Negotiated paths to nationhood: A comparison of Hungary and Romania in the early twentieth century

East European Politics and Societies

Volumn 14, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 497-528

  Barkey, Karen ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0040360840     PISSN: 08883254     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0888325400014003001     Document Type: Article

References (122)

1. Max Weber's discussion of the nation as based on "common political destiny" is at the root of such an understanding. See Max Weber, Economy and Society, 2 vols. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978); John Breuilly, Nationalism and the State, 2d ed. (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Rogers Brubaker, in Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, ch. 4; David D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998).
2. Max Weber's discussion of the nation as based on "common political destiny" is at the root of such an understanding. See Max Weber, Economy and Society, 2 vols. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978); John Breuilly, Nationalism and the State, 2d ed. (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Rogers Brubaker, in Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, ch. 4; David D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998).
3. Max Weber's discussion of the nation as based on "common political destiny" is at the root of such an understanding. See Max Weber, Economy and Society, 2 vols. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978); John Breuilly, Nationalism and the State, 2d ed. (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Rogers Brubaker, in Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, ch. 4; David D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998).
4. Max Weber's discussion of the nation as based on "common political destiny" is at the root of such an understanding. See Max Weber, Economy and Society, 2 vols. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978); John Breuilly, Nationalism and the State, 2d ed. (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Rogers Brubaker, in Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, ch. 4; David D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998).
5. Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism (New York: Macmillan Press, 1945); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in Eugene Kamenka, ed., Nationalism: The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1976), 12-36; Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Liah Greenfeld and Daniel Chirot, "Nationalism and Aggression," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 79-130; Charles A. Kupchan, ed., Nationalism and Nationalities in the New Europe (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995).
6. Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism (New York: Macmillan Press, 1945); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in Eugene Kamenka, ed., Nationalism: The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1976), 12-36; Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Liah Greenfeld and Daniel Chirot, "Nationalism and Aggression," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 79-130; Charles A. Kupchan, ed., Nationalism and Nationalities in the New Europe (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995).
7. Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism (New York: Macmillan Press, 1945); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in Eugene Kamenka, ed., Nationalism: The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1976), 12-36; Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Liah Greenfeld and Daniel Chirot, "Nationalism and Aggression," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 79-130; Charles A. Kupchan, ed., Nationalism and Nationalities in the New Europe (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995).
8. Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism (New York: Macmillan Press, 1945); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in Eugene Kamenka, ed., Nationalism: The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1976), 12-36; Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Liah Greenfeld and Daniel Chirot, "Nationalism and Aggression," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 79-130; Charles A. Kupchan, ed., Nationalism and Nationalities in the New Europe (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995).
9. Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism (New York: Macmillan Press, 1945); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in Eugene Kamenka, ed., Nationalism: The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1976), 12-36; Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Liah Greenfeld and Daniel Chirot, "Nationalism and Aggression," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 79-130; Charles A. Kupchan, ed., Nationalism and Nationalities in the New Europe (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995).
10. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992).
11. Brubaker, "Nationalizing States," 103.
12. Daniel Chirot, Modern Tyrants: The Power and Prevalence of Evil in Our Age (New York: Free Press, 1994); Anthony Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986).
13. Daniel Chirot, Modern Tyrants: The Power and Prevalence of Evil in Our Age (New York: Free Press, 1994); Anthony Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986).
14. Brubaker, "Nationalizing States," 90-93.
15. Bela Vago, "Fascism in Eastern Europe," in Walter Laqueur, ed., Fascism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), 229-53; Nicholas M. Nagy-Talavera, The Green Shirts and the Others: A History of Fascism in Hungary and Rumania (Stanford, Cal.: Hoover Institution Press, 1970). Slovakia's Hlinka party and Croatia's Ustasha movement have been considered secondary in importance and strength to the Arrow Cross in Hungary and Iron Guard in Romania. These former were partly the result of the dismemberment of their respective states, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, and hardly existed before the establishment of puppet regimes in these areas by the Germans.
16. Bela Vago, "Fascism in Eastern Europe," in Walter Laqueur, ed., Fascism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), 229-53; Nicholas M. Nagy-Talavera, The Green Shirts and the Others: A History of Fascism in Hungary and Rumania (Stanford, Cal.: Hoover Institution Press, 1970). Slovakia's Hlinka party and Croatia's Ustasha movement have been considered secondary in importance and strength to the Arrow Cross in Hungary and Iron Guard in Romania. These former were partly the result of the dismemberment of their respective states, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, and hardly existed before the establishment of puppet regimes in these areas by the Germans.
17. This is not to say that Jews in Romania were not hurt. Jews of Bukovina, Bessarabia, and Transnistria were massacred in the specific Romanian style of the Holocaust.
18. István Deák, The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians, 1848-1849 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979); István Deák, "The Revolution and the War of Independence, 1848-1849," in Peter Sugar, ed., A History of Hungary (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979), 209-34.
19. István Deák, The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians, 1848-1849 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979); István Deák, "The Revolution and the War of Independence, 1848-1849," in Peter Sugar, ed., A History of Hungary (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979), 209-34.
20. Deák, "Revolution," 215.
21. I take as an example Transylvania which, in the nineteenth century, was the region where the nationalist elite and movements were defining Romanian identity. As part of the Habsburg empire and later part of the Hungarian part of the Dual Monarchy, Transylvania was exposed to the main intellectual currents of the times. Both the French Revolution and the ideas of German Romanticism were known and discussed in the major capitals of the empire.
22. George F. Jewsbury, "Nationalism in the Danubian Principalities: 1800-1825 - A Reconsideration," East European Quarterly 13:3 (1979): 287-96.
23. Dan Berindei, "Economic Prerequisites for the Establishment of Independent Romania," East European Quarterly 22:1 (1988): 23-35.
24. Jewsbury, "Nationalism"; Daniel Chirot and K. Barkey, "States in Search of Legitimacy," International Journal of Comparative Sociology 24 (1983): 1-2.
25. Jewsbury, "Nationalism"; Daniel Chirot and K. Barkey, "States in Search of Legitimacy," International Journal of Comparative Sociology 24 (1983): 1-2.
26. Joshua Starr, "Jewish Citizenship in Rumania," Jewish Social Studies 3:1 (1941): 58.
27. By 1859, there were 118,000 Jews in Moldavia and 9,200, in Wallachia. In 1901, the population in both provinces had reached 201,000. In the urban areas, they represented two-fifths of 700,000 urban dwellers. (L.S. Stavrianos, The Balkans, 1815-1914, [New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1963], 484-85; Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts, 44).
28. By 1859, there were 118,000 Jews in Moldavia and 9,200, in Wallachia. In 1901, the population in both provinces had reached 201,000. In the urban areas, they represented two-fifths of 700,000 urban dwellers. (L.S. Stavrianos, The Balkans, 1815-1914, [New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1963], 484-85; Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts, 44).
29. Daniel Chirot, "Who Influenced Whom? Xenophobic Nationalism in Germany and Romania," in Roland Schoenfeld, ed., German and Southeastern Europe: Aspects of Relations in the Twentieth Century (Munich: Sudosteuropa-Gesellschaft, 58, 1997), 37-56; William O. Oldson, A Providential Anti-Semitism: Nationalism and Polity in Nineteenth Century Romania (Philadelphia, Pa.: The American Philosophical Society, 1991); Leon Volovici, Nationalist Ideology and Antisemitism: The Case of Romanian Intellectuals in the 1930s (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1992); Fritz Stern, Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichroder, and the Building of the German Empire (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977).
30. Daniel Chirot, "Who Influenced Whom? Xenophobic Nationalism in Germany and Romania," in Roland Schoenfeld, ed., German and Southeastern Europe: Aspects of Relations in the Twentieth Century (Munich: Sudosteuropa-Gesellschaft, 58, 1997), 37-56; William O. Oldson, A Providential Anti-Semitism: Nationalism and Polity in Nineteenth Century Romania (Philadelphia, Pa.: The American Philosophical Society, 1991); Leon Volovici, Nationalist Ideology and Antisemitism: The Case of Romanian Intellectuals in the 1930s (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1992); Fritz Stern, Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichroder, and the Building of the German Empire (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977).
31. Daniel Chirot, "Who Influenced Whom? Xenophobic Nationalism in Germany and Romania," in Roland Schoenfeld, ed., German and Southeastern Europe: Aspects of Relations in the Twentieth Century (Munich: Sudosteuropa-Gesellschaft, 58, 1997), 37-56; William O. Oldson, A Providential Anti-Semitism: Nationalism and Polity in Nineteenth Century Romania (Philadelphia, Pa.: The American Philosophical Society, 1991); Leon Volovici, Nationalist Ideology and Antisemitism: The Case of Romanian Intellectuals in the 1930s (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1992); Fritz Stern, Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichroder, and the Building of the German Empire (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977).
32. Daniel Chirot, "Who Influenced Whom? Xenophobic Nationalism in Germany and Romania," in Roland Schoenfeld, ed., German and Southeastern Europe: Aspects of Relations in the Twentieth Century (Munich: Sudosteuropa-Gesellschaft, 58, 1997), 37-56; William O. Oldson, A Providential Anti-Semitism: Nationalism and Polity in Nineteenth Century Romania (Philadelphia, Pa.: The American Philosophical Society, 1991); Leon Volovici, Nationalist Ideology and Antisemitism: The Case of Romanian Intellectuals in the 1930s (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1992); Fritz Stern, Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichroder, and the Building of the German Empire (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977).
33. Oldson, Providential Anti-Semitism, 96.
34. Ibid., 68.
35. Ibid., 71.
36. Starr, "Jewish Citizenship."
37. Henry L. Roberts, Rumania: Political Problems of an Agrarian State, (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1951).
38. There are different figures for the different nationalities in the Hungarian part of the Dual-Monarchy. In 1880 one estimate of the population was as follows: Magyars 6,403,687 (46.65 percent); Germans 1,869,877 (13.62 percent); Slovaks 1,845,442 (13.52 percent); Romanians 2,403,035 (17.50 percent); Serbs and Croats 631,995 (4.60 percent); Ruthenes 353,226 (2.57 percent); Others 211,336 (1.54 percent). (These are the statistics provided by A. Popovici in Die Vereinigten Staaten von Grossoesterreich, and used by Macartney [C.A. Macartney, National States and National Minorities (New York: Russell and Russell, 1968), 121]). More conservative estimates put the Magyar population at 5 million out of a total of 13 million (Oscar Jaszi, The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy [Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1929], 305). However, the differences are due mainly to the fact that some statistics include data from Croatia-Slavonia in the ethnic statistics and others do not.
39. There are different figures for the different nationalities in the Hungarian part of the Dual-Monarchy. In 1880 one estimate of the population was as follows: Magyars 6,403,687 (46.65 percent); Germans 1,869,877 (13.62 percent); Slovaks 1,845,442 (13.52 percent); Romanians 2,403,035 (17.50 percent); Serbs and Croats 631,995 (4.60 percent); Ruthenes 353,226 (2.57 percent); Others 211,336 (1.54 percent). (These are the statistics provided by A. Popovici in Die Vereinigten Staaten von Grossoesterreich, and used by Macartney [C.A. Macartney, National States and National Minorities (New York: Russell and Russell, 1968), 121]). More conservative estimates put the Magyar population at 5 million out of a total of 13 million (Oscar Jaszi, The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy [Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1929], 305). However, the differences are due mainly to the fact that some statistics include data from Croatia-Slavonia in the ethnic statistics and others do not.
40. Macartney, National States, 115.
41. Quoted in Macartney, National States, 118. Lajos Kossuth and his close advisers made similar pronouncements on many occasions. In one famous instance, Kossuth argued that "the state shall not extend its interference to more than is necessary to ensure the unity of the state" (Zoitan I. Toth, "The Nationality Problem in Hungary in 1848-1849," Acta Historica 4:1-3 [1955]; 241).
42. Quoted in Macartney, National States, 118. Lajos Kossuth and his close advisers made similar pronouncements on many occasions. In one famous instance, Kossuth argued that "the state shall not extend its interference to more than is necessary to ensure the unity of the state" (Zoitan I. Toth, "The Nationality Problem in Hungary in 1848-1849," Acta Historica 4:1-3 [1955]; 241).
43. Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford, Cal.: Stanford University Press, 1977).
44. Most critics of Hungarian nation-building focus on the infractions of the Nationality Law of 1868. This is an important focus since the nationalities were mobilized around issues of self-determination and language and therefore were not satisfied with the policies of nation-building. As a result they rejected them. They wanted much more, cultural and / or political autonomy or outright secession.
45. Iván T. Berend and György Ránki, The European Periphery and Industrialization 1780-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 70.
46. Andrew Janos in The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary provides an excellent argument for the growth of the Hungarian bureaucracy in this period, its congestion and the problems related to such growth. His statistics for the increase in the number of civil servants at this time are sobering: the national government inherited 16,000 officials from Austria at the Compromise. The growth was as follows. The bureaucracy employed 22,000 civil servants in 1872, and 119, 937 civil servants in 1910 (Andrew C. Janos, The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary: 1825-1945 [Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982], 94).
47. Andrew Janos in The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary provides an excellent argument for the growth of the Hungarian bureaucracy in this period, its congestion and the problems related to such growth. His statistics for the increase in the number of civil servants at this time are sobering: the national government inherited 16,000 officials from Austria at the Compromise. The growth was as follows. The bureaucracy employed 22,000 civil servants in 1872, and 119, 937 civil servants in 1910 (Andrew C. Janos, The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary: 1825-1945 [Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982], 94).
48. István Deák, "The Lost World of Budapest," The New York Review of Books, 16 March 1989, 21.
49. Ibid.
50. John Lukacs, Budapest 1900: A Historical Portrait of a City and Its Culture (New York: Grove Press, 1988), 102.
51. Thomas Spira, German-Hungarian Relations and the Swabian Problem: From Karolyi to Gömbös 1919-1936 (New York: East European Monographs and Columbia University Press, 1977).
52. Spira provides figures for the German language schools: in 1869 there were in Hungary 1,233 German-language elementary schools. By 1890 half of them were abolished, and by 1905 there were only 272 such schools (ibid., 8).
53. According to Janos: "while at the turn of the century 92.9% of all local officials, 95.6% of the ministerial bureaucracy, and 96.9% of all judges listed themselves as Magyars in the official census, an analysis of family names suggests that at least one-third of these, and almost half in the Ministry of Finance, were of non-Magyar origin, with their numbers steadily increasing from 1890 onward" (Janos, Politics, 112). These numbers may even be too conservative since many joining the bureaucracy Magyarized their names, making it difficult to accurately assess the numbers of Slovaks, Romanians, and others who willingly took part in the nationalization process.
54. The courts were neither as lenient as some argue nor as harsh on the nationalities as Robert Seton-Watson has led us to believe. Janos and others have made this argument as well. Although Seton-Watson, in Racial Problems in Hungary, has forcefully argued against the Hungarian state, the judiciary, and other institutions, the appendices where much of the data are located are less incriminating (See Robert Seton-Watson, Racial Problems in Hungary, appendix 10 [New York: Howard Fertig, 1972], 441-66; Janos, Politics, 103-5).
55. The courts were neither as lenient as some argue nor as harsh on the nationalities as Robert Seton-Watson has led us to believe. Janos and others have made this argument as well. Although Seton-Watson, in Racial Problems in Hungary, has forcefully argued against the Hungarian state, the judiciary, and other institutions, the appendices where much of the data are located are less incriminating (See Robert Seton-Watson, Racial Problems in Hungary, appendix 10 [New York: Howard Fertig, 1972], 441-66; Janos, Politics, 103-5).
56. The courts were neither as lenient as some argue nor as harsh on the nationalities as Robert Seton-Watson has led us to believe. Janos and others have made this argument as well. Although Seton-Watson, in Racial Problems in Hungary, has forcefully argued against the Hungarian state, the judiciary, and other institutions, the appendices where much of the data are located are less incriminating (See Robert Seton-Watson, Racial Problems in Hungary, appendix 10 [New York: Howard Fertig, 1972], 441-66; Janos, Politics, 103-5).
57. Kovacs says that between 1890 and 1910, 81 percent of the increase in the number of lawyers represented Jews (Maria M. Kovacs, The Politics of the Legal Profession in Interwar Hungary, The Institute on East Central Europe, Studies in Hungarian Social History 2 [New York: Columbia University, 1987], 6).
58. Kovacs, Politics of the Legal Profession.
59. György Lengyel, in his study The Hungarian Business Elite in Historical Perspective, does not really provide numbers for the participation of nationalities in these professions, but tells the stories of many Jews and Germans who moved through different professions. See György Lengyel, The Hungarian Business Elite in Historical Perspective, The Institute on East Central Europe, Studies in Hungarian Social History 1 (New York: Columbia University, 1987).
60. Deák, "Revolution," 187.
61. Toth, "Nationality Problem," 235-77; Jaszi, Dissolution; István Deák, "The Peculiarities of Hungarian Fascism," in Braham E. Randolph and Vago Bela, eds., The Holocaust in Hungary Forty Years Later (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 43-51; Deák, "Lost World," 21-25; István Deák, Hungary from 1918 to 1945, Occasional Papers of the Institute on East Central Europe (New York: Columbia University, 1989).
62. Toth, "Nationality Problem," 235-77; Jaszi, Dissolution; István Deák, "The Peculiarities of Hungarian Fascism," in Braham E. Randolph and Vago Bela, eds., The Holocaust in Hungary Forty Years Later (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 43-51; Deák, "Lost World," 21-25; István Deák, Hungary from 1918 to 1945, Occasional Papers of the Institute on East Central Europe (New York: Columbia University, 1989).
63. Toth, "Nationality Problem," 235-77; Jaszi, Dissolution; István Deák, "The Peculiarities of Hungarian Fascism," in Braham E. Randolph and Vago Bela, eds., The Holocaust in Hungary Forty Years Later (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 43-51; Deák, "Lost World," 21-25; István Deák, Hungary from 1918 to 1945, Occasional Papers of the Institute on East Central Europe (New York: Columbia University, 1989).
64. Toth, "Nationality Problem," 235-77; Jaszi, Dissolution; István Deák, "The Peculiarities of Hungarian Fascism," in Braham E. Randolph and Vago Bela, eds., The Holocaust in Hungary Forty Years Later (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 43-51; Deák, "Lost World," 21-25; István Deák, Hungary from 1918 to 1945, Occasional Papers of the Institute on East Central Europe (New York: Columbia University, 1989).
65. Toth, "Nationality Problem," 235-77; Jaszi, Dissolution; István Deák, "The Peculiarities of Hungarian Fascism," in Braham E. Randolph and Vago Bela, eds., The Holocaust in Hungary Forty Years Later (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 43-51; Deák, "Lost World," 21-25; István Deák, Hungary from 1918 to 1945, Occasional Papers of the Institute on East Central Europe (New York: Columbia University, 1989).
66. Katus and Hanák argue that between 1850 and 1910, 2 million non-Magyars were assimilated into the nation. Hanák provides figures for even more dramatic growth, between 1780 and 1914 when nearly 2.5 to 3 million non-Magyars became Magyarized. From among these, more than 1 million were Germans, over 700,000 Jews, and 500,000 Slovaks (quoted in István Deák, Hungary from 1918, 8-9). Again these numbers reflected more the twin processes of urbanization and assimilation. In fact, the ethnic composition ot the rural areas did not change dramatically in this period.
67. Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts, 9; Braham L. Randolph, "The Uniqueness of the Holocaust in Hungary," in Randolph and Bela, eds., Holocaust, 177-90.
68. Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts, 9; Braham L. Randolph, "The Uniqueness of the Holocaust in Hungary," in Randolph and Bela, eds., Holocaust, 177-90.
69. Deák, "Peculiarities," 46.
70. Ibid., see also Chirot, Modern Tyrants. O
71. Ibid., see also Chirot, Modern Tyrants. O
72. Zsuzsa L. Nagy, "Revolution, Counterrevolution, Consolidation, Part II," in Sugar, ed., History of Hungary, 314.
73. Germans made up 10 percent and Jews 6 percent of the population. Added to this were around 100,000 Slovaks left in Hungary.
74. Deák, Hungary; Péter Hanák, "Hungary on a Fixed Course: An Outline of Hungarian History 1918-1945," in Joseph Held, ed., The Columbia History of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia University Press), 164-204; György Szaraz, "The Jewish Question in Hungary: A Historical Retrospective," in Randolph and Bela, eds., Holocaust, 13-30; Nagy, "Revolution."
75. Deák, Hungary; Péter Hanák, "Hungary on a Fixed Course: An Outline of Hungarian History 1918-1945," in Joseph Held, ed., The Columbia History of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia University Press), 164-204; György Szaraz, "The Jewish Question in Hungary: A Historical Retrospective," in Randolph and Bela, eds., Holocaust, 13-30; Nagy, "Revolution."
76. Deák, Hungary; Péter Hanák, "Hungary on a Fixed Course: An Outline of Hungarian History 1918-1945," in Joseph Held, ed., The Columbia History of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia University Press), 164-204; György Szaraz, "The Jewish Question in Hungary: A Historical Retrospective," in Randolph and Bela, eds., Holocaust, 13-30; Nagy, "Revolution."
77. Deák, Hungary; Péter Hanák, "Hungary on a Fixed Course: An Outline of Hungarian History 1918-1945," in Joseph Held, ed., The Columbia History of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia University Press), 164-204; György Szaraz, "The Jewish Question in Hungary: A Historical Retrospective," in Randolph and Bela, eds., Holocaust, 13-30; Nagy, "Revolution."
78. Hanák, "Hungary on a Fixed Course," 175.
79. Randolph, "Uniqueness," 181.
80. Nagy, "Revolution," 314.
81. Hanák, "Hungary on a Fixed Course."
82. Janos, Politics.
83. Hanák, "Hungary on a Fixed Course," 181.
84. Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts, 145, 164.
85. Deák, Hungary.
86. Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts, 354.
87. Deák, "Peculiarities," 46.
88. Deák, Hungary; Nagy, "Revolution"; Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts; Tamas Hofer, "The 'Hungarian Soul' and the 'Historical Layers of National Heritage': Conceptualizations of Hungarian Folk Culture, 1880-1944," in Ivo Banac and Katherine Verdery, eds., National Character and National Ideology in Interwar Eastern Europe, (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 1995), 65-81.
89. Deák, Hungary; Nagy, "Revolution"; Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts; Tamas Hofer, "The 'Hungarian Soul' and the 'Historical Layers of National Heritage': Conceptualizations of Hungarian Folk Culture, 1880-1944," in Ivo Banac and Katherine Verdery, eds., National Character and National Ideology in Interwar Eastern Europe, (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 1995), 65-81.
90. Deák, Hungary; Nagy, "Revolution"; Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts; Tamas Hofer, "The 'Hungarian Soul' and the 'Historical Layers of National Heritage': Conceptualizations of Hungarian Folk Culture, 1880-1944," in Ivo Banac and Katherine Verdery, eds., National Character and National Ideology in Interwar Eastern Europe, (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 1995), 65-81.
91. Deák, Hungary; Nagy, "Revolution"; Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts; Tamas Hofer, "The 'Hungarian Soul' and the 'Historical Layers of National Heritage': Conceptualizations of Hungarian Folk Culture, 1880-1944," in Ivo Banac and Katherine Verdery, eds., National Character and National Ideology in Interwar Eastern Europe, (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 1995), 65-81.
92. Nagy "Revolution."
93. The tragedy of Bela Kun's Soviet Republic was only one that further reinforced the mistrust and envy of middle-class Jews. See Deák, "Peculiarities"; Deák, "Hungary," in Hans Rogger and Eugen Weber, eds., The European Right: A Historical Profile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965), 364-497.
94. The tragedy of Bela Kun's Soviet Republic was only one that further reinforced the mistrust and envy of middle-class Jews. See Deák, "Peculiarities"; Deák, "Hungary," in Hans Rogger and Eugen Weber, eds., The European Right: A Historical Profile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965), 364-497.
95. Randolph, "Uniqueness," 183; Deák, "Hungary."
96. Randolph, "Uniqueness," 183; Deák, "Hungary."
97. Hanák, "Hungary on a Fixed Course"; and Tibor Hajdu and Zsuzsa L. Nagy, "Revolution, Counterrevolution, Consolidation," in Sugar, ed., History of Hungary, 295-318.
98. Hanák, "Hungary on a Fixed Course"; and Tibor Hajdu and Zsuzsa L. Nagy, "Revolution, Counterrevolution, Consolidation," in Sugar, ed., History of Hungary, 295-318.
99. Ezra Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe between the World Wars (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983).
100. Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts, 30; Kurt W. Treptow, "Populism and Twentieth Century Romanian Politics," in Joseph Held, ed., Populism in Eastern Europe: Racism, Nationalism, and Society (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 197-218.
101. Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts, 30; Kurt W. Treptow, "Populism and Twentieth Century Romanian Politics," in Joseph Held, ed., Populism in Eastern Europe: Racism, Nationalism, and Society (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 197-218.
102. In Bukovina, Romania acquired Ukrainians, Jews, and Germans. Bessarabia brought in Ukrainians, Jews, and Russians. Transylavania was half Romanian; the rest of the population was Hungarian, German, and Jewish. See Irina Livezeanu, Cultural Politics in Greater Romania: Regionalism. Nation Building, and Ethnic Struggle, 1918-1950 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995).
103. Katherine Verdery, "National Ideology and National Character in Interwar Romania," in National Character, 103-33; Andrew C. Janos, "Modernization and Decay in Historical Perspective: The Case of Romania," in Kenneth Jowitt, ed., Social Change in Romania, 1860-1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), 72-116.
104. Katherine Verdery, "National Ideology and National Character in Interwar Romania," in National Character, 103-33; Andrew C. Janos, "Modernization and Decay in Historical Perspective: The Case of Romania," in Kenneth Jowitt, ed., Social Change in Romania, 1860-1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), 72-116.
105. Roberts, Rumania.
106. While Romania had 230,000 Jews before the war, this number increased to 767,000, making up 5 percent of the population of the new Romania (Volovici, Nationalist Ideology, 21).
107. Volovici, Nationalist Ideology, 44.
108. Chirot, "Who Influenced Whom?"
109. Volovici, Nationalist Ideology, 67.
110. Verdery, "National Ideology," 109.
111. Treptow, "Populism," 203.
112. Verdery, "National Ideology," 107.
113. Verdery provides other examples: "'intellectual' Nicolae Iorga (a historian) was briefly president of the Council of Ministers, philosopher and literary critic Titu Maiorescu was Minister of Education, as was sociologist Petre Andrei, economist Virgil Madgearu was Minister of Commerce and Industry, and a number of well-known figures from cultural life were members of parliament" (Verdery, "National Ideology," 107, n. 7).
114. Sorin Alexandrascu, "'Junimea': Discours Politique et Discours Culturel," in Libra: Études Roumaines offertes à Willem Noomen (Groningen: Presses de L'Université, 1983), 47-79.
115. Volovici, Nationalist Ideology; Livezeanu, Cultural Politics; Oldson, Providential Anti-Semitism.
116. Volovici, Nationalist Ideology; Livezeanu, Cultural Politics; Oldson, Providential Anti-Semitism.
117. Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts, 366-67; Mendelsohn, Jews, 188.
118. Nagy-Talavera, Green Shirts, 366-67; Mendelsohn, Jews, 188.
119. Joseph Rothschild, East Central Europe between the Two World Wars, (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974), 297.
120. Livezeanu, Cultural Politics.
121. Eugen Weber, "Introduction," and "France," in Rogger and Weber, eds., The European Right, 1-28, 71-127.
122. Livezeanu, Cultural Politics, 184.