. 106-117; Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); and Will Roscoe, "Bibliography of Berdache and Alternative Gender Roles Among North American Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 14, nos. 3/4 (1987): 81-171. For more specifically Great Plains and Prairies studies of the berdache, see Will Roscoe, '"That is My Road': The Life and Times of a Crow Berdache," Montana 40, no. 1 (1990): 46-55; Raymond E. Hauser, "The Berdache and the Illinois Indian Tribe during the Last Half of the Seventeenth Century," Ethnohistory 37, no. 1, (1990): 45-65; and Walter L. Williams, "Persistence and Change in the Berdache Tradition among Contemporary Lakota Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 191-200.
8. Walter L. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), pp. 2, 3, 88, 131-34, 233-49. On the berdache as a third gender, see also Charles Callender and Leo M. Kochems, "Men and Not-Men: Male Gender-Mixing Statuses and Homosexuality," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 165-78. On the berdache in general and other aspects of Native American male and female sexuality, see David F. Greenherg, "Why Was the Berdache Ridiculed?" Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 179-89; for various primary accounts, Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., A Documentary History, rev. ed. (New York: Meridian Books, 1992), pp. 281-334; Robert Lynch, "Seeing Twice: Shamanism, Berdache, and Homoeroticism in American Indian Culture," Southern Exposure 13, no. 6 (1985): 90-93; Robert Fulton and Steven W. Anderson, "The Amerindian 'Man-Woman': Gender, Liminality, and Cultural Continuity," Current Anthropology 33, no. 5 (1992): 603-10; Paula Gunn Allen, "Lesbians in American Indian Culture" in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990), pp. 106-117; Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); and Will Roscoe, "Bibliography of Berdache and Alternative Gender Roles Among North American Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 14, nos. 3/4 (1987): 81-171. For more specifically Great Plains and Prairies studies of the berdache, see Will Roscoe, '"That is My Road': The Life and Times of a Crow Berdache," Montana 40, no. 1 (1990): 46-55; Raymond E. Hauser, "The Berdache and the Illinois Indian Tribe during the Last Half of the Seventeenth Century," Ethnohistory 37, no. 1, (1990): 45-65; and Walter L. Williams, "Persistence and Change in the Berdache Tradition among Contemporary Lakota Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 191-200.
9. Walter L. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), pp. 2, 3, 88, 131-34, 233-49. On the berdache as a third gender, see also Charles Callender and Leo M. Kochems, "Men and Not-Men: Male Gender-Mixing Statuses and Homosexuality," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 165-78. On the berdache in general and other aspects of Native American male and female sexuality, see David F. Greenherg, "Why Was the Berdache Ridiculed?" Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 179-89; for various primary accounts, Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., A Documentary History, rev. ed. (New York: Meridian Books, 1992), pp. 281-334; Robert Lynch, "Seeing Twice: Shamanism, Berdache, and Homoeroticism in American Indian Culture," Southern Exposure 13, no. 6 (1985): 90-93; Robert Fulton and Steven W. Anderson, "The Amerindian 'Man-Woman': Gender, Liminality, and Cultural Continuity," Current Anthropology 33, no. 5 (1992): 603-10; Paula Gunn Allen, "Lesbians in American Indian Culture" in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990), pp. 106-117; Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); and Will Roscoe, "Bibliography of Berdache and Alternative Gender Roles Among North American Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 14, nos. 3/4 (1987): 81-171. For more specifically Great Plains and Prairies studies of the berdache, see Will Roscoe, '"That is My Road': The Life and Times of a Crow Berdache," Montana 40, no. 1 (1990): 46-55; Raymond E. Hauser, "The Berdache and the Illinois Indian Tribe during the Last Half of the Seventeenth Century," Ethnohistory 37, no. 1, (1990): 45-65; and Walter L. Williams, "Persistence and Change in the Berdache Tradition among Contemporary Lakota Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 191-200.
10. Walter L. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), pp. 2, 3, 88, 131-34, 233-49. On the berdache as a third gender, see also Charles Callender and Leo M. Kochems, "Men and Not-Men: Male Gender-Mixing Statuses and Homosexuality," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 165-78. On the berdache in general and other aspects of Native American male and female sexuality, see David F. Greenherg, "Why Was the Berdache Ridiculed?" Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 179-89; for various primary accounts, Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., A Documentary History, rev. ed. (New York: Meridian Books, 1992), pp. 281-334; Robert Lynch, "Seeing Twice: Shamanism, Berdache, and Homoeroticism in American Indian Culture," Southern Exposure 13, no. 6 (1985): 90-93; Robert Fulton and Steven W. Anderson, "The Amerindian 'Man-Woman': Gender, Liminality, and Cultural Continuity," Current Anthropology 33, no. 5 (1992): 603-10; Paula Gunn Allen, "Lesbians in American Indian Culture" in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990), pp. 106-117; Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); and Will Roscoe, "Bibliography of Berdache and Alternative Gender Roles Among North American Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 14, nos. 3/4 (1987): 81-171. For more specifically Great Plains and Prairies studies of the berdache, see Will Roscoe, '"That is My Road': The Life and Times of a Crow Berdache," Montana 40, no. 1 (1990): 46-55; Raymond E. Hauser, "The Berdache and the Illinois Indian Tribe during the Last Half of the Seventeenth Century," Ethnohistory 37, no. 1, (1990): 45-65; and Walter L. Williams, "Persistence and Change in the Berdache Tradition among Contemporary Lakota Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 191-200.
11. Walter L. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), pp. 2, 3, 88, 131-34, 233-49. On the berdache as a third gender, see also Charles Callender and Leo M. Kochems, "Men and Not-Men: Male Gender-Mixing Statuses and Homosexuality," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 165-78. On the berdache in general and other aspects of Native American male and female sexuality, see David F. Greenherg, "Why Was the Berdache Ridiculed?" Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 179-89; for various primary accounts, Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., A Documentary History, rev. ed. (New York: Meridian Books, 1992), pp. 281-334; Robert Lynch, "Seeing Twice: Shamanism, Berdache, and Homoeroticism in American Indian Culture," Southern Exposure 13, no. 6 (1985): 90-93; Robert Fulton and Steven W. Anderson, "The Amerindian 'Man-Woman': Gender, Liminality, and Cultural Continuity," Current Anthropology 33, no. 5 (1992): 603-10; Paula Gunn Allen, "Lesbians in American Indian Culture" in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990), pp. 106-117; Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); and Will Roscoe, "Bibliography of Berdache and Alternative Gender Roles Among North American Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 14, nos. 3/4 (1987): 81-171. For more specifically Great Plains and Prairies studies of the berdache, see Will Roscoe, '"That is My Road': The Life and Times of a Crow Berdache," Montana 40, no. 1 (1990): 46-55; Raymond E. Hauser, "The Berdache and the Illinois Indian Tribe during the Last Half of the Seventeenth Century," Ethnohistory 37, no. 1, (1990): 45-65; and Walter L. Williams, "Persistence and Change in the Berdache Tradition among Contemporary Lakota Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 191-200.
12. Walter L. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), pp. 2, 3, 88, 131-34, 233-49. On the berdache as a third gender, see also Charles Callender and Leo M. Kochems, "Men and Not-Men: Male Gender-Mixing Statuses and Homosexuality," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 165-78. On the berdache in general and other aspects of Native American male and female sexuality, see David F. Greenherg, "Why Was the Berdache Ridiculed?" Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 179-89; for various primary accounts, Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., A Documentary History, rev. ed. (New York: Meridian Books, 1992), pp. 281-334; Robert Lynch, "Seeing Twice: Shamanism, Berdache, and Homoeroticism in American Indian Culture," Southern Exposure 13, no. 6 (1985): 90-93; Robert Fulton and Steven W. Anderson, "The Amerindian 'Man-Woman': Gender, Liminality, and Cultural Continuity," Current Anthropology 33, no. 5 (1992): 603-10; Paula Gunn Allen, "Lesbians in American Indian Culture" in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990), pp. 106-117; Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); and Will Roscoe, "Bibliography of Berdache and Alternative Gender Roles Among North American Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 14, nos. 3/4 (1987): 81-171. For more specifically Great Plains and Prairies studies of the berdache, see Will Roscoe, '"That is My Road': The Life and Times of a Crow Berdache," Montana 40, no. 1 (1990): 46-55; Raymond E. Hauser, "The Berdache and the Illinois Indian Tribe during the Last Half of the Seventeenth Century," Ethnohistory 37, no. 1, (1990): 45-65; and Walter L. Williams, "Persistence and Change in the Berdache Tradition among Contemporary Lakota Indians," Journal of Homosexuality 11, nos. 3/4 (1985): 191-200.
13. Victor Tixier, Travels on the Osage Prairies, ed. John Francis McDermot (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1940), pp. 181-82; Edwin James, Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains in the Years 1819 and '20 (Philadelphia: H. C. Carey and I. Lea, 1822-23), I: 129, 267, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 299; Edwin Thompson Denig, Five Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri, ed. and intro. John C. Ewers (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961), pp. 195-200.
14. Victor Tixier, Travels on the Osage Prairies, ed. John Francis McDermot (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1940), pp. 181-82; Edwin James, Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains in the Years 1819 and '20 (Philadelphia: H. C. Carey and I. Lea, 1822-23), I: 129, 267, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 299; Edwin Thompson Denig, Five Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri, ed. and intro. John C. Ewers (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961), pp. 195-200.
15. Victor Tixier, Travels on the Osage Prairies, ed. John Francis McDermot (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1940), pp. 181-82; Edwin James, Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains in the Years 1819 and '20 (Philadelphia: H. C. Carey and I. Lea, 1822-23), I: 129, 267, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 299; Edwin Thompson Denig, Five Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri, ed. and intro. John C. Ewers (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961), pp. 195-200.
16. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh (note 1 above), pp. 134, 137; Francisco Guerra, The Pre-Columbian Mind (London: Seminar Press, 1971), p. 221, as quoted in The Spirit and the Flesh, p. 137; Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, "Naufragios de Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca," in Historiadores primitivios de Indias, vol. 1, ed. Enrique de Vedia, Biblioteca de autores españoles, vol. 22 (Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, 1852), p. 538, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 285; and Francisco Pareja's 1613 Confesionario; A Documentary Source for Timucuan Ethnography, ed. Jerald T. Milanch and William C. Stutevant, trans. Emilio F. Moran (Tallahassee, Fla.: Division of Archives, Florida Dept. of State, 1972), pp. 39, 43, 48, 75, 76, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 287. On Spanish missionaries and homosexuality, see also Albert L. Hurtado, "Sexuality in California's Franciscan Missions: Cultural Perceptions and Sad Realities," California History 71, no. 3 (1992): 370-85.
17. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh (note 1 above), pp. 134, 137; Francisco Guerra, The Pre-Columbian Mind (London: Seminar Press, 1971), p. 221, as quoted in The Spirit and the Flesh, p. 137; Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, "Naufragios de Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca," in Historiadores primitivios de Indias, vol. 1, ed. Enrique de Vedia, Biblioteca de autores españoles, vol. 22 (Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, 1852), p. 538, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 285; and Francisco Pareja's 1613 Confesionario; A Documentary Source for Timucuan Ethnography, ed. Jerald T. Milanch and William C. Stutevant, trans. Emilio F. Moran (Tallahassee, Fla.: Division of Archives, Florida Dept. of State, 1972), pp. 39, 43, 48, 75, 76, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 287. On Spanish missionaries and homosexuality, see also Albert L. Hurtado, "Sexuality in California's Franciscan Missions: Cultural Perceptions and Sad Realities," California History 71, no. 3 (1992): 370-85.
18. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh (note 1 above), pp. 134, 137; Francisco Guerra, The Pre-Columbian Mind (London: Seminar Press, 1971), p. 221, as quoted in The Spirit and the Flesh, p. 137; Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, "Naufragios de Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca," in Historiadores primitivios de Indias, vol. 1, ed. Enrique de Vedia, Biblioteca de autores españoles, vol. 22 (Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, 1852), p. 538, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 285; and Francisco Pareja's 1613 Confesionario; A Documentary Source for Timucuan Ethnography, ed. Jerald T. Milanch and William C. Stutevant, trans. Emilio F. Moran (Tallahassee, Fla.: Division of Archives, Florida Dept. of State, 1972), pp. 39, 43, 48, 75, 76, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 287. On Spanish missionaries and homosexuality, see also Albert L. Hurtado, "Sexuality in California's Franciscan Missions: Cultural Perceptions and Sad Realities," California History 71, no. 3 (1992): 370-85.
19. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh (note 1 above), pp. 134, 137; Francisco Guerra, The Pre-Columbian Mind (London: Seminar Press, 1971), p. 221, as quoted in The Spirit and the Flesh, p. 137; Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, "Naufragios de Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca," in Historiadores primitivios de Indias, vol. 1, ed. Enrique de Vedia, Biblioteca de autores españoles, vol. 22 (Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, 1852), p. 538, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 285; and Francisco Pareja's 1613 Confesionario; A Documentary Source for Timucuan Ethnography, ed. Jerald T. Milanch and William C. Stutevant, trans. Emilio F. Moran (Tallahassee, Fla.: Division of Archives, Florida Dept. of State, 1972), pp. 39, 43, 48, 75, 76, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 287. On Spanish missionaries and homosexuality, see also Albert L. Hurtado, "Sexuality in California's Franciscan Missions: Cultural Perceptions and Sad Realities," California History 71, no. 3 (1992): 370-85.
20. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh (note 1 above), pp. 134, 137; Francisco Guerra, The Pre-Columbian Mind (London: Seminar Press, 1971), p. 221, as quoted in The Spirit and the Flesh, p. 137; Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, "Naufragios de Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca," in Historiadores primitivios de Indias, vol. 1, ed. Enrique de Vedia, Biblioteca de autores españoles, vol. 22 (Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, 1852), p. 538, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 285; and Francisco Pareja's 1613 Confesionario; A Documentary Source for Timucuan Ethnography, ed. Jerald T. Milanch and William C. Stutevant, trans. Emilio F. Moran (Tallahassee, Fla.: Division of Archives, Florida Dept. of State, 1972), pp. 39, 43, 48, 75, 76, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 287. On Spanish missionaries and homosexuality, see also Albert L. Hurtado, "Sexuality in California's Franciscan Missions: Cultural Perceptions and Sad Realities," California History 71, no. 3 (1992): 370-85.
21. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh (note 1 above), pp. 134, 137; Francisco Guerra, The Pre-Columbian Mind (London: Seminar Press, 1971), p. 221, as quoted in The Spirit and the Flesh, p. 137; Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, "Naufragios de Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca," in Historiadores primitivios de Indias, vol. 1, ed. Enrique de Vedia, Biblioteca de autores españoles, vol. 22 (Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, 1852), p. 538, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 285; and Francisco Pareja's 1613 Confesionario; A Documentary Source for Timucuan Ethnography, ed. Jerald T. Milanch and William C. Stutevant, trans. Emilio F. Moran (Tallahassee, Fla.: Division of Archives, Florida Dept. of State, 1972), pp. 39, 43, 48, 75, 76, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 287. On Spanish missionaries and homosexuality, see also Albert L. Hurtado, "Sexuality in California's Franciscan Missions: Cultural Perceptions and Sad Realities," California History 71, no. 3 (1992): 370-85.
22. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh (note 1 above), pp. 134, 137; Francisco Guerra, The Pre-Columbian Mind (London: Seminar Press, 1971), p. 221, as quoted in The Spirit and the Flesh, p. 137; Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, "Naufragios de Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca," in Historiadores primitivios de Indias, vol. 1, ed. Enrique de Vedia, Biblioteca de autores españoles, vol. 22 (Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, 1852), p. 538, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 285; and Francisco Pareja's 1613 Confesionario; A Documentary Source for Timucuan Ethnography, ed. Jerald T. Milanch and William C. Stutevant, trans. Emilio F. Moran (Tallahassee, Fla.: Division of Archives, Florida Dept. of State, 1972), pp. 39, 43, 48, 75, 76, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 287. On Spanish missionaries and homosexuality, see also Albert L. Hurtado, "Sexuality in California's Franciscan Missions: Cultural Perceptions and Sad Realities," California History 71, no. 3 (1992): 370-85.
23. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh (note 1 above), pp. 134, 137; Francisco Guerra, The Pre-Columbian Mind (London: Seminar Press, 1971), p. 221, as quoted in The Spirit and the Flesh, p. 137; Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, "Naufragios de Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca," in Historiadores primitivios de Indias, vol. 1, ed. Enrique de Vedia, Biblioteca de autores españoles, vol. 22 (Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, 1852), p. 538, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 285; and Francisco Pareja's 1613 Confesionario; A Documentary Source for Timucuan Ethnography, ed. Jerald T. Milanch and William C. Stutevant, trans. Emilio F. Moran (Tallahassee, Fla.: Division of Archives, Florida Dept. of State, 1972), pp. 39, 43, 48, 75, 76, as quoted in Gay American History (note 1 above), p. 287. On Spanish missionaries and homosexuality, see also Albert L. Hurtado, "Sexuality in California's Franciscan Missions: Cultural Perceptions and Sad Realities," California History 71, no. 3 (1992): 370-85.
24. Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: Norton, 1987). Another notable New Western iconoclast to leave non-heterosexuals out the story of the region is Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own" : A New History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1991).
25. Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: Norton, 1987). Another notable New Western iconoclast to leave non-heterosexuals out the story of the region is Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own" : A New History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1991).
26. Thomas Jefferson to John Breckenridge, 21 August 1803, and "Instructions to Captain Lewis, 1803," in The Portable Thomas Jefferson, ed. Merrill D. Peterson (New York: Viking Press, 1975), pp. 311, 496. For the history of the "Garden of the World" myth, see particularly Leo Marx, The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), especially pp. 116-44; and Henry Nash Smith, "The Garden of the World," book 3 of 3, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950), pp. 121-260.
27. Thomas Jefferson to John Breckenridge, 21 August 1803, and "Instructions to Captain Lewis, 1803," in The Portable Thomas Jefferson, ed. Merrill D. Peterson (New York: Viking Press, 1975), pp. 311, 496. For the history of the "Garden of the World" myth, see particularly Leo Marx, The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), especially pp. 116-44; and Henry Nash Smith, "The Garden of the World," book 3 of 3, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950), pp. 121-260.
28. Thomas Jefferson to John Breckenridge, 21 August 1803, and "Instructions to Captain Lewis, 1803," in The Portable Thomas Jefferson, ed. Merrill D. Peterson (New York: Viking Press, 1975), pp. 311, 496. For the history of the "Garden of the World" myth, see particularly Leo Marx, The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), especially pp. 116-44; and Henry Nash Smith, "The Garden of the World," book 3 of 3, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950), pp. 121-260.
29. For Thomas Jefferson's description of the agricultural republic, see Notes on the State of Virginia, "Query XIX. Manufactures," in The Portable Jefferson (note 5 above), pp. 216-17. On Jefferson's commitment to the small, family farm, see The Machine in the Garden (note 5 above), pp. 126-27. Though historians have long accepted natural reproduction and expansion and the eventual exclusion of Natives as part of the garden of the world metaphor, Jefferson's own allusions to these can be found in, for example, Jefferson to John Breckenridge, 21 August 1803, in The Portable Thomas Jefferson, p. 496. On the family, wives, and children in the agricultural republic, see Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Richard D. Heffner (New York: Mentor Books, 1956): "Influence of Democracy on Manners Properly so Called," p. 39; "How the Americans Understand the Equality of the Sexes," pp. 233-37, 243-47. Although the Homestead Act of 1862 offered land to single men and women aged twenty-one or older, the act first mentions land for heads of households, demonstrating a possible Congressional bias favoring families on western farms. Somewhat less imaginative than the Garden of the World's rendering of the history of American occupation of the Great Plains, but still mirroring it in various ways, are the more mundane realities of heterosexist history of the Plains north of the border in Canada. Lyle Dick, "Heterohegemonic Discourse and Homosexual Acts: The Case of Saskatchewan in the Settlement Era" (paper presented to Sex and the State History Conference, Toronto, July 1985), has reported that after Canada acquired the Western Territory of Rupert's Land in 1870, in part to provide an agricultural hinterland, it placed Natives on reserves, disposed of lands to family farmers, and passed and then extended it laws designed "to reinforce traditional sexual mores, by providing stiffer penalties for non-familial, non-procreative sexual offences." Also on homosexuality in historic western Canada, see Terry L. Chapman, "'An Oscar Wilde Type': 'The Abominable Crime of Buggery' in Western Canada, 1890-1920," Criminal Justice History 4, no. 4 (1983): 97-118.
30. For Thomas Jefferson's description of the agricultural republic, see Notes on the State of Virginia, "Query XIX. Manufactures," in The Portable Jefferson (note 5 above), pp. 216-17. On Jefferson's commitment to the small, family farm, see The Machine in the Garden (note 5 above), pp. 126-27. Though historians have long accepted natural reproduction and expansion and the eventual exclusion of Natives as part of the garden of the world metaphor, Jefferson's own allusions to these can be found in, for example, Jefferson to John Breckenridge, 21 August 1803, in The Portable Thomas Jefferson, p. 496. On the family, wives, and children in the agricultural republic, see Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Richard D. Heffner (New York: Mentor Books, 1956): "Influence of Democracy on Manners Properly so Called," p. 39; "How the Americans Understand the Equality of the Sexes," pp. 233-37, 243-47. Although the Homestead Act of 1862 offered land to single men and women aged twenty-one or older, the act first mentions land for heads of households, demonstrating a possible Congressional bias favoring families on western farms. Somewhat less imaginative than the Garden of the World's rendering of the history of American occupation of the Great Plains, but still mirroring it in various ways, are the more mundane realities of heterosexist history of the Plains north of the border in Canada. Lyle Dick, "Heterohegemonic Discourse and Homosexual Acts: The Case of Saskatchewan in the Settlement Era" (paper presented to Sex and the State History Conference, Toronto, July 1985), has reported that after Canada acquired the Western Territory of Rupert's Land in 1870, in part to provide an agricultural hinterland, it placed Natives on reserves, disposed of lands to family farmers, and passed and then extended it laws designed "to reinforce traditional sexual mores, by providing stiffer penalties for non-familial, non-procreative sexual offences." Also on homosexuality in historic western Canada, see Terry L. Chapman, "'An Oscar Wilde Type': 'The Abominable Crime of Buggery' in Western Canada, 1890-1920," Criminal Justice History 4, no. 4 (1983): 97-118.
31. For Thomas Jefferson's description of the agricultural republic, see Notes on the State of Virginia, "Query XIX. Manufactures," in The Portable Jefferson (note 5 above), pp. 216-17. On Jefferson's commitment to the small, family farm, see The Machine in the Garden (note 5 above), pp. 126-27. Though historians have long accepted natural reproduction and expansion and the eventual exclusion of Natives as part of the garden of the world metaphor, Jefferson's own allusions to these can be found in, for example, Jefferson to John Breckenridge, 21 August 1803, in The Portable Thomas Jefferson, p. 496. On the family, wives, and children in the agricultural republic, see Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Richard D. Heffner (New York: Mentor Books, 1956): "Influence of Democracy on Manners Properly so Called," p. 39; "How the Americans Understand the Equality of the Sexes," pp. 233-37, 243-47. Although the Homestead Act of 1862 offered land to single men and women aged twenty-one or older, the act first mentions land for heads of households, demonstrating a possible Congressional bias favoring families on western farms. Somewhat less imaginative than the Garden of the World's rendering of the history of American occupation of the Great Plains, but still mirroring it in various ways, are the more mundane realities of heterosexist history of the Plains north of the border in Canada. Lyle Dick, "Heterohegemonic Discourse and Homosexual Acts: The Case of Saskatchewan in the Settlement Era" (paper presented to Sex and the State History Conference, Toronto, July 1985), has reported that after Canada acquired the Western Territory of Rupert's Land in 1870, in part to provide an agricultural hinterland, it placed Natives on reserves, disposed of lands to family farmers, and passed and then extended it laws designed "to reinforce traditional sexual mores, by providing stiffer penalties for non-familial, non-procreative sexual offences." Also on homosexuality in historic western Canada, see Terry L. Chapman, "'An Oscar Wilde Type': 'The Abominable Crime of Buggery' in Western Canada, 1890-1920," Criminal Justice History 4, no. 4 (1983): 97-118.
32. For Thomas Jefferson's description of the agricultural republic, see Notes on the State of Virginia, "Query XIX. Manufactures," in The Portable Jefferson (note 5 above), pp. 216-17. On Jefferson's commitment to the small, family farm, see The Machine in the Garden (note 5 above), pp. 126-27. Though historians have long accepted natural reproduction and expansion and the eventual exclusion of Natives as part of the garden of the world metaphor, Jefferson's own allusions to these can be found in, for example, Jefferson to John Breckenridge, 21 August 1803, in The Portable Thomas Jefferson, p. 496. On the family, wives, and children in the agricultural republic, see Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Richard D. Heffner (New York: Mentor Books, 1956): "Influence of Democracy on Manners Properly so Called," p. 39; "How the Americans Understand the Equality of the Sexes," pp. 233-37, 243-47. Although the Homestead Act of 1862 offered land to single men and women aged twenty-one or older, the act first mentions land for heads of households, demonstrating a possible Congressional bias favoring families on western farms. Somewhat less imaginative than the Garden of the World's rendering of the history of American occupation of the Great Plains, but still mirroring it in various ways, are the more mundane realities of heterosexist history of the Plains north of the border in Canada. Lyle Dick, "Heterohegemonic Discourse and Homosexual Acts: The Case of Saskatchewan in the Settlement Era" (paper presented to Sex and the State History Conference, Toronto, July 1985), has reported that after Canada acquired the Western Territory of Rupert's Land in 1870, in part to provide an agricultural hinterland, it placed Natives on reserves, disposed of lands to family farmers, and passed and then extended it laws designed "to reinforce traditional sexual mores, by providing stiffer penalties for non-familial, non-procreative sexual offences." Also on homosexuality in historic western Canada, see Terry L. Chapman, "'An Oscar Wilde Type': 'The Abominable Crime of Buggery' in Western Canada, 1890-1920," Criminal Justice History 4, no. 4 (1983): 97-118.
33. For Thomas Jefferson's description of the agricultural republic, see Notes on the State of Virginia, "Query XIX. Manufactures," in The Portable Jefferson (note 5 above), pp. 216-17. On Jefferson's commitment to the small, family farm, see The Machine in the Garden (note 5 above), pp. 126-27. Though historians have long accepted natural reproduction and expansion and the eventual exclusion of Natives as part of the garden of the world metaphor, Jefferson's own allusions to these can be found in, for example, Jefferson to John Breckenridge, 21 August 1803, in The Portable Thomas Jefferson, p. 496. On the family, wives, and children in the agricultural republic, see Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Richard D. Heffner (New York: Mentor Books, 1956): "Influence of Democracy on Manners Properly so Called," p. 39; "How the Americans Understand the Equality of the Sexes," pp. 233-37, 243-47. Although the Homestead Act of 1862 offered land to single men and women aged twenty-one or older, the act first mentions land for heads of households, demonstrating a possible Congressional bias favoring families on western farms. Somewhat less imaginative than the Garden of the World's rendering of the history of American occupation of the Great Plains, but still mirroring it in various ways, are the more mundane realities of heterosexist history of the Plains north of the border in Canada. Lyle Dick, "Heterohegemonic Discourse and Homosexual Acts: The Case of Saskatchewan in the Settlement Era" (paper presented to Sex and the State History Conference, Toronto, July 1985), has reported that after Canada acquired the Western Territory of Rupert's Land in 1870, in part to provide an agricultural hinterland, it placed Natives on reserves, disposed of lands to family farmers, and passed and then extended it laws designed "to reinforce traditional sexual mores, by providing stiffer penalties for non-familial, non-procreative sexual offences." Also on homosexuality in historic western Canada, see Terry L. Chapman, "'An Oscar Wilde Type': 'The Abominable Crime of Buggery' in Western Canada, 1890-1920," Criminal Justice History 4, no. 4 (1983): 97-118.
34. For Thomas Jefferson's description of the agricultural republic, see Notes on the State of Virginia, "Query XIX. Manufactures," in The Portable Jefferson (note 5 above), pp. 216-17. On Jefferson's commitment to the small, family farm, see The Machine in the Garden (note 5 above), pp. 126-27. Though historians have long accepted natural reproduction and expansion and the eventual exclusion of Natives as part of the garden of the world metaphor, Jefferson's own allusions to these can be found in, for example, Jefferson to John Breckenridge, 21 August 1803, in The Portable Thomas Jefferson, p. 496. On the family, wives, and children in the agricultural republic, see Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Richard D. Heffner (New York: Mentor Books, 1956): "Influence of Democracy on Manners Properly so Called," p. 39; "How the Americans Understand the Equality of the Sexes," pp. 233-37, 243-47. Although the Homestead Act of 1862 offered land to single men and women aged twenty-one or older, the act first mentions land for heads of households, demonstrating a possible Congressional bias favoring families on western farms. Somewhat less imaginative than the Garden of the World's rendering of the history of American occupation of the Great Plains, but still mirroring it in various ways, are the more mundane realities of heterosexist history of the Plains north of the border in Canada. Lyle Dick, "Heterohegemonic Discourse and Homosexual Acts: The Case of Saskatchewan in the Settlement Era" (paper presented to Sex and the State History Conference, Toronto, July 1985), has reported that after Canada acquired the Western Territory of Rupert's Land in 1870, in part to provide an agricultural hinterland, it placed Natives on reserves, disposed of lands to family farmers, and passed and then extended it laws designed "to reinforce traditional sexual mores, by providing stiffer penalties for non-familial, non-procreative sexual offences." Also on homosexuality in historic western Canada, see Terry L. Chapman, "'An Oscar Wilde Type': 'The Abominable Crime of Buggery' in Western Canada, 1890-1920," Criminal Justice History 4, no. 4 (1983): 97-118.
35. For Thomas Jefferson's description of the agricultural republic, see Notes on the State of Virginia, "Query XIX. Manufactures," in The Portable Jefferson (note 5 above), pp. 216-17. On Jefferson's commitment to the small, family farm, see The Machine in the Garden (note 5 above), pp. 126-27. Though historians have long accepted natural reproduction and expansion and the eventual exclusion of Natives as part of the garden of the world metaphor, Jefferson's own allusions to these can be found in, for example, Jefferson to John Breckenridge, 21 August 1803, in The Portable Thomas Jefferson, p. 496. On the family, wives, and children in the agricultural republic, see Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Richard D. Heffner (New York: Mentor Books, 1956): "Influence of Democracy on Manners Properly so Called," p. 39; "How the Americans Understand the Equality of the Sexes," pp. 233-37, 243-47. Although the Homestead Act of 1862 offered land to single men and women aged twenty-one or older, the act first mentions land for heads of households, demonstrating a possible Congressional bias favoring families on western farms. Somewhat less imaginative than the Garden of the World's rendering of the history of American occupation of the Great Plains, but still mirroring it in various ways, are the more mundane realities of heterosexist history of the Plains north of the border in Canada. Lyle Dick, "Heterohegemonic Discourse and Homosexual Acts: The Case of Saskatchewan in the Settlement Era" (paper presented to Sex and the State History Conference, Toronto, July 1985), has reported that after Canada acquired the Western Territory of Rupert's Land in 1870, in part to provide an agricultural hinterland, it placed Natives on reserves, disposed of lands to family farmers, and passed and then extended it laws designed "to reinforce traditional sexual mores, by providing stiffer penalties for non-familial, non-procreative sexual offences." Also on homosexuality in historic western Canada, see Terry L. Chapman, "'An Oscar Wilde Type': 'The Abominable Crime of Buggery' in Western Canada, 1890-1920," Criminal Justice History 4, no. 4 (1983): 97-118.
36. Jonathan Ned Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality, (New York: Plume/Penguin, 1996). On changing homosexual identity, see John Boswell, "Revolutions, Universals, and Sexual Categories," David Halperin, "Sex Before Sexuality: Pederasty, Politics, and Power in Classical Athens," and Robert Padgug, "Sexual Matters: Rethinking Sexuality in History," all in Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr., eds., Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past (New York: Meridian, 1990). For a survey of sexuality in the context of American historical change, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988). Useful in understanding the varied ways Americans at the turn of the nineteenth and into the twentieth century conceived of heterosexual and homosexuals is George Chauncey Jr., "Christian Brotherhood or Sexual Perversion? Homosexual Identities and the Construction ot Sexual Boundaries in the World War I Era," Hidden from History, and George Chauncey Jr., Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994), pp. 12-23.
37. Jonathan Ned Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality, (New York: Plume/Penguin, 1996). On changing homosexual identity, see John Boswell, "Revolutions, Universals, and Sexual Categories," David Halperin, "Sex Before Sexuality: Pederasty, Politics, and Power in Classical Athens," and Robert Padgug, "Sexual Matters: Rethinking Sexuality in History," all in Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr., eds., Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past (New York: Meridian, 1990). For a survey of sexuality in the context of American historical change, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988). Useful in understanding the varied ways Americans at the turn of the nineteenth and into the twentieth century conceived of heterosexual and homosexuals is George Chauncey Jr., "Christian Brotherhood or Sexual Perversion? Homosexual Identities and the Construction ot Sexual Boundaries in the World War I Era," Hidden from History, and George Chauncey Jr., Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994), pp. 12-23.
38. Jonathan Ned Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality, (New York: Plume/Penguin, 1996). On changing homosexual identity, see John Boswell, "Revolutions, Universals, and Sexual Categories," David Halperin, "Sex Before Sexuality: Pederasty, Politics, and Power in Classical Athens," and Robert Padgug, "Sexual Matters: Rethinking Sexuality in History," all in Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr., eds., Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past (New York: Meridian, 1990). For a survey of sexuality in the context of American historical change, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988). Useful in understanding the varied ways Americans at the turn of the nineteenth and into the twentieth century conceived of heterosexual and homosexuals is George Chauncey Jr., "Christian Brotherhood or Sexual Perversion? Homosexual Identities and the Construction ot Sexual Boundaries in the World War I Era," Hidden from History, and George Chauncey Jr., Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994), pp. 12-23.
39. Jonathan Ned Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality, (New York: Plume/Penguin, 1996). On changing homosexual identity, see John Boswell, "Revolutions, Universals, and Sexual Categories," David Halperin, "Sex Before Sexuality: Pederasty, Politics, and Power in Classical Athens," and Robert Padgug, "Sexual Matters: Rethinking Sexuality in History," all in Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr., eds., Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past (New York: Meridian, 1990). For a survey of sexuality in the context of American historical change, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988). Useful in understanding the varied ways Americans at the turn of the nineteenth and into the twentieth century conceived of heterosexual and homosexuals is George Chauncey Jr., "Christian Brotherhood or Sexual Perversion? Homosexual Identities and the Construction ot Sexual Boundaries in the World War I Era," Hidden from History, and George Chauncey Jr., Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994), pp. 12-23.
40. Jonathan Ned Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality, (New York: Plume/Penguin, 1996). On changing homosexual identity, see John Boswell, "Revolutions, Universals, and Sexual Categories," David Halperin, "Sex Before Sexuality: Pederasty, Politics, and Power in Classical Athens," and Robert Padgug, "Sexual Matters: Rethinking Sexuality in History," all in Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr., eds., Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past (New York: Meridian, 1990). For a survey of sexuality in the context of American historical change, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988). Useful in understanding the varied ways Americans at the turn of the nineteenth and into the twentieth century conceived of heterosexual and homosexuals is George Chauncey Jr., "Christian Brotherhood or Sexual Perversion? Homosexual Identities and the Construction ot Sexual Boundaries in the World War I Era," Hidden from History, and George Chauncey Jr., Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994), pp. 12-23.
41. Jonathan Ned Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality, (New York: Plume/Penguin, 1996). On changing homosexual identity, see John Boswell, "Revolutions, Universals, and Sexual Categories," David Halperin, "Sex Before Sexuality: Pederasty, Politics, and Power in Classical Athens," and Robert Padgug, "Sexual Matters: Rethinking Sexuality in History," all in Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr., eds., Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past (New York: Meridian, 1990). For a survey of sexuality in the context of American historical
42. Jonathan Ned Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality, (New York: Plume/Penguin, 1996). On changing homosexual identity, see John Boswell, "Revolutions, Universals, and Sexual Categories," David Halperin, "Sex Before Sexuality: Pederasty, Politics, and Power in Classical Athens," and Robert Padgug, "Sexual Matters: Rethinking Sexuality in History," all in Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr., eds., Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past (New York: Meridian, 1990). For a survey of sexuality in the context of American historical change, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988). Useful in understanding the varied ways Americans at the turn of the nineteenth and into the twentieth century conceived of heterosexual and homosexuals is George Chauncey Jr., "Christian Brotherhood or Sexual Perversion? Homosexual Identities and the Construction ot Sexual Boundaries in the World War I Era," Hidden from History, and George Chauncey Jr., Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994), pp. 12-23.
43. Horace Greeley, An Overland Journey, from San Francisco, in the Summer of 1859 (New York: C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co., 1860), p. 85; Albert D. Richardson, Beyond the Mississippi: Life and Adventure on the Prairies, Mountains, and Pacific Coast, 1857-1867 (Hartford, Conn.: American Publishing Company, 1867), p. 200. For other accounts of "passing" women, see, for example, The San Francisco Lesbian and Gay History Project, "'She Even Chewed Tobacco': A Pictorial Narrative of Passing Women in America," in Hidden from History (note 7 above), pp. 183-94; and Gay American History (note 7 above), pp. 209-79.
44. Horace Greeley, An Overland Journey, from San Francisco, in the Summer of 1859 (New York: C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co., 1860), p. 85; Albert D. Richardson, Beyond the Mississippi: Life and Adventure on the Prairies, Mountains, and Pacific Coast, 1857-1867 (Hartford, Conn.: American Publishing Company, 1867), p. 200. For other accounts of "passing" women, see, for example, The San Francisco Lesbian and Gay History Project, "'She Even Chewed Tobacco': A Pictorial Narrative of Passing Women in America," in Hidden from History (note 7 above), pp. 183-94; and Gay American History (note 7 above), pp. 209-79.
45. Horace Greeley, An Overland Journey, from San Francisco, in the Summer of 1859 (New York: C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co., 1860), p. 85; Albert D. Richardson, Beyond the Mississippi: Life and Adventure on the Prairies, Mountains, and Pacific Coast, 1857-1867 (Hartford, Conn.: American Publishing Company, 1867), p. 200. For other accounts of "passing" women, see, for example, The San Francisco Lesbian and Gay History Project, "'She Even Chewed Tobacco': A Pictorial Narrative of Passing Women in America," in Hidden from History (note 7 above), pp. 183-94; and Gay American History (note 7 above), pp. 209-79.
46. Horace Greeley, An Overland Journey, from San Francisco, in the Summer of 1859 (New York: C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co., 1860), p. 85; Albert D. Richardson, Beyond the Mississippi: Life and Adventure on the Prairies, Mountains, and Pacific Coast, 1857-1867 (Hartford, Conn.: American Publishing Company, 1867), p. 200. For other accounts of "passing" women, see, for example, The San Francisco Lesbian and Gay History Project, "'She Even Chewed Tobacco': A Pictorial Narrative of Passing Women in America," in Hidden from History (note 7 above), pp. 183-94; and Gay American History (note 7 above), pp. 209-79.
47. A good introduction to Willa Cather, her work, and her sexuality is Joan Acocella, "Cather and the Academy," New Yorker, 27 November 1995, 56-71. Other Cather literature that deals with the issue of lesbianism includes Phyllis C. Robinson, Willa: The Life of Willa Cather (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983); Sharon O'Brien, Willia Cather: The Emerging Voice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); James Woodress, "Cather and Her Friends," Critical Essays on Willa Cather, ed. John J. Murphy (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1984), pp. 81-95; Reginald Dyck, "The Feminist Critique of Willa Cather's Fiction: A Review Essay," Women's Studies 22, no. 3 (1993): 263-79; Judith Fetterley, "My Ántonia, Jim Burden and the Dilemma of the Lesbian Writer," in Gender Studies: New Directions in Feminist Criticism, ed. Judith Spector (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1986), pp. 43-59; Jeane Harris, "A Code of Her Own: Attitudes toward Women in Willa Cather's Short Fiction," 36, no. 1 (spring 1990): 81-89; Deborah G. Lambert, "The Defeat of a Hero: Autonomy and Sexuality in My Ántonia," American Literature 53, no. 4 (January 1982): 676-90; John H. Flannigan, "Issue of Gender and Lesbian Love: Goblins in the 'The Garden,'" Cather Studies 2 (1993): 23-40 ; Joseph Epstein, "Willa Cather: Listing toward Lesbos," The New Criterion 2, no. 4 (December 1983): 35-43.
48. A good introduction to Willa Cather, her work, and her sexuality is Joan Acocella, "Cather and the Academy," New Yorker, 27 November 1995, 56-71. Other Cather literature that deals with the issue of lesbianism includes Phyllis C. Robinson, Willa: The Life of Willa Cather (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983); Sharon O'Brien, Willia Cather: The Emerging Voice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); James Woodress, "Cather and Her Friends," Critical Essays on Willa Cather, ed. John J. Murphy (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1984), pp. 81-95; Reginald Dyck, "The Feminist Critique of Willa Cather's Fiction: A Review Essay," Women's Studies 22, no. 3 (1993): 263-79; Judith Fetterley, "My Ántonia, Jim Burden and the Dilemma of the Lesbian Writer," in Gender Studies: New Directions in Feminist Criticism, ed. Judith Spector (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1986), pp. 43-59; Jeane Harris, "A Code of Her Own: Attitudes toward Women in Willa Cather's Short Fiction," 36, no. 1 (spring 1990): 81-89; Deborah G. Lambert, "The Defeat of a Hero: Autonomy and Sexuality in My Ántonia," American Literature 53, no. 4 (January 1982): 676-90; John H. Flannigan, "Issue of Gender and Lesbian Love: Goblins in the 'The Garden,'" Cather Studies 2 (1993): 23-40 ; Joseph Epstein, "Willa Cather: Listing toward Lesbos," The New Criterion 2, no. 4 (December 1983): 35-43.
49. A good introduction to Willa Cather, her work, and her sexuality is Joan Acocella, "Cather and the Academy," New Yorker, 27 November 1995, 56-71. Other Cather literature that deals with the issue of lesbianism includes Phyllis C. Robinson, Willa: The Life of Willa Cather (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983); Sharon O'Brien, Willia Cather: The Emerging Voice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); James Woodress, "Cather and Her Friends," Critical Essays on Willa Cather, ed. John J. Murphy (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1984), pp. 81-95; Reginald Dyck, "The Feminist Critique of Willa Cather's Fiction: A Review Essay," Women's Studies 22, no. 3 (1993): 263-79; Judith Fetterley, "My Ántonia, Jim Burden and the Dilemma of the Lesbian Writer," in Gender Studies: New Directions in Feminist Criticism, ed. Judith Spector (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1986), pp. 43-59; Jeane Harris, "A Code of Her Own: Attitudes toward Women in Willa Cather's Short Fiction," 36, no. 1 (spring 1990): 81-89; Deborah G. Lambert, "The Defeat of a Hero: Autonomy and Sexuality in My Ántonia," American Literature 53, no. 4 (January 1982): 676-90; John H. Flannigan, "Issue of Gender and Lesbian Love: Goblins in the 'The Garden,'" Cather Studies 2 (1993): 23-40 ; Joseph Epstein, "Willa Cather: Listing toward Lesbos," The New Criterion 2, no. 4 (December 1983): 35-43.
50. A good introduction to Willa Cather, her work, and her sexuality is Joan Acocella, "Cather and the Academy," New Yorker, 27 November 1995, 56-71. Other Cather literature that deals with the issue of lesbianism includes Phyllis C. Robinson, Willa: The Life of Willa Cather (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983); Sharon O'Brien, Willia Cather: The Emerging Voice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); James Woodress, "Cather and Her Friends," Critical Essays on Willa Cather, ed. John J. Murphy (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1984), pp. 81-95; Reginald Dyck, "The Feminist Critique of Willa Cather's Fiction: A Review Essay," Women's Studies 22, no. 3 (1993): 263-79; Judith Fetterley, "My Ántonia, Jim Burden and the Dilemma of the Lesbian Writer," in Gender Studies: New Directions in Feminist Criticism, ed. Judith Spector (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1986), pp. 43-59; Jeane Harris, "A Code of Her Own: Attitudes toward Women in Willa Cather's Short Fiction," 36, no. 1 (spring 1990): 81-89; Deborah G. Lambert, "The Defeat of a Hero: Autonomy and Sexuality in My Ántonia," American Literature 53, no. 4 (January 1982): 676-90; John H. Flannigan, "Issue of Gender and Lesbian Love: Goblins in the 'The Garden,'" Cather Studies 2 (1993): 23-40 ; Joseph Epstein, "Willa Cather: Listing toward Lesbos," The New Criterion 2, no. 4 (December 1983): 35-43.
51. A good introduction to Willa Cather, her work, and her sexuality is Joan Acocella, "Cather and the Academy," New Yorker, 27 November 1995, 56-71. Other Cather literature that deals with the issue of lesbianism includes Phyllis C. Robinson, Willa: The Life of Willa Cather (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983); Sharon O'Brien, Willia Cather: The Emerging Voice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); James Woodress, "Cather and Her Friends," Critical Essays on Willa Cather, ed. John J. Murphy (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1984), pp. 81-95; Reginald Dyck, "The Feminist Critique of Willa Cather's Fiction: A Review Essay," Women's Studies 22, no. 3 (1993): 263-79; Judith Fetterley, "My Ántonia, Jim Burden and the Dilemma of the Lesbian Writer," in Gender Studies: New Directions in Feminist Criticism, ed. Judith Spector (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1986), pp. 43-59; Jeane Harris, "A Code of Her Own: Attitudes toward Women in Willa Cather's Short Fiction," 36, no. 1 (spring 1990): 81-89; Deborah G. Lambert, "The Defeat of a Hero: Autonomy and Sexuality in My Ántonia," American Literature 53, no. 4 (January 1982): 676-90; John H. Flannigan, "Issue of Gender and Lesbian Love: Goblins in the 'The Garden,'" Cather Studies 2 (1993): 23-40 ; Joseph Epstein, "Willa Cather: Listing toward Lesbos," The New Criterion 2, no. 4 (December 1983): 35-43.
52. A good introduction to Willa Cather, her work, and her sexuality is Joan Acocella, "Cather and the Academy," New Yorker, 27 November 1995, 56-71. Other Cather literature that deals with the issue of lesbianism includes Phyllis C. Robinson, Willa: The Life of Willa Cather (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983); Sharon O'Brien, Willia Cather: The Emerging Voice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); James Woodress, "Cather and Her Friends," Critical Essays on Willa Cather, ed. John J. Murphy (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1984), pp. 81-95; Reginald Dyck, "The Feminist Critique of Willa Cather's Fiction: A Review Essay," Women's Studies 22, no. 3 (1993): 263-79; Judith Fetterley, "My Ántonia, Jim Burden and the Dilemma of the Lesbian Writer," in Gender Studies: New Directions in Feminist Criticism, ed. Judith Spector (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1986), pp. 43-59; Jeane Harris, "A Code of Her Own: Attitudes toward Women in Willa Cather's Short Fiction," 36, no. 1 (spring 1990): 81-89; Deborah G. Lambert, "The Defeat of a Hero: Autonomy and Sexuality in My Ántonia," American Literature 53, no. 4 (January 1982): 676-90; John H. Flannigan, "Issue of Gender and Lesbian Love: Goblins in the 'The Garden,'" Cather Studies 2 (1993): 23-40 ; Joseph Epstein, "Willa Cather: Listing toward Lesbos," The New Criterion 2, no. 4 (December 1983): 35-43.
53. A good introduction to Willa Cather, her work, and her sexuality is Joan Acocella, "Cather and the Academy," New Yorker, 27 November 1995, 56-71. Other Cather literature that deals with the issue of lesbianism includes Phyllis C. Robinson, Willa: The Life of Willa Cather (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983); Sharon O'Brien, Willia Cather: The Emerging Voice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); James Woodress, "Cather and Her Friends," Critical Essays on Willa Cather, ed. John J. Murphy (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1984), pp. 81-95; Reginald Dyck, "The Feminist Critique of Willa Cather's Fiction: A Review Essay," Women's Studies 22, no. 3 (1993): 263-79; Judith Fetterley, "My Ántonia, Jim Burden and the Dilemma of the Lesbian Writer," in Gender Studies: New Directions in Feminist Criticism, ed. Judith Spector (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1986), pp. 43-59; Jeane Harris, "A Code of Her Own: Attitudes toward Women in Willa Cather's Short Fiction," 36, no. 1 (spring 1990): 81-89; Deborah G. Lambert, "The Defeat of a Hero: Autonomy and Sexuality in My Ántonia," American Literature 53, no. 4 (January 1982): 676-90; John H. Flannigan, "Issue of Gender and Lesbian Love: Goblins in the 'The Garden,'" Cather Studies 2 (1993): 23-40 ; Joseph Epstein, "Willa Cather: Listing toward Lesbos," The New Criterion 2, no. 4 (December 1983): 35-43.
54. A good introduction to Willa Cather, her work, and her sexuality is Joan Acocella, "Cather and the Academy," New Yorker, 27 November 1995, 56-71. Other Cather literature that deals with the issue of lesbianism includes Phyllis C. Robinson, Willa: The Life of Willa Cather (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983); Sharon O'Brien, Willia Cather: The Emerging Voice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); James Woodress, "Cather and Her Friends," Critical Essays on Willa Cather, ed. John J. Murphy (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1984), pp. 81-95; Reginald Dyck, "The Feminist Critique of Willa Cather's Fiction: A Review Essay," Women's Studies 22, no. 3 (1993): 263-79; Judith Fetterley, "My Ántonia, Jim Burden and the Dilemma of the Lesbian Writer," in Gender Studies: New Directions in Feminist Criticism, ed. Judith Spector (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1986), pp. 43-59; Jeane Harris, "A Code of Her Own: Attitudes toward Women in Willa Cather's Short Fiction," 36, no. 1 (spring 1990): 81-89; Deborah G. Lambert, "The Defeat of a Hero: Autonomy and Sexuality in My Ántonia," American Literature 53, no. 4 (January 1982): 676-90; John H. Flannigan, "Issue of Gender and Lesbian Love: Goblins in the 'The Garden,'" Cather Studies 2 (1993): 23-40 ; Joseph Epstein, "Willa Cather: Listing toward Lesbos," The New Criterion 2, no. 4 (December 1983): 35-43.
55. A good introduction to Willa Cather, her work, and her sexuality is Joan Acocella, "Cather and the Academy," New Yorker, 27 November 1995, 56-71. Other Cather literature that deals with the issue of lesbianism includes Phyllis C. Robinson, Willa: The Life of Willa Cather (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983); Sharon O'Brien, Willia Cather: The Emerging Voice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); James Woodress, "Cather and Her Friends," Critical Essays on Willa Cather, ed. John J. Murphy (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1984), pp. 81-95; Reginald Dyck, "The Feminist Critique of Willa Cather's Fiction: A Review Essay," Women's Studies 22, no. 3 (1993): 263-79; Judith Fetterley, "My Ántonia, Jim Burden and the Dilemma of the Lesbian Writer," in Gender Studies: New Directions in Feminist Criticism, ed. Judith Spector (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1986), pp. 43-59; Jeane Harris, "A Code of Her Own: Attitudes toward Women in Willa Cather's Short Fiction," 36, no. 1 (spring 1990): 81-89; Deborah G. Lambert, "The Defeat of a Hero: Autonomy and Sexuality in My Ántonia," American Literature 53, no. 4 (January 1982): 676-90; John H. Flannigan, "Issue of Gender and Lesbian Love: Goblins in the 'The Garden,'" Cather Studies 2 (1993): 23-40 ; Joseph Epstein, "Willa Cather: Listing toward Lesbos," The New Criterion 2, no. 4 (December 1983): 35-43.
56. A good introduction to Willa Cather, her work, and her sexuality is Joan Acocella, "Cather and the Academy," New Yorker, 27 November 1995, 56-71. Other Cather literature that deals with the issue of lesbianism includes Phyllis C. Robinson, Willa: The Life of Willa Cather (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983); Sharon O'Brien, Willia Cather: The Emerging Voice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); James Woodress, "Cather and Her Friends," Critical Essays on Willa Cather, ed. John J. Murphy (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1984), pp. 81-95; Reginald Dyck, "The Feminist Critique of Willa Cather's Fiction: A Review Essay," Women's Studies 22, no. 3 (1993): 263-79; Judith Fetterley, "My Ántonia, Jim Burden and the Dilemma of the Lesbian Writer," in Gender Studies: New Directions in Feminist Criticism, ed. Judith Spector (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1986), pp. 43-59; Jeane Harris, "A Code of Her Own: Attitudes toward Women in Willa Cather's Short Fiction," 36, no. 1 (spring 1990): 81-89; Deborah G. Lambert, "The Defeat of a Hero: Autonomy and Sexuality in My Ántonia," American Literature 53, no. 4 (January 1982): 676-90; John H. Flannigan, "Issue of Gender and Lesbian Love: Goblins in the 'The Garden,'" Cather Studies 2 (1993): 23-40 ; Joseph Epstein, "Willa Cather: Listing toward Lesbos," The New Criterion 2, no. 4 (December 1983): 35-43.
57. For a lengthy discussion of William Cather, Jr., see O'Brien, Willa Cather: The Emerging Voice (note 9 above), pp. 96-116. O'Brien explains this episode in the novelist's life as part of Cather's psychic distancing and then ultimate reattachment to her mother - the central story that O'Brien proposes to explain Cather as a lesbian. This argument is part of the feminist attempt to recover Cather as their own. If one regards Cather as transgendered, one will have a great number of questions about O'Brien's analysis.
58. Smith, Virgin Land (note 5 above), p. 124; Willa Cather, My Ántonia (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1918), 59.
59. Smith, Virgin Land (note 5 above), p. 124; Willa Cather, My Ántonia (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1918), 59.
60. Cather, My Antonia, pp. 24, 25, 30, 37, 40-41, 89, 97-98, 113, 135, 138, 186, 192-94. On Cather taking on the guise of her male characters, see Lambert, "The Defeat of a Hero" (note 9 above).
61. Cather, My Antonia, pp. 24, 25, 30, 37, 40-41, 89, 97-98, 113, 135, 138, 186, 192-94. On Cather taking on the guise of her male characters, see Lambert, "The Defeat of a Hero" (note 9 above).
62. Badger Clark, Sun and Saddle Leather, 6th ed. (Boston: Gorham Press, 1922), p. 84; Manuel Boyfrank to Roger Austin, 16 December 1974, pp. 16, 17, 18, Manuel Boyfrank Papers, International Gay and Lesbian Archives, West Hollywood, Calif.; I wish to acknowledge Walter L. Williams for loaning me his notes on Boyfrank. Clifford P. Westermeier, "The Cowboy and Sex," in The Cowboy: Six-Shooters, Songs, and Sex, ed. Charles W. Harris and Buck Rainey (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), pp. 85-105, offers a number of tawdry, traditional cowboy rhymes that have homosexual overtones.
63. Badger Clark, Sun and Saddle Leather, 6th ed. (Boston: Gorham Press, 1922), p. 84; Manuel Boyfrank to Roger Austin, 16 December 1974, pp. 16, 17, 18, Manuel Boyfrank Papers, International Gay and Lesbian Archives, West Hollywood, Calif.; I wish to acknowledge Walter L. Williams for loaning me his notes on Boyfrank. Clifford P. Westermeier, "The Cowboy and Sex," in The Cowboy: Six-Shooters, Songs, and Sex, ed. Charles W. Harris and Buck Rainey (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), pp. 85-105, offers a number of tawdry, traditional cowboy rhymes that have homosexual overtones.
64. Katz, Gay American History (note 1 above), pp. 50-51.
65. Denver Tribune, 16 November 1885, as quoted in Thomas Jacob Noel, "Gay Bars and the Emergence of the Denver Homosexual Community," The Social Science Journal 15, no. 2 (1978): 61.
66. Denver Tribune, 16 November 1885, as quoted in Thomas Jacob Noel, "Gay Bars and the Emergence of the Denver Homosexual Community," The Social Science Journal 15, no. 2 (1978): 61.
67. Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, and Clyde E. Martin, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1948), pp. 455-59. For references to the influence of Kinsey's work, as I outlined briefly in this paragraph, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), pp. 285-87, 291-92; Allan Bérubé, Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two (New York: Plume, 1991), pp. 259-60; Katz, Gay American History (note 1 above), pp. 95, 96, 98; John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1890-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), pp. 33-37, 42-43. Five years after Sexual Behavior of the Human Male appeared, Kinsey released its companion volume, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. Its narrative considers specifically rural women in only a couple of sentences, just enough to report that active homosexual incidences "appear to have been a bit higher among the rural females in their teens, but they were higher among urban females after the age of twenty." Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, Clyde E. Martin, and Paul H. Gebhard, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1953), p. 463.
68. Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, and Clyde E. Martin, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1948), pp. 455-59. For references to the influence of Kinsey's work, as I outlined briefly in this paragraph, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), pp. 285-87, 291-92; Allan Bérubé, Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two (New York: Plume, 1991), pp. 259-60; Katz, Gay American History (note 1 above), pp. 95, 96, 98; John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1890-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), pp. 33-37, 42-43. Five years after Sexual Behavior of the Human Male appeared, Kinsey released its companion volume, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. Its narrative considers specifically rural women in only a couple of sentences, just enough to report that active homosexual incidences "appear to have been a bit higher among the rural females in their teens, but they were higher among urban females after the age of twenty." Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, Clyde E. Martin, and Paul H. Gebhard, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1953), p. 463.
69. Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, and Clyde E. Martin, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1948), pp. 455-59. For references to the influence of Kinsey's work, as I outlined briefly in this paragraph, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), pp. 285-87, 291-92; Allan Bérubé, Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two (New York: Plume, 1991), pp. 259-60; Katz, Gay American History (note 1 above), pp. 95, 96, 98; John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1890-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), pp. 33-37, 42-43. Five years after Sexual Behavior of the Human Male appeared, Kinsey released its companion volume, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. Its narrative considers specifically rural women in only a couple of sentences, just enough to report that active homosexual incidences "appear to have been a bit higher among the rural females in their teens, but they were higher among urban females after the age of twenty." Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, Clyde E. Martin, and Paul H. Gebhard, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1953), p. 463.
70. Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, and Clyde E. Martin, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1948), pp. 455-59. For references to the influence of Kinsey's work, as I outlined briefly in this paragraph, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), pp. 285-87, 291-92; Allan Bérubé, Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two (New York: Plume, 1991), pp. 259-60; Katz, Gay American History (note 1 above), pp. 95, 96, 98; John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1890-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), pp. 33-37, 42-43. Five years after Sexual Behavior of the Human Male appeared, Kinsey released its companion volume, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. Its narrative considers specifically rural women in only a couple of sentences, just enough to report that active homosexual incidences "appear to have been a bit higher among the rural females in their teens, but they were higher among urban females after the age of twenty." Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, Clyde E. Martin, and Paul H. Gebhard, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1953), p. 463.
71. Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, and Clyde E. Martin, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1948), pp. 455-59. For references to the influence of Kinsey's work, as I outlined briefly in this paragraph, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), pp. 285-87, 291-92; Allan Bérubé, Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two (New York: Plume, 1991), pp. 259-60; Katz, Gay American History (note 1 above), pp. 95, 96, 98; John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1890-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), pp. 33-37, 42-43. Five years after Sexual Behavior of the Human Male appeared, Kinsey released its companion volume, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. Its narrative considers specifically rural women in only a couple of sentences, just enough to report that active homosexual incidences "appear to have been a bit higher among the rural females in their teens, but they were higher among urban females after the age of twenty." Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, Clyde E. Martin, and Paul H. Gebhard, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1953), p. 463.
72. Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, and Clyde E. Martin, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1948), pp. 455-59. For references to the influence of Kinsey's work, as I outlined briefly in this paragraph, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), pp. 285-87, 291-92; Allan Bérubé, Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two (New York: Plume, 1991), pp. 259-60; Katz, Gay American History (note 1 above), pp. 95, 96, 98; John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1890-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), pp. 33-37, 42-43. Five years after Sexual Behavior of the Human Male appeared, Kinsey released its companion volume, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. Its narrative considers specifically rural women in only a couple of sentences, just enough to report that active homosexual incidences "appear to have been a bit higher among the rural females in their teens, but they were higher among urban females after the age of twenty." Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, Clyde E. Martin, and Paul H. Gebhard, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1953), p. 463.
73. Kinsey et al., Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (note 16 above), p. 457.
74. My following discussion of Old Nash is drawn from Elizabeth B. Custer, Boots and Saddles, Or Life in Dakota with General Custer (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1885), pp. 198-202 and from Don Rickey Jr., Forty Miles a Day on Beans and Hay: The Enlisted Soldier Fighting the Indian Wars (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), pp. 170-71. will use the affectionate name of "manny manny" for Old Nash's husband in uncapitalized form, as that is the way Custer reported it. For a good biography on Custer, but one that does not include a discussion of this episode, see Shirley A. Leckie, Elizabeth Bacon Custer and the Making of a Myth (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993); see also Maryan Wherry, "Women and the Western Military Frontier: Elizabeth Bacon Custer," in Nineteenth-Century Women Learn to Write, ed. Catherine Hobbs (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995).
75. My following discussion of Old Nash is drawn from Elizabeth B. Custer, Boots and Saddles, Or Life in Dakota with General Custer (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1885), pp. 198-202 and from Don Rickey Jr., Forty Miles a Day on Beans and Hay: The Enlisted Soldier Fighting the Indian Wars (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), pp. 170-71. will use the affectionate name of "manny manny" for Old Nash's husband in uncapitalized form, as that is the way Custer reported it. For a good biography on Custer, but one that does not include a discussion of this episode, see Shirley A. Leckie, Elizabeth Bacon Custer and the Making of a Myth (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993); see also Maryan Wherry, "Women and the Western Military Frontier: Elizabeth Bacon Custer," in Nineteenth-Century Women Learn to Write, ed. Catherine Hobbs (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995).
76. My following discussion of Old Nash is drawn from Elizabeth B. Custer, Boots and Saddles, Or Life in Dakota with General Custer (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1885), pp. 198-202 and from Don Rickey Jr., Forty Miles a Day on Beans and Hay: The Enlisted Soldier Fighting the Indian Wars (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), pp. 170-71. will use the affectionate name of "manny manny" for Old Nash's husband in uncapitalized form, as that is the way Custer reported it. For a good biography on Custer, but one that does not include a discussion of this episode, see Shirley A. Leckie, Elizabeth Bacon Custer and the Making of a Myth (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993); see also Maryan Wherry, "Women and the Western Military Frontier: Elizabeth Bacon Custer," in Nineteenth-Century Women Learn to Write, ed. Catherine Hobbs (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995).
77. My following discussion of Old Nash is drawn from Elizabeth B. Custer, Boots and Saddles, Or Life in Dakota with General Custer (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1885), pp. 198-202 and from Don Rickey Jr., Forty Miles a Day on Beans and Hay: The Enlisted Soldier Fighting the Indian Wars (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), pp. 170-71. will use the affectionate name of "manny manny" for Old Nash's husband in uncapitalized form, as that is the way Custer reported it. For a good biography on Custer, but one that does not include a discussion of this episode, see Shirley A. Leckie, Elizabeth Bacon Custer and the Making of a Myth (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993); see also Maryan Wherry, "Women and the Western Military Frontier: Elizabeth Bacon Custer," in Nineteenth-Century Women Learn to Write, ed. Catherine Hobbs (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995).
78. On homosexuality in the military and/or in the military in the West, see Thomas P. Lowry, M.D., The Story the Soldiers Wouldn't Tell: Sex in the Civil War (Mechanicsburg, Penn.: Stackpole Books, 1994), pp. 109-18; Bérubé, Coming Out Under Fire (note 16 above); Rickey, Forty Miles a Day on Beans and Hay (note 18 above), p. 171; and Terry Mangan, "The Gay West" (unpublished paper at the Colorado Historical Society, Denver), pp. 16-17. I am indebted to the late Terry Mangan's unpublished paper for the idea that Custer was unable to understand the possibility that love played a role in the suicide of Old Nash's husband.
79. On homosexuality in the military and/or in the military in the West, see Thomas P. Lowry, M.D., The Story the Soldiers Wouldn't Tell: Sex in the Civil War (Mechanicsburg, Penn.: Stackpole Books, 1994), pp. 109-18; Bérubé, Coming Out Under Fire (note 16 above); Rickey, Forty Miles a Day on Beans and Hay (note 18 above), p. 171; and Terry Mangan, "The Gay West" (unpublished paper at the Colorado Historical Society, Denver), pp. 16-17. I am indebted to the late Terry Mangan's unpublished paper for the idea that Custer was unable to understand the possibility that love played a role in the suicide of Old Nash's husband.
80. On homosexuality in the military and/or in the military in the West, see Thomas P. Lowry, M.D., The Story the Soldiers Wouldn't Tell: Sex in the Civil War (Mechanicsburg, Penn.: Stackpole Books, 1994), pp. 109-18; Bérubé, Coming Out Under Fire (note 16 above); Rickey, Forty Miles a Day on Beans and Hay (note 18 above), p. 171; and Terry Mangan, "The Gay West" (unpublished paper at the Colorado Historical Society, Denver), pp. 16-17. I am indebted to the late Terry Mangan's unpublished paper for the idea that Custer was unable to understand the possibility that love played a role in the suicide of Old Nash's husband.
81. On homosexuality in the military and/or in the military in the West, see Thomas P. Lowry, M.D., The Story the Soldiers Wouldn't Tell: Sex in the Civil War (Mechanicsburg, Penn.: Stackpole Books, 1994), pp. 109-18; Bérubé, Coming Out Under Fire (note 16 above); Rickey, Forty Miles a Day on Beans and Hay (note 18 above), p. 171; and Terry Mangan, "The Gay West" (unpublished paper at the Colorado Historical Society, Denver), pp. 16-17. I am indebted to the late Terry Mangan's unpublished paper for the idea that Custer was unable to understand the possibility that love played a role in the suicide of Old Nash's husband.
82. The following story I am recreating from the Lincoln County (New Mexico Territory) Leader, 4 April 1891; reprinted in Lincoln County Historical Society Newsletter, August 1993, 3-5.
83. The following story I am recreating from the Lincoln County (New Mexico Territory) Leader, 4 April 1891; reprinted in Lincoln County Historical Society Newsletter, August 1993, 3-5.
84. George A. Dorsey, Traditions of the Caddo (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1905), p. 19.
85. D. Michael Quinn, Same-Sex Dynamics among Nineteenth-Century Americans: A Mormon Example (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), pp. 281, 284, 317, 328.
86. Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh (note 1 above), pp. 21, 41, 70-71, 84, 190, 199, 227-28.