Yellow fever immunities in west Africa and the Americas in the age of slavery and beyond: A reappraisal

Journal of Social History

Volumn 34, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 955-967

  Watts, Sheldon ^a  

^a NONE   (Egypt)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040483451     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2001.0071     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. Lawrence Stone, "History and Post-Modernism III," Past & Present No. 135 (May 1992): 189-94.
2. William McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City NY, 1976).
3. William Coleman, Yellow Fever in the North: Methods of Early Epidemiology (Madison, 1987), 14.
4. K. F. Kiple and V. H. Kiple, "Black Yellow Fever Immunities, Innate and Acquired, as Revealed in the American South," Social Science History I (1977): 419-36.
5. K. Kiple, "Survey of Recent Literature," in Kenneth F. Kiple, ed., The African Exchange: Toward a Biological History (Durham, NC, 1988), 24-34.
6. Kenneth F. Kiple "Review of Sheldon Watts, Epidemics and History: Disease, Power and Imperialism (New Haven, CT, 1998)," in Journal of Interdisciplinary History 30 no. 1 (summer, 1999): 104-5.
7. Claims for present-day: Kenneth F. Kiple, The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History (Cambridge, 1984), 177-8.
8. Kiple and Kiple, "Black Yellow Fever Immunities" (1977); Kenneth F. Kiple and Virginia Himmelsteib King, Another Dimension to the Black Diasphora: Diet, Desease, and Racism (Cambridge, 1981) Kenneth Kiple, African Exchange (1987); Kenneth K. Kiple and Brian T. Higgins, "Yellow Fever and the Africanization of the Caribbean," in John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the Americas (Washington DC, 1992), 237-48; Kenneth Kiple and Donald Cooper, "Yellow Fever," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Cambridge World History of Human Disease (Cambridge, 1993); Kiple "Review," (1999).
9. Kiple and Kiple, "Black Yellow Fever Immunities" (1977); Kenneth F. Kiple and Virginia Himmelsteib King, Another Dimension to the Black Diasphora: Diet, Desease, and Racism (Cambridge, 1981) Kenneth Kiple, African Exchange (1987); Kenneth K. Kiple and Brian T. Higgins, "Yellow Fever and the Africanization of the Caribbean," in John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the Americas (Washington DC, 1992), 237-48; Kenneth Kiple and Donald Cooper, "Yellow Fever," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Cambridge World History of Human Disease (Cambridge, 1993); Kiple "Review," (1999).
10. Kiple and Kiple, "Black Yellow Fever Immunities" (1977); Kenneth F. Kiple and Virginia Himmelsteib King, Another Dimension to the Black Diasphora: Diet, Desease, and Racism (Cambridge, 1981) Kenneth Kiple, African Exchange (1987); Kenneth K. Kiple and Brian T. Higgins, "Yellow Fever and the Africanization of the Caribbean," in John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the Americas (Washington DC, 1992), 237-48; Kenneth Kiple and Donald Cooper, "Yellow Fever," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Cambridge World History of Human Disease (Cambridge, 1993); Kiple "Review," (1999).
11. Kiple and Kiple, "Black Yellow Fever Immunities" (1977); Kenneth F. Kiple and Virginia Himmelsteib King, Another Dimension to the Black Diasphora: Diet, Desease, and Racism (Cambridge, 1981) Kenneth Kiple, African Exchange (1987); Kenneth K. Kiple and Brian T. Higgins, "Yellow Fever and the Africanization of the Caribbean," in John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the Americas (Washington DC, 1992), 237-48; Kenneth Kiple and Donald Cooper, "Yellow Fever," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Cambridge World History of Human Disease (Cambridge, 1993); Kiple "Review," (1999).
12. Kiple and Kiple, "Black Yellow Fever Immunities" (1977); Kenneth F. Kiple and Virginia Himmelsteib King, Another Dimension to the Black Diasphora: Diet, Desease, and Racism (Cambridge, 1981) Kenneth Kiple, African Exchange (1987); Kenneth K. Kiple and Brian T. Higgins, "Yellow Fever and the Africanization of the Caribbean," in John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the Americas (Washington DC, 1992), 237-48; Kenneth Kiple and Donald Cooper, "Yellow Fever," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Cambridge World History of Human Disease (Cambridge, 1993); Kiple "Review," (1999).
13. Kiple and Kiple, "Black Yellow Fever Immunities" (1977); Kenneth F. Kiple and Virginia Himmelsteib King, Another Dimension to the Black Diasphora: Diet, Desease, and Racism (Cambridge, 1981) Kenneth Kiple, African Exchange (1987); Kenneth K. Kiple and Brian T. Higgins, "Yellow Fever and the Africanization of the Caribbean," in John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the Americas (Washington DC, 1992), 237-48; Kenneth Kiple and Donald Cooper, "Yellow Fever," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Cambridge World History of Human Disease (Cambridge, 1993); Kiple "Review," (1999).
14. Most Historians of medicine today recognize the great diversity of African peoples and that power relationships, disease environments of place of birth and residence in childhood etc. can more usefully be regarded as disease determinants than the color of one's skin: Steven Feierman and John M. Jansen, eds., The Social Basis of Health and Healing in Africa (Berkeley, CA, 1992), 8-9.
15. Kiple, "Yellow Fever and Africanization," 244.
16. Kiple, Another Dimension, 29.
17. Kiple, Another Dimension, 31; term "biological elite" in Kiple, African Exchange, 269; phrase "powerful testimony to the racial prejudices of falciparium malaria and yellow fever" in Kiple, Another Dimension, 38.
18. Kiple, Another Dimension, 31; term "biological elite" in Kiple, African Exchange, 269; phrase "powerful testimony to the racial prejudices of falciparium malaria and yellow fever" in Kiple, Another Dimension, 38.
19. Kiple, Another Dimension, 31; term "biological elite" in Kiple, African Exchange, 269; phrase "powerful testimony to the racial prejudices of falciparium malaria and yellow fever" in Kiple, Another Dimension, 38.
20. Kiple, "Review," 105.
21. Gert H. Brieger, "Review:, New England Journal of Medicine, 2 July 1998, 55. A. H. Spear praised Kiple and Kiple's Another Dimension (1981), but admitted that he "could not judge their competence in medical and nutritional matters . . . :" American Historical Review v. 90, No. 2 (April 1985): 490.
22. Gert H. Brieger, "Review:, New England Journal of Medicine, 2 July 1998, 55. A. H. Spear praised Kiple and Kiple's Another Dimension (1981), but admitted that he "could not judge their competence in medical and nutritional matters . . . :" American Historical Review v. 90, No. 2 (April 1985): 490.
23. Gert H. Brieger, "Review:, New England Journal of Medicine, 2 July 1998, 55. A. H. Spear praised Kiple and Kiple's Another Dimension (1981), but admitted that he "could not judge their competence in medical and nutritional matters . . . :" American Historical Review v. 90, No. 2 (April 1985): 490.
24. Todd L. Savitt, Review of Khaled Bloom, The Mississippi Valley's Great Fever Epidemic of 1878 (1993), American Historical Review 100 no. 5 (Dec. 1995): 1698; Todd L. Savitt, Medicine and Slavery: The Diseases and Health Care of Blacks in Antebellum Virginia (Urbana, IL, 1978), 241. Other supporters include: Donald Cooper, in Cambridge World History of Human Diseases, 1102; Jo Ann Carringan, "Yellow Fever: Scourge of the South," in Todd L. Savitt and James H. Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South (Knoxville, TN, 1988), 59, 73; K. David Patterson, "Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693-1905," Social Science and Medicine 24 no. 8 (1992): 862; John H. Ellis, Yellow Fever & Public Health in the New South (Lexington, KY, 1992), 31, 57, 108 180; Margaret Humphries "Yellow Fever: The Yellow Jack," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Plague, Pox & Pestilence (London, 1997), 86.
25. Todd L. Savitt, Review of Khaled Bloom, The Mississippi Valley's Great Fever Epidemic of 1878 (1993), American Historical Review 100 no. 5 (Dec. 1995): 1698; Todd L. Savitt, Medicine and Slavery: The Diseases and Health Care of Blacks in Antebellum Virginia (Urbana, IL, 1978), 241. Other supporters include: Donald Cooper, in Cambridge World History of Human Diseases, 1102; Jo Ann Carringan, "Yellow Fever: Scourge of the South," in Todd L. Savitt and James H. Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South (Knoxville, TN, 1988), 59, 73; K. David Patterson, "Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693-1905," Social Science and Medicine 24 no. 8 (1992): 862; John H. Ellis, Yellow Fever & Public Health in the New South (Lexington, KY, 1992), 31, 57, 108 180; Margaret Humphries "Yellow Fever: The Yellow Jack," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Plague, Pox & Pestilence (London, 1997), 86.
26. Todd L. Savitt, Review of Khaled Bloom, The Mississippi Valley's Great Fever Epidemic of 1878 (1993), American Historical Review 100 no. 5 (Dec. 1995): 1698; Todd L. Savitt, Medicine and Slavery: The Diseases and Health Care of Blacks in Antebellum Virginia (Urbana, IL, 1978), 241. Other supporters include: Donald Cooper, in Cambridge World History of Human Diseases, 1102; Jo Ann Carringan, "Yellow Fever: Scourge of the South," in Todd L. Savitt and James H. Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South (Knoxville, TN, 1988), 59, 73; K. David Patterson, "Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693-1905," Social Science and Medicine 24 no. 8 (1992): 862; John H. Ellis, Yellow Fever & Public Health in the New South (Lexington, KY, 1992), 31, 57, 108 180; Margaret Humphries "Yellow Fever: The Yellow Jack," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Plague, Pox & Pestilence (London, 1997), 86.
27. Todd L. Savitt, Review of Khaled Bloom, The Mississippi Valley's Great Fever Epidemic of 1878 (1993), American Historical Review 100 no. 5 (Dec. 1995): 1698; Todd L. Savitt, Medicine and Slavery: The Diseases and Health Care of Blacks in Antebellum Virginia (Urbana, IL, 1978), 241. Other supporters include: Donald Cooper, in Cambridge World History of Human Diseases, 1102; Jo Ann Carringan, "Yellow Fever: Scourge of the South," in Todd L. Savitt and James H. Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South (Knoxville, TN, 1988), 59, 73; K. David Patterson, "Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693-1905," Social Science and Medicine 24 no. 8 (1992): 862; John H. Ellis, Yellow Fever & Public Health in the New South (Lexington, KY, 1992), 31, 57, 108 180; Margaret Humphries "Yellow Fever: The Yellow Jack," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Plague, Pox & Pestilence (London, 1997), 86.
28. Todd L. Savitt, Review of Khaled Bloom, The Mississippi Valley's Great Fever Epidemic of 1878 (1993), American Historical Review 100 no. 5 (Dec. 1995): 1698; Todd L. Savitt, Medicine and Slavery: The Diseases and Health Care of Blacks in Antebellum Virginia (Urbana, IL, 1978), 241. Other supporters include: Donald Cooper, in Cambridge World History of Human Diseases, 1102; Jo Ann Carringan, "Yellow Fever: Scourge of the South," in Todd L. Savitt and James H. Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South (Knoxville, TN, 1988), 59, 73; K. David Patterson, "Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693-1905," Social Science and Medicine 24 no. 8 (1992): 862; John H. Ellis, Yellow Fever & Public Health in the New South (Lexington, KY, 1992), 31, 57, 108 180; Margaret Humphries "Yellow Fever: The Yellow Jack," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Plague, Pox & Pestilence (London, 1997), 86.
29. Todd L. Savitt, Review of Khaled Bloom, The Mississippi Valley's Great Fever Epidemic of 1878 (1993), American Historical Review 100 no. 5 (Dec. 1995): 1698; Todd L. Savitt, Medicine and Slavery: The Diseases and Health Care of Blacks in Antebellum Virginia (Urbana, IL, 1978), 241. Other supporters include: Donald Cooper, in Cambridge World History of Human Diseases, 1102; Jo Ann Carringan, "Yellow Fever: Scourge of the South," in Todd L. Savitt and James H. Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South (Knoxville, TN, 1988), 59, 73; K. David Patterson, "Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693-1905," Social Science and Medicine 24 no. 8 (1992): 862; John H. Ellis, Yellow Fever & Public Health in the New South (Lexington, KY, 1992), 31, 57, 108 180; Margaret Humphries "Yellow Fever: The Yellow Jack," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Plague, Pox & Pestilence (London, 1997), 86.
30. Todd L. Savitt, Review of Khaled Bloom, The Mississippi Valley's Great Fever Epidemic of 1878 (1993), American Historical Review 100 no. 5 (Dec. 1995): 1698; Todd L. Savitt, Medicine and Slavery: The Diseases and Health Care of Blacks in Antebellum Virginia (Urbana, IL, 1978), 241. Other supporters include: Donald Cooper, in Cambridge World History of Human Diseases, 1102; Jo Ann Carringan, "Yellow Fever: Scourge of the South," in Todd L. Savitt and James H. Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South (Knoxville, TN, 1988), 59, 73; K. David Patterson, "Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693-1905," Social Science and Medicine 24 no. 8 (1992): 862; John H. Ellis, Yellow Fever & Public Health in the New South (Lexington, KY, 1992), 31, 57, 108 180; Margaret Humphries "Yellow Fever: The Yellow Jack," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Plague, Pox & Pestilence (London, 1997), 86.
31. Todd L. Savitt, Review of Khaled Bloom, The Mississippi Valley's Great Fever Epidemic of 1878 (1993), American Historical Review 100 no. 5 (Dec. 1995): 1698; Todd L. Savitt, Medicine and Slavery: The Diseases and Health Care of Blacks in Antebellum Virginia (Urbana, IL, 1978), 241. Other supporters include: Donald Cooper, in Cambridge World History of Human Diseases, 1102; Jo Ann Carringan, "Yellow Fever: Scourge of the South," in Todd L. Savitt and James H. Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South (Knoxville, TN, 1988), 59, 73; K. David Patterson, "Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693-1905," Social Science and Medicine 24 no. 8 (1992): 862; John H. Ellis, Yellow Fever & Public Health in the New South (Lexington, KY, 1992), 31, 57, 108 180; Margaret Humphries "Yellow Fever: The Yellow Jack," in Kenneth Kiple, ed., Plague, Pox & Pestilence (London, 1997), 86.
32. Thomas P. Monath (US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD), "Yellow Fever: Victor, Victoria? Conqueror, Conquest? Epidemics and Research in the Last Forty Years and Prospects for the Future," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 45, no. 1 (1991): 1-43.
33. Sir Rubert Boyce, "The Distribution and Prevalence of Yellow Fever in West Africa," Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene XIII (1 Dec. 1910): 357. For Kiple's comments on Boyce: "in addition to these wrong-headed . . . speculations, there were also some badly reasoned arguments that credited acquired immunity": Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 174. See also: Kiple, "Yellow Fever and Africanization," 243.
34. Sir Rubert Boyce, "The Distribution and Prevalence of Yellow Fever in West Africa," Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene XIII (1 Dec. 1910): 357. For Kiple's comments on Boyce: "in addition to these wrong-headed . . . speculations, there were also some badly reasoned arguments that credited acquired immunity": Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 174. See also: Kiple, "Yellow Fever and Africanization," 243.
35. Sir Rubert Boyce, "The Distribution and Prevalence of Yellow Fever in West Africa," Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene XIII (1 Dec. 1910): 357. For Kiple's comments on Boyce: "in addition to these wrong-headed . . . speculations, there were also some badly reasoned arguments that credited acquired immunity": Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 174. See also: Kiple, "Yellow Fever and Africanization," 243.
36. W. H. Hoffman, "Yellow Fever in Africa from the Epidemiological Standpoint," in Mohamed Bay Khalil, ed., Proceedings: Congrès International de Médecine Tropicale et d'Hygiène: Le Cairo, Egypte, Décembre, 1928 V (Cairo, 1932), 920.
37. G. M. Finlay et al "Yellow Fever and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: Distribution of Immune Bodies to Yellow Fever," Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology v. 35, no 2 (December 31, 1941): 121; Heather Bell, Frontier of Medicine in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 1899-1940 (Oxford, 1999), 163-97.
38. G. M. Finlay et al "Yellow Fever and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: Distribution of Immune Bodies to Yellow Fever," Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology v. 35, no 2 (December 31, 1941): 121; Heather Bell, Frontier of Medicine in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 1899-1940 (Oxford, 1999), 163-97.
39. Monath, "Yellow Fever," 30, 32-5; K. M. De Cock et al, "Epidemic Yellow Fever in Eastern Nigeria, 1986," The Lancet 19 (March 1988): 630-32; WHO, Prevention and Control of Yellow Fever Geneva, 1986), 3-5, 25-7; J. Thonnon et al, "Re-emergence of Yellow Fever in Senegal in 1995," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59 no. 1 (1998): 108. For Kiple's attempt to salvage his thesis by claiming that Senegal was not in the endemic zone: Kiple, "Yellow Fever and Africanization," 243.
40. Monath, "Yellow Fever," 30, 32-5; K. M. De Cock et al, "Epidemic Yellow Fever in Eastern Nigeria, 1986," The Lancet 19 (March 1988): 630-32; WHO, Prevention and Control of Yellow Fever Geneva, 1986), 3-5, 25-7; J. Thonnon et al, "Re-emergence of Yellow Fever in Senegal in 1995," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59 no. 1 (1998): 108. For Kiple's attempt to salvage his thesis by claiming that Senegal was not in the endemic zone: Kiple, "Yellow Fever and Africanization," 243.
41. Monath, "Yellow Fever," 30, 32-5; K. M. De Cock et al, "Epidemic Yellow Fever in Eastern Nigeria, 1986," The Lancet 19 (March 1988): 630-32; WHO, Prevention and Control of Yellow Fever Geneva, 1986), 3-5, 25-7; J. Thonnon et al, "Re-emergence of Yellow Fever in Senegal in 1995," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59 no. 1 (1998): 108. For Kiple's attempt to salvage his thesis by claiming that Senegal was not in the endemic zone: Kiple, "Yellow Fever and Africanization," 243.
42. Monath, "Yellow Fever," 30, 32-5; K. M. De Cock et al, "Epidemic Yellow Fever in Eastern Nigeria, 1986," The Lancet 19 (March 1988): 630-32; WHO, Prevention and Control of Yellow Fever Geneva, 1986), 3-5, 25-7; J. Thonnon et al, "Re-emergence of Yellow Fever in Senegal in 1995," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59 no. 1 (1998): 108. For Kiple's attempt to salvage his thesis by claiming that Senegal was not in the endemic zone: Kiple, "Yellow Fever and Africanization," 243.
43. Monath, "Yellow Fever," 30, 32-5; K. M. De Cock et al, "Epidemic Yellow Fever in Eastern Nigeria, 1986," The Lancet 19 (March 1988): 630-32; WHO, Prevention and Control of Yellow Fever Geneva, 1986), 3-5, 25-7; J. Thonnon et al, "Re-emergence of Yellow Fever in Senegal in 1995," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59 no. 1 (1998): 108. For Kiple's attempt to salvage his thesis by claiming that Senegal was not in the endemic zone: Kiple, "Yellow Fever and Africanization," 243.
44. Kiple, Another Dimension, 30.
45. Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 5.
46. W. C. Gorgas, "Recent Experiences of the United States Army with Regard to Sanitation of Yellow Fever in the Tropics" (paper read before the Egyptian Medical Congress), The Journal of Tropical Medicine v. 6 (February 2, 1903): 49.
47. "Discussion of Yellow Fever," Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 14 (February 1, 1911): 42.
48. McGrew asserts the first reports from West Africa are from Sierra Leone in 1764 and Senegal in 1778; R. McGrew, Encyclopedia of Medical History (London, 1985), 357.
49. Kiple, Another Dimension, 35.
50. (Emp mine) Kiple, "Yellow Fever and Africanization," 239. See also: Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 5.
51. (Emp mine) Kiple, "Yellow Fever and Africanization," 239. See also: Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 5.
52. London, British Library, India Office, V/26/853/2 p. 198.
53. Carter's full statement: That the negro does possess a resistance to yellow fever not shown by any other race is, we think, among the best established facts in the epidemiology of the disease. It is a point on which opinion is all but unanimous and evidence conclusive . . . [the negro] has a true racial resistance which is not dependent upon prior infection or exposure": Henry Rose Carter, Yellow Fever, An Epidemiological and Historical Study of its Place of Origin (Baltimore, MD, 1931), 263-4.
54. Kiple, Another Dimension, 49, qu. Carter, Yellow Fever, 270.
55. Kiple, Another Dimension, 49, qu. Carter, Yellow Fever, 270.
56. Kiple, Another Dimension, 217. See also: Kenneth Kiple, "The Ecology of Disease," in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter, eds., Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (London, 1993), 370.
57. Kiple, Another Dimension, 217. See also: Kenneth Kiple, "The Ecology of Disease," in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter, eds., Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (London, 1993), 370.
58. Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 5.
59. Kiple, Another Dimension, 48.
60. Kiple, Another Dimension, 32.
61. Bell, Frontiers, 190-7.
62. WHO, Yellow Fever, 4.
63. Kiple, Another Dimension, 45.
64. Kiple, Another Dimension, 40.
65. Watts, Epidemics and History 241.
66. Kiple, Another Dimension, 57, 244. See also: Eugene D. Genovese, " . . . And the Children Brought Up," in his Roll Jordon Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1976); Bertram Wyatt-Brown "The Mask of Obedience: Male Slave Psychology in the Old South," in J. William Harris, ed., Society and Culture in the Slave South (London, 1992), 128-51.
67. Kiple, Another Dimension, 57, 244. See also: Eugene D. Genovese, " . . . And the Children Brought Up," in his Roll Jordon Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1976); Bertram Wyatt-Brown "The Mask of Obedience: Male Slave Psychology in the Old South," in J. William Harris, ed., Society and Culture in the Slave South (London, 1992), 128-51.
68. Kiple, Another Dimension, 57, 244. See also: Eugene D. Genovese, " . . . And the Children Brought Up," in his Roll Jordon Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1976); Bertram Wyatt-Brown "The Mask of Obedience: Male Slave Psychology in the Old South," in J. William Harris, ed., Society and Culture in the Slave South (London, 1992), 128-51.
69. Kiple, Another Dimension, 58-61, 226; Kiple, African Exchange 8; Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 178.
70. Kiple, Another Dimension, 58-61, 226; Kiple, African Exchange 8; Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 178.
71. Kiple, Another Dimension, 58-61, 226; Kiple, African Exchange 8; Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 178.
72. Kiple, Another Dimension, 43. See also: Samuel A. Cartwright, MD, "Report on the Disease and Physical Peculiarities of the Negro Race," in Arthur L. Caplin, H. Engelhardt, J. McCartney, eds., Concept of Health and Disease: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (Reading, MA, 1981).
73. Kiple, Another Dimension, 43. See also: Samuel A. Cartwright, MD, "Report on the Disease and Physical Peculiarities of the Negro Race," in Arthur L. Caplin, H. Engelhardt, J. McCartney, eds., Concept of Health and Disease: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (Reading, MA, 1981).
74. (emp. mine) Kiple, African Exchange, 8.
75. Kiple, African Exchange, 22. He also hods that [blacks' ability to survive yellow fever] "became crucial to the colonization of tropical America . . . ": Kiple, Another Dimension, 67; "all of which serves to illustrate the profound role that disease has played in the history of the West Indies": Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 4.
76. Kiple, African Exchange, 22. He also hods that [blacks' ability to survive yellow fever] "became crucial to the colonization of tropical America . . . ": Kiple, Another Dimension, 67; "all of which serves to illustrate the profound role that disease has played in the history of the West Indies": Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 4.
77. Kiple, African Exchange, 22. He also hods that [blacks' ability to survive yellow fever] "became crucial to the colonization of tropical America . . . ": Kiple, Another Dimension, 67; "all of which serves to illustrate the profound role that disease has played in the history of the West Indies": Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 4.
78. Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery from the Baroque to the Modern, 1492-1800 (London, 1997), 156.
79. Watts, Epidemics and History, 230-3.
80. Quoted in Jack Greene, Imperatives, Behaviors, and Identities: Essays in Early American Cultural History (Charlottesville, VA, 1992), 38; Watts, Epidemics and History, 229. Compare Kiple's comment on "1648" and 1691: "their black chattles seemed impervious to yellow fever's fatal march across the Caribbean:" Another Dimension, 39.
81. Quoted in Jack Greene, Imperatives, Behaviors, and Identities: Essays in Early American Cultural History (Charlottesville, VA, 1992), 38; Watts, Epidemics and History, 229. Compare Kiple's comment on "1648" and 1691: "their black chattles seemed impervious to yellow fever's fatal march across the Caribbean:" Another Dimension, 39.
82. Quoted in Jack Greene, Imperatives, Behaviors, and Identities: Essays in Early American Cultural History (Charlottesville, VA, 1992), 38; Watts, Epidemics and History, 229. Compare Kiple's comment on "1648" and 1691: "their black chattles seemed impervious to yellow fever's fatal march across the Caribbean:" Another Dimension, 39.
83. Kiple, Another Dimension, 48.
84. Opportunity ignored: Kiple, Another Dimension, 40-41.
85. For an example of contrasting death rates between recently arrived emigrant strangers and the locally-born using contemporary statistics: G. Couto and C. de Rezende, "Control of Infectious Diseases in Brazil and especially in Rio de Janeiro," Yellow Fever Bureau Bulletin no. II (1913): 297-8; Watts, Epidemics and History, 250.
86. For an example of contrasting death rates between recently arrived emigrant strangers and the locally-born using contemporary statistics: G. Couto and C. de Rezende, "Control of Infectious Diseases in Brazil and especially in Rio de Janeiro," Yellow Fever Bureau Bulletin no. II (1913): 297-8; Watts, Epidemics and History, 250.
87. Margaret Humphreys, Yellow Fever and the South (New Brunswick, NJ., 1992), 7-8, 51-2, 59, 179; Watts, Epidemics and History, 245, 247.
88. Margaret Humphreys, Yellow Fever and the South (New Brunswick, NJ., 1992), 7-8, 51-2, 59, 179; Watts, Epidemics and History, 245, 247.
89. Kiple, African Exchange, 23.
90. emp. mine: Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 4.
91. Kiple, "Yellow Fever and Africanization," 244.
92. Kiple, African Exchange, 8. A further example: "Yet . . . these crucial roles played by disease in shaping the black past went unrecognized or ignored by most social scientists . . ." whom Kiple accused of "obscurantism:" Kiple, African Exchange, 9, or of having "a shaky grip on epidemiological history", Kiple, "Review," 105. For a listing of disease determinisms used to construct disease, not generally in the best interests of sufferers: Watts, Epidemics and History, 389.
93. Kiple, African Exchange, 8. A further example: "Yet . . . these crucial roles played by disease in shaping the black past went unrecognized or ignored by most social scientists . . ." whom Kiple accused of "obscurantism:" Kiple, African Exchange, 9, or of having "a shaky grip on epidemiological history", Kiple, "Review," 105. For a listing of disease determinisms used to construct disease, not generally in the best interests of sufferers: Watts, Epidemics and History, 389.
94. Kiple, African Exchange, 8. A further example: "Yet . . . these crucial roles played by disease in shaping the black past went unrecognized or ignored by most social scientists . . ." whom Kiple accused of "obscurantism:" Kiple, African Exchange, 9, or of having "a shaky grip on epidemiological history", Kiple, "Review," 105. For a listing of disease determinisms used to construct disease, not generally in the best interests of sufferers: Watts, Epidemics and History, 389.
95. Kiple, African Exchange, 8. A further example: "Yet . . . these crucial roles played by disease in shaping the black past went unrecognized or ignored by most social scientists . . ." whom Kiple accused of "obscurantism:" Kiple, African Exchange, 9, or of having "a shaky grip on epidemiological history", Kiple, "Review," 105. For a listing of disease determinisms used to construct disease, not generally in the best interests of sufferers: Watts, Epidemics and History, 389.
96. Cuts in yellow fever surveillance and delays in including yellow fever into vaccination programs (the Expanded Program on Immunization, EPI) both in Africa and in South America under pressure from Western governments and the I.M.F. has left both Continents dangerously at risk from resurgent yellow fever: K. M. De Cock et al, "Epidemic Yellow Fever in Eastern Nigeria, 1986," The Lancet, March 19, 1986: 632; Jocelyn Thonnon et al, "Re-emergence of Yellow Fever in Senegal in 1995," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 113; Edward J. Sanders et al, "First Recorded Outbreak of Yellow Fever in Kenya, 1992-1993, I," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no.4 (1998): 648; N. Guerin et al, "[Expanded program of vaccination. Results and prospects]" Annales Médecine International (Paris) v. 149, no.6 (1998): 377-8; "Need for Vaccination Against Yellow Fever," Communicable Disease Report Wkly v.9, no. 33 (August 13,1999): 289, 292; Monath, "Yellow Fever", 29; Richard L. Guerrant, "Why America Must Care about Tropical Medicine: Threats to Global Health and Security from Tropical Infectious Diseases," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 11-14; Watts, Epidemics and History, 269-79.
97. Cuts in yellow fever surveillance and delays in including yellow fever into vaccination programs (the Expanded Program on Immunization, EPI) both in Africa and in South America under pressure from Western governments and the I.M.F. has left both Continents dangerously at risk from resurgent yellow fever: K. M. De Cock et al, "Epidemic Yellow Fever in Eastern Nigeria, 1986," The Lancet, March 19, 1986: 632; Jocelyn Thonnon et al, "Re-emergence of Yellow Fever in Senegal in 1995," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 113; Edward J. Sanders et al, "First Recorded Outbreak of Yellow Fever in Kenya, 1992-1993, I," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no.4 (1998): 648; N. Guerin et al, "[Expanded program of vaccination. Results and prospects]" Annales Médecine International (Paris) v. 149, no.6 (1998): 377-8; "Need for Vaccination Against Yellow Fever," Communicable Disease Report Wkly v.9, no. 33 (August 13,1999): 289, 292; Monath, "Yellow Fever", 29; Richard L. Guerrant, "Why America Must Care about Tropical Medicine: Threats to Global Health and Security from Tropical Infectious Diseases," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 11-14; Watts, Epidemics and History, 269-79.
98. Cuts in yellow fever surveillance and delays in including yellow fever into vaccination programs (the Expanded Program on Immunization, EPI) both in Africa and in South America under pressure from Western governments and the I.M.F. has left both Continents dangerously at risk from resurgent yellow fever: K. M. De Cock et al, "Epidemic Yellow Fever in Eastern Nigeria, 1986," The Lancet, March 19, 1986: 632; Jocelyn Thonnon et al, "Re-emergence of Yellow Fever in Senegal in 1995," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 113; Edward J. Sanders et al, "First Recorded Outbreak of Yellow Fever in Kenya, 1992-1993, I," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no.4 (1998): 648; N. Guerin et al, "[Expanded program of vaccination. Results and prospects]" Annales Médecine International (Paris) v. 149, no.6 (1998): 377-8; "Need for Vaccination Against Yellow Fever," Communicable Disease Report Wkly v.9, no. 33 (August 13,1999): 289, 292; Monath, "Yellow Fever", 29; Richard L. Guerrant, "Why America Must Care about Tropical Medicine: Threats to Global Health and Security from Tropical Infectious Diseases," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 11-14; Watts, Epidemics and History, 269-79.
99. Cuts in yellow fever surveillance and delays in including yellow fever into vaccination programs (the Expanded Program on Immunization, EPI) both in Africa and in South America under pressure from Western governments and the I.M.F. has left both Continents dangerously at risk from resurgent yellow fever: K. M. De Cock et al, "Epidemic Yellow Fever in Eastern Nigeria, 1986," The Lancet, March 19, 1986: 632; Jocelyn Thonnon et al, "Re-emergence of Yellow Fever in Senegal in 1995," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 113; Edward J. Sanders et al, "First Recorded Outbreak of Yellow Fever in Kenya, 1992-1993, I," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no.4 (1998): 648; N. Guerin et al, "[Expanded program of vaccination. Results and prospects]" Annales Médecine International (Paris) v. 149, no.6 (1998): 377-8; "Need for Vaccination Against Yellow Fever," Communicable Disease Report Wkly v.9, no. 33 (August 13,1999): 289, 292; Monath, "Yellow Fever", 29; Richard L. Guerrant, "Why America Must Care about Tropical Medicine: Threats to Global Health and Security from Tropical Infectious Diseases," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 11-14; Watts, Epidemics and History, 269-79.
100. Cuts in yellow fever surveillance and delays in including yellow fever into vaccination programs (the Expanded Program on Immunization, EPI) both in Africa and in South America under pressure from Western governments and the I.M.F. has left both Continents dangerously at risk from resurgent yellow fever: K. M. De Cock et al, "Epidemic Yellow Fever in Eastern Nigeria, 1986," The Lancet, March 19, 1986: 632; Jocelyn Thonnon et al, "Re-emergence of Yellow Fever in Senegal in 1995," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 113; Edward J. Sanders et al, "First Recorded Outbreak of Yellow Fever in Kenya, 1992-1993, I," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no.4 (1998): 648; N. Guerin et al, "[Expanded program of vaccination. Results and prospects]" Annales Médecine International (Paris) v. 149, no.6 (1998): 377-8; "Need for Vaccination Against Yellow Fever," Communicable Disease Report Wkly v.9, no. 33 (August 13,1999): 289, 292; Monath, "Yellow Fever", 29; Richard L. Guerrant, "Why America Must Care about Tropical Medicine: Threats to Global Health and Security from Tropical Infectious Diseases," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 11-14; Watts, Epidemics and History, 269-79.
101. Cuts in yellow fever surveillance and delays in including yellow fever into vaccination programs (the Expanded Program on Immunization, EPI) both in Africa and in South America under pressure from Western governments and the I.M.F. has left both Continents dangerously at risk from resurgent yellow fever: K. M. De Cock et al, "Epidemic Yellow Fever in Eastern Nigeria, 1986," The Lancet, March 19, 1986: 632; Jocelyn Thonnon et al, "Re-emergence of Yellow Fever in Senegal in 1995," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 113; Edward J. Sanders et al, "First Recorded Outbreak of Yellow Fever in Kenya, 1992-1993, I," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no.4 (1998): 648; N. Guerin et al, "[Expanded program of vaccination. Results and prospects]" Annales Médecine International (Paris) v. 149, no.6 (1998): 377-8; "Need for Vaccination Against Yellow Fever," Communicable Disease Report Wkly v.9, no. 33 (August 13,1999): 289, 292; Monath, "Yellow Fever", 29; Richard L. Guerrant, "Why America Must Care about Tropical Medicine: Threats to Global Health and Security from Tropical Infectious Diseases," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 11-14; Watts, Epidemics and History, 269-79.
102. Cuts in yellow fever surveillance and delays in including yellow fever into vaccination programs (the Expanded Program on Immunization, EPI) both in Africa and in South America under pressure from Western governments and the I.M.F. has left both Continents dangerously at risk from resurgent yellow fever: K. M. De Cock et al, "Epidemic Yellow Fever in Eastern Nigeria, 1986," The Lancet, March 19, 1986: 632; Jocelyn Thonnon et al, "Re-emergence of Yellow Fever in Senegal in 1995," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 113; Edward J. Sanders et al, "First Recorded Outbreak of Yellow Fever in Kenya, 1992-1993, I," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no.4 (1998): 648; N. Guerin et al, "[Expanded program of vaccination. Results and prospects]" Annales Médecine International (Paris) v. 149, no.6 (1998): 377-8; "Need for Vaccination Against Yellow Fever," Communicable Disease Report Wkly v.9, no. 33 (August 13,1999): 289, 292; Monath, "Yellow Fever", 29; Richard L. Guerrant, "Why America Must Care about Tropical Medicine: Threats to Global Health and Security from Tropical Infectious Diseases," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 11-14; Watts, Epidemics and History, 269-79.
103. Cuts in yellow fever surveillance and delays in including yellow fever into vaccination programs (the Expanded Program on Immunization, EPI) both in Africa and in South America under pressure from Western governments and the I.M.F. has left both Continents dangerously at risk from resurgent yellow fever: K. M. De Cock et al, "Epidemic Yellow Fever in Eastern Nigeria, 1986," The Lancet, March 19, 1986: 632; Jocelyn Thonnon et al, "Re-emergence of Yellow Fever in Senegal in 1995," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 113; Edward J. Sanders et al, "First Recorded Outbreak of Yellow Fever in Kenya, 1992-1993, I," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no.4 (1998): 648; N. Guerin et al, "[Expanded program of vaccination. Results and prospects]" Annales Médecine International (Paris) v. 149, no.6 (1998): 377-8; "Need for Vaccination Against Yellow Fever," Communicable Disease Report Wkly v.9, no. 33 (August 13,1999): 289, 292; Monath, "Yellow Fever", 29; Richard L. Guerrant, "Why America Must Care about Tropical Medicine: Threats to Global Health and Security from Tropical Infectious Diseases," American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene v. 59, no. 1 (1998): 11-14; Watts, Epidemics and History, 269-79.