When no news is good news: Inferring closure for news issues

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 77, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 760-787

  Metzger, Miriam J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040358986     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769900007700404     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. The author would like to thank Sheila Murphy, Ev Rogers, Lynn Miller, and Andrew Flanagin for their helpful comments on previous drafts of this article.
2. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (NY: Macmillan, 1922).
3. E. V. Long, "Editorial," Time, 31 January 1994, 3.
4. Anthony Downs, "Up and Down with Ecology - The 'Issue-Attention Cycle,'" The Public Interest 28 (1972): 38-50.
5. Maxwell McCombs and Jian-Hua Zhu, "Capacity, Diversity, and Volatility of the Public Agenda: Trends from 1954 to 1994," Public Opinion Quarterly 59 (winter 1995): 495-525; Craig Trumbo, Longitudinal Modeling of Public Issues: An Application of the Agenda-Setting Process to the Issue of Global Warming, Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs, no. 152 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, 1995); James Watt, Mary Mazza, and Leslie Snyder, "Agenda-Setting Effects of Television News Coverage and the Effects Decay Curve," Communication Research 20 (June 1993):408-435; Z. H. Zhu, "Issue Competition and Attention Distraction: A Zero-Sum Theory of Agenda-Setting," Journalism Quarterly 69 (winter 1993): 813-24.
6. Maxwell McCombs and Jian-Hua Zhu, "Capacity, Diversity, and Volatility of the Public Agenda: Trends from 1954 to 1994," Public Opinion Quarterly 59 (winter 1995): 495-525; Craig Trumbo, Longitudinal Modeling of Public Issues: An Application of the Agenda-Setting Process to the Issue of Global Warming, Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs, no. 152 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, 1995); James Watt, Mary Mazza, and Leslie Snyder, "Agenda-Setting Effects of Television News Coverage and the Effects Decay Curve," Communication Research 20 (June 1993):408-435; Z. H. Zhu, "Issue Competition and Attention Distraction: A Zero-Sum Theory of Agenda-Setting," Journalism Quarterly 69 (winter 1993): 813-24.
7. Maxwell McCombs and Jian-Hua Zhu, "Capacity, Diversity, and Volatility of the Public Agenda: Trends from 1954 to 1994," Public Opinion Quarterly 59 (winter 1995): 495-525; Craig Trumbo, Longitudinal Modeling of Public Issues: An Application of the Agenda-Setting Process to the Issue of Global Warming, Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs, no. 152 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, 1995); James Watt, Mary Mazza, and Leslie Snyder, "Agenda-Setting Effects of Television News Coverage and the Effects Decay Curve," Communication Research 20 (June 1993):408-435; Z. H. Zhu, "Issue Competition and Attention Distraction: A Zero-Sum Theory of Agenda-Setting," Journalism Quarterly 69 (winter 1993): 813-24.
8. Maxwell McCombs and Jian-Hua Zhu, "Capacity, Diversity, and Volatility of the Public Agenda: Trends from 1954 to 1994," Public Opinion Quarterly 59 (winter 1995): 495-525; Craig Trumbo, Longitudinal Modeling of Public Issues: An Application of the Agenda-Setting Process to the Issue of Global Warming, Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs, no. 152 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, 1995); James Watt, Mary Mazza, and Leslie Snyder, "Agenda-Setting Effects of Television News Coverage and the Effects Decay Curve," Communication Research 20 (June 1993):408-435; Z. H. Zhu, "Issue Competition and Attention Distraction: A Zero-Sum Theory of Agenda-Setting," Journalism Quarterly 69 (winter 1993): 813-24.
9. Jerome Bruner, Beyond the Information Given: Studies in the Psychology of Knowing (NY: W. W. Norton, 1973).
10. Gordon Allport and Lee Postman, The Basic Psychology of Rumor (NY: Russell & Russell, 1947), 400-401.
11. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
12. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
13. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
14. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
15. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
16. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
17. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
18. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
19. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
20. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
21. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
22. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
23. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
24. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
25. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
26. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
27. Valerie Abbott, John B. Black, and Edward E. Smith, "The Representation of Scripts in Memory," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (April 1985): 179-99; Susan A. Duffy, "Role of Expectations in Sentence Integration," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (April 1986): 208-219; Rebecca Fincher-Keefer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences in Situation Model Construction" Discourse Processes 16 (1993): 99-124; Arthur C. Graesser, Scott P. Robertson, and Patricia A. Anderson, "Incorporating Inferences in Narrative Representations: A Study of How and Why," Cognitive Psychology 13 (January 1981): 1-26; Dennis E. Keefe and Mark A. McDaniel, "Time Course and Durability of Predictive Inferences," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 446-63; Susan Kemper, "Filling in the Missing Links," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21 (February 1982): 94-107; Joseph P. Magliano, William B. Baggett, Brenda K. Johnson, and Arthur C. Graesser, "The Time Course in Which Causal Antecedent and Casual Consequence Inferences Are Generated," Discourse Processes 16 (January-June 1993): 35-53; Joseph P. Magliano, Katinka Dijkstra, and Rolf A. Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences While Viewing a Movie," Discourse Processes 22 (October-December 1996): 199-224; Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, "Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall," Cognitive Psychology 9 (January 1977): 111-51; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inferences About Predictable Events," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (January 1986): 82-91; Gail McCoon and Roger Ratcliff, "Inference During Reading," Psychological Review 99 (July 1992): 440-466; John D. Murray, Celia M. Klin, and Jerome L. Myers, "Forward Inferences in Narrative Text," Journal of Memory and Language 32 (August 1993): 464-73; George R. Potts, Janice M. Keenan, and Jonathan M. Golding, "Assessing the Occurrence of Elaborative Inferences: Lexical Decision Versus Naming," Journal of Memory and Language 27 (August 1988): 399-415; CollenM. Siefert, Scott P. Robertson, and John B. Black, "Types of Inferences Generated During Reading," Journal of Memory and Language 24 (August 1985): 405-422; Murray Singer and Fernanda Ferreira, "Inferring Consequences in Story Comprehension," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22 (August 1983): 37-448; Douglas A. Waring and Christy L. Kluttz, "Effects of Task on the Activation of Predictive Inferences," Psychological Reports 83 (December 1998): 1287-1296; Paul Whitney, Bill G. Ritchie, and Robert S. Crane, "The Effect of Foregrounding on Readers' Use of Predictive Inference," Memory & Cognition 20 (July 1992): 424-32.
28. Fincher-Keifer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences"; Richard J. Harris and Gregory E. Monaco, "Psychology of Pragmatic Implication: Information Processing Between the Lines," Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 107 (January-June 1978): 1-22; Jean M. Mandler, "A Code in the Node: The Use of a Story Schema in Retrieval," Discourse Processes 1 (1978): 14-35; David W. Nicholas and Tom Trabasso, "Toward a Taxonomy of Inferences for Story Comprehension," in Information Integration by Children, ed. F. Wilkening, J. Becker, and Tom Trabasso (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1980), 243-265; Lynne M. Reder, "The Role of Elaboration in the Comprehension and Retention of Prose: A Critical Review," Review of Educational Research 50 (spring 1980): 5-53; Shelley E. Taylor and J. Crocker, "Schematic Bases of Social Information Processing," in Social Cognition: The Ontario Symposium,vol. 1, ed. E. T. Higgins, C. P. Herman, and Mark P. Zanna (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum), 89-134; Tom Trabasso and David W. Nicholas, "Memory and Inferences in the Comprehension of Narratives" in Information Integration by Children, ed. Wilkening, Becker, and Trabasso, 215-41; Paul Whitney, "Psychological Theories of Elaborative Inferences: Implications for Schema-Theoretic Views of Comprehension," Reading Research Quarterly 22 (summer 1987): 300-310.
29. Fincher-Keifer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences"; Richard J. Harris and Gregory E. Monaco, "Psychology of Pragmatic Implication: Information Processing Between the Lines," Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 107 (January-June 1978): 1-22; Jean M. Mandler, "A Code in the Node: The Use of a Story Schema in Retrieval," Discourse Processes 1 (1978): 14-35; David W. Nicholas and Tom Trabasso, "Toward a Taxonomy of Inferences for Story Comprehension," in Information Integration by Children, ed. F. Wilkening, J. Becker, and Tom Trabasso (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1980), 243-265; Lynne M. Reder, "The Role of Elaboration in the Comprehension and Retention of Prose: A Critical Review," Review of Educational Research 50 (spring 1980): 5-53; Shelley E. Taylor and J. Crocker, "Schematic Bases of Social Information Processing," in Social Cognition: The Ontario Symposium,vol. 1, ed. E. T. Higgins, C. P. Herman, and Mark P. Zanna (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum), 89-134; Tom Trabasso and David W. Nicholas, "Memory and Inferences in the Comprehension of Narratives" in Information Integration by Children, ed. Wilkening, Becker, and Trabasso, 215-41; Paul Whitney, "Psychological Theories of Elaborative Inferences: Implications for Schema-Theoretic Views of Comprehension," Reading Research Quarterly 22 (summer 1987): 300-310.
30. Fincher-Keifer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences"; Richard J. Harris and Gregory E. Monaco, "Psychology of Pragmatic Implication: Information Processing Between the Lines," Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 107 (January-June 1978): 1-22; Jean M. Mandler, "A Code in the Node: The Use of a Story Schema in Retrieval," Discourse Processes 1 (1978): 14-35; David W. Nicholas and Tom Trabasso, "Toward a Taxonomy of Inferences for Story Comprehension," in Information Integration by Children, ed. F. Wilkening, J. Becker, and Tom Trabasso (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1980), 243-265; Lynne M. Reder, "The Role of Elaboration in the Comprehension and Retention of Prose: A Critical Review," Review of Educational Research 50 (spring 1980): 5-53; Shelley E. Taylor and J. Crocker, "Schematic Bases of Social Information Processing," in Social Cognition: The Ontario Symposium,vol. 1, ed. E. T. Higgins, C. P. Herman, and Mark P. Zanna (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum), 89-134; Tom Trabasso and David W. Nicholas, "Memory and Inferences in the Comprehension of Narratives" in Information Integration by Children, ed. Wilkening, Becker, and Trabasso, 215-41; Paul Whitney, "Psychological Theories of Elaborative Inferences: Implications for Schema-Theoretic Views of Comprehension," Reading Research Quarterly 22 (summer 1987): 300-310.
31. Fincher-Keifer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences"; Richard J. Harris and Gregory E. Monaco, "Psychology of Pragmatic Implication: Information Processing Between the Lines," Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 107 (January-June 1978): 1-22; Jean M. Mandler, "A Code in the Node: The Use of a Story Schema in Retrieval," Discourse Processes 1 (1978): 14-35; David W. Nicholas and Tom Trabasso, "Toward a Taxonomy of Inferences for Story Comprehension," in Information Integration by Children, ed. F. Wilkening, J. Becker, and Tom Trabasso (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1980), 243-265; Lynne M. Reder, "The Role of Elaboration in the Comprehension and Retention of Prose: A Critical Review," Review of Educational Research 50 (spring 1980): 5-53; Shelley E. Taylor and J. Crocker, "Schematic Bases of Social Information Processing," in Social Cognition: The Ontario Symposium,vol. 1, ed. E. T. Higgins, C. P. Herman, and Mark P. Zanna (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum), 89-134; Tom Trabasso and David W. Nicholas, "Memory and Inferences in the Comprehension of Narratives" in Information Integration by Children, ed. Wilkening, Becker, and Trabasso, 215-41; Paul Whitney, "Psychological Theories of Elaborative Inferences: Implications for Schema-Theoretic Views of Comprehension," Reading Research Quarterly 22 (summer 1987): 300-310.
32. Fincher-Keifer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences"; Richard J. Harris and Gregory E. Monaco, "Psychology of Pragmatic Implication: Information Processing Between the Lines," Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 107 (January-June 1978): 1-22; Jean M. Mandler, "A Code in the Node: The Use of a Story Schema in Retrieval," Discourse Processes 1 (1978): 14-35; David W. Nicholas and Tom Trabasso, "Toward a Taxonomy of Inferences for Story Comprehension," in Information Integration by Children, ed. F. Wilkening, J. Becker, and Tom Trabasso (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1980), 243-265; Lynne M. Reder, "The Role of Elaboration in the Comprehension and Retention of Prose: A Critical Review," Review of Educational Research 50 (spring 1980): 5-53; Shelley E. Taylor and J. Crocker, "Schematic Bases of Social Information Processing," in Social Cognition: The Ontario Symposium,vol. 1, ed. E. T. Higgins, C. P. Herman, and Mark P. Zanna (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum), 89-134; Tom Trabasso and David W. Nicholas, "Memory and Inferences in the Comprehension of Narratives" in Information Integration by Children, ed. Wilkening, Becker, and Trabasso, 215-41; Paul Whitney, "Psychological Theories of Elaborative Inferences: Implications for Schema-Theoretic Views of Comprehension," Reading Research Quarterly 22 (summer 1987): 300-310.
33. Fincher-Keifer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences"; Richard J. Harris and Gregory E. Monaco, "Psychology of Pragmatic Implication: Information Processing Between the Lines," Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 107 (January-June 1978): 1-22; Jean M. Mandler, "A Code in the Node: The Use of a Story Schema in Retrieval," Discourse Processes 1
34. Fincher-Keifer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences"; Richard J. Harris and Gregory E. Monaco, "Psychology of Pragmatic Implication: Information Processing Between the Lines," Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 107 (January-June 1978): 1-22; Jean M. Mandler, "A Code in the Node: The Use of a Story Schema in Retrieval," Discourse Processes 1 (1978): 14-35; David W. Nicholas and Tom Trabasso, "Toward a Taxonomy of Inferences for Story Comprehension," in Information Integration by Children, ed. F. Wilkening, J. Becker, and Tom Trabasso (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1980), 243-265; Lynne M. Reder, "The Role of Elaboration in the Comprehension and Retention of Prose: A Critical Review," Review of Educational Research 50 (spring 1980): 5-53; Shelley E. Taylor and J. Crocker, "Schematic Bases of Social Information Processing," in Social Cognition: The Ontario Symposium,vol. 1, ed. E. T. Higgins, C. P. Herman, and Mark P. Zanna (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum), 89-134; Tom Trabasso and David W. Nicholas, "Memory and Inferences in the Comprehension of Narratives" in Information Integration by Children, ed. Wilkening, Becker, and Trabasso, 215-41; Paul Whitney, "Psychological Theories of Elaborative Inferences: Implications for Schema-Theoretic Views of Comprehension," Reading Research Quarterly 22 (summer 1987): 300-310.
35. Fincher-Keifer, "The Role of Predictive Inferences"; Richard J. Harris and Gregory E. Monaco, "Psychology of Pragmatic Implication: Information Processing Between the Lines," Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 107 (January-June 1978): 1-22; Jean M. Mandler, "A Code in the Node: The Use of a Story Schema in Retrieval," Discourse Processes 1 (1978): 14-35; David W. Nicholas and Tom Trabasso, "Toward a Taxonomy of Inferences for Story Comprehension," in Information Integration by Children, ed. F. Wilkening, J. Becker, and Tom Trabasso (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1980), 243-265; Lynne M. Reder, "The Role of Elaboration in the Comprehension and Retention of Prose: A Critical Review," Review of Educational Research 50 (spring 1980): 5-53; Shelley E. Taylor and J. Crocker, "Schematic Bases of Social Information Processing," in Social Cognition: The Ontario Symposium,vol. 1, ed. E. T. Higgins, C. P. Herman, and Mark P. Zanna (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum), 89-134; Tom Trabasso and David W. Nicholas, "Memory and Inferences in the Comprehension of Narratives" in Information Integration by Children, ed. Wilkening, Becker, and Trabasso, 215-41; Paul Whitney, "Psychological Theories of Elaborative Inferences: Implications for Schema-Theoretic Views of Comprehension," Reading Research Quarterly 22 (summer 1987): 300-310.
36. Olla Findahl and Brigitta Hoijer, "Some Characteristics of News Memory and Comprehension," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 29 (fall 1985): 379-96; Doris Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Barrie Gunter, Poor Reception: Misunderstanding and Forgetting Broadcast News (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987); Hans Mathias Kepplinger and Gregor Daschmann, "Today's News-Tomorrow's Context: A Dynamic Model of News Processing," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 41 (fall 1997): 548-65; Michael A. Shapiro and Julia R. Fox, "Schema Intrusions in Memory for Mass Media Stories" (paper presented to the Information Systems Division of the International Communication Association annual conference, Chicago, IL, 1996); Robert H. Wicks and Dan G. Drew, "Learning from News: Effects of Message Consistency and Medium on Recall and Inference Making," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring 1991): 155-64.
37. Olla Findahl and Brigitta Hoijer, "Some Characteristics of News Memory and Comprehension," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 29 (fall 1985): 379-96; Doris Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Barrie Gunter, Poor Reception: Misunderstanding and Forgetting Broadcast News (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987); Hans Mathias Kepplinger and Gregor Daschmann, "Today's News-Tomorrow's Context: A Dynamic Model of News Processing," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 41 (fall 1997): 548-65; Michael A. Shapiro and Julia R. Fox, "Schema Intrusions in Memory for Mass Media Stories" (paper presented to the Information Systems Division of the International Communication Association annual conference, Chicago, IL, 1996); Robert H. Wicks and Dan G. Drew, "Learning from News: Effects of Message Consistency and Medium on Recall and Inference Making," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring 1991): 155-64.
38. Olla Findahl and Brigitta Hoijer, "Some Characteristics of News Memory and Comprehension," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 29 (fall 1985): 379-96; Doris Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Barrie Gunter, Poor Reception: Misunderstanding and Forgetting Broadcast News (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987); Hans Mathias Kepplinger and Gregor Daschmann, "Today's News-Tomorrow's Context: A Dynamic Model of News Processing," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 41 (fall 1997): 548-65; Michael A. Shapiro and Julia R. Fox, "Schema Intrusions in Memory for Mass Media Stories" (paper presented to the Information Systems Division of the International Communication Association annual conference, Chicago, IL, 1996); Robert H. Wicks and Dan G. Drew, "Learning from News: Effects of Message Consistency and Medium on Recall and Inference Making," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring 1991): 155-64.
39. Olla Findahl and Brigitta Hoijer, "Some Characteristics of News Memory and Comprehension," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 29 (fall 1985): 379-96; Doris Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Barrie Gunter, Poor Reception: Misunderstanding and Forgetting Broadcast News (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987); Hans Mathias Kepplinger and Gregor Daschmann, "Today's News-Tomorrow's Context: A Dynamic Model of News Processing," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 41 (fall 1997): 548-65; Michael A. Shapiro and Julia R. Fox, "Schema Intrusions in Memory for Mass Media Stories" (paper presented to the Information Systems Division of the International Communication Association annual conference, Chicago, IL, 1996); Robert H. Wicks and Dan G. Drew, "Learning from News: Effects of Message Consistency and Medium on Recall and Inference Making," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring 1991): 155-64.
40. Olla Findahl and Brigitta Hoijer, "Some Characteristics of News Memory and Comprehension," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 29 (fall 1985): 379-96; Doris Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Barrie Gunter, Poor Reception: Misunderstanding and Forgetting Broadcast News (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987); Hans Mathias Kepplinger and Gregor Daschmann, "Today's News-Tomorrow's Context: A Dynamic Model of News Processing," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 41 (fall 1997): 548-65; Michael A. Shapiro and Julia R. Fox, "Schema Intrusions in Memory for Mass Media Stories" (paper presented to the Information Systems Division of the International Communication Association annual conference, Chicago, IL, 1996); Robert H. Wicks and Dan G. Drew, "Learning from News: Effects of Message Consistency and Medium on Recall and Inference Making," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring 1991): 155-64.
41. Olla Findahl and Brigitta Hoijer, "Some Characteristics of News Memory and Comprehension," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 29 (fall 1985): 379-96; Doris Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Barrie Gunter, Poor Reception: Misunderstanding and Forgetting Broadcast News (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987); Hans Mathias Kepplinger and Gregor Daschmann, "Today's News-Tomorrow's Context: A Dynamic Model of News Processing," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 41 (fall 1997): 548-65; Michael A. Shapiro and Julia R. Fox, "Schema Intrusions in Memory for Mass Media Stories" (paper presented to the Information Systems Division of the International Communication Association annual conference, Chicago, IL, 1996); Robert H. Wicks and Dan G. Drew, "Learning from News: Effects of Message Consistency and Medium on Recall and Inference Making," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring 1991): 155-64.
42. Gunter, Poor Reception, 192.
43. Graber, Processing the News, 29.
44. Graber, Processing the News, 196. See also Kepplinger and Daschmann, "Today's News-Tomorrow's Context."
45. Graber, Processing the News, 196. See also Kepplinger and Daschmann, "Today's News-Tomorrow's Context."
46. Kepplinger and Daschmann, "Today's News-Tomorrow's Context."
47. W. Lance Bennett and Murray Edelman, "Toward a New Political Narrative," Journal of Communication 35 (fall 1985): 169.
48. Downs, "Up and Down."
49. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches (Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown Company, 1981).
50. Pamela J. Conover and Stanley Feldman, "The Role of Inference in the Perception of Political Candidates," in Political Cognition: The 19th Annual Symposium on Cognition, 127-58; Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and J. F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 171-90; Susan T. Fiske, Donald R. Kinder, and Michael W. Larter, "The Novice and the Expert: Knowledge-Based Strategies in Political Cognition," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 19 (July 1983): 381-400; Graber, Processing the News; David M. Sanbonmatsu, Frank R. Kardes, and Carol Sansome, "Remembering Less and Inferring More: Effects of Time of Judgment on Inferences About Unknown Attributes," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61 (October 1991): 546-54; Robert H. Wicks, "Schema Theory and Measurement in Mass Communication Research: Theoretical and Methodological Issues in News Information Processing," in Communication Yearbook 15, ed. Stanley Deetz (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1992), 115-45.
51. Pamela J. Conover and Stanley Feldman, "The Role of Inference in the Perception of Political Candidates," in Political Cognition: The 19th Annual Symposium on Cognition, 127-58; Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and J. F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 171-90; Susan T. Fiske, Donald R. Kinder, and Michael W. Larter, "The Novice and the Expert: Knowledge-Based Strategies in Political Cognition," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 19 (July 1983): 381-400; Graber, Processing the News; David M. Sanbonmatsu, Frank R. Kardes, and Carol Sansome, "Remembering Less and Inferring More: Effects of Time of Judgment on Inferences About Unknown Attributes," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61 (October 1991): 546-54; Robert H. Wicks, "Schema Theory and Measurement in Mass Communication Research: Theoretical and Methodological Issues in News Information Processing," in Communication Yearbook 15, ed. Stanley Deetz (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1992), 115-45.
52. Pamela J. Conover and Stanley Feldman, "The Role of Inference in the Perception of Political Candidates," in Political Cognition: The 19th Annual Symposium on Cognition, 127-58; Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and J. F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 171-90; Susan T. Fiske, Donald R. Kinder, and Michael W. Larter, "The Novice and the Expert: Knowledge-Based Strategies in Political Cognition," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 19 (July 1983): 381-400; Graber, Processing the News; David M. Sanbonmatsu, Frank R. Kardes, and Carol Sansome, "Remembering Less and Inferring More: Effects of Time of Judgment on Inferences About Unknown Attributes," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61 (October 1991): 546-54; Robert H. Wicks, "Schema Theory and Measurement in Mass Communication Research: Theoretical and Methodological Issues in News Information Processing," in Communication Yearbook 15, ed. Stanley Deetz (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1992), 115-45.
53. Pamela J. Conover and Stanley Feldman, "The Role of Inference in the Perception of Political Candidates," in Political Cognition: The 19th Annual Symposium on Cognition, 127-58; Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and J. F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 171-90; Susan T. Fiske, Donald R. Kinder, and Michael W. Larter, "The Novice and the Expert: Knowledge-Based Strategies in Political Cognition," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 19 (July 1983): 381-400; Graber, Processing the News; David M. Sanbonmatsu, Frank R. Kardes, and Carol Sansome, "Remembering Less and Inferring More: Effects of Time of Judgment on Inferences About Unknown Attributes," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61 (October 1991): 546-54; Robert H. Wicks, "Schema Theory and Measurement in Mass Communication Research: Theoretical and Methodological Issues in News Information Processing," in Communication Yearbook 15, ed. Stanley Deetz (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1992), 115-45.
54. Pamela J. Conover and Stanley Feldman, "The Role of Inference in the Perception of Political Candidates," in Political Cognition: The 19th Annual Symposium on Cognition, 127-58; Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and J. F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 171-90; Susan T. Fiske, Donald R. Kinder, and Michael W. Larter, "The Novice and the Expert: Knowledge-Based Strategies in Political Cognition," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 19 (July 1983): 381-400; Graber, Processing the News; David M. Sanbonmatsu, Frank R. Kardes, and Carol Sansome, "Remembering Less and Inferring More: Effects of Time of Judgment on Inferences About Unknown Attributes," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61 (October 1991): 546-54; Robert H. Wicks, "Schema Theory and Measurement in Mass Communication Research: Theoretical and Methodological Issues in News Information Processing," in Communication Yearbook 15, ed. Stanley Deetz (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1992), 115-45.
55. Pamela J. Conover and Stanley Feldman, "The Role of Inference in the Perception of Political Candidates," in Political Cognition: The 19th Annual Symposium on Cognition, 127-58; Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and J. F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 171-90; Susan T. Fiske, Donald R. Kinder, and Michael W. Larter, "The Novice and the Expert: Knowledge-Based Strategies in Political Cognition," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 19 (July 1983): 381-400; Graber, Processing the News; David M. Sanbonmatsu, Frank R. Kardes, and Carol Sansome, "Remembering Less and Inferring More: Effects of Time of Judgment on Inferences About Unknown Attributes," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61 (October 1991): 546-54; Robert H. Wicks, "Schema Theory and Measurement in Mass Communication Research: Theoretical and Methodological Issues in News Information Processing," in Communication Yearbook 15, ed. Stanley Deetz (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1992), 115-45.
56. Pamela J. Conover and Stanley Feldman, "The Role of Inference in the Perception of Political Candidates," in Political Cognition: The 19th Annual Symposium on Cognition, 127-58; Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and J. F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 171-90; Susan T. Fiske, Donald R. Kinder, and Michael W. Larter, "The Novice and the Expert: Knowledge-Based Strategies in Political Cognition," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 19 (July 1983): 381-400; Graber, Processing the News; David M. Sanbonmatsu, Frank R. Kardes, and Carol Sansome, "Remembering Less and Inferring More: Effects of Time of Judgment on Inferences About Unknown Attributes," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61 (October 1991): 546-54; Robert H. Wicks, "Schema Theory and Measurement in Mass Communication Research: Theoretical and Methodological Issues in News Information Processing," in Communication Yearbook 15, ed. Stanley Deetz (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1992), 115-45.
57. Fiske, Kinder, and Larter, "The Novice and the Expert."
58. Sanbonmatsu, Kardes, and Sansome, "Remembering Less and Inferring More."
59. Graber, Processing the News, 127.
60. Murray Edelman, "Contestable Categories and Public Opinion," Political Communication 10 (July-September 1993): 240.
61. Stanley Budner, "Intolerance for Ambiguity as a Personality Variable," Journal of Personality 30 (1962): 29-50; Arie W. Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics and Human Knowledge: Cognitive and Motivational Bases (NY: Plenum, 1989); A. P. MacDonald, "Revised Scale for Ambiguity Tolerance: Reliability and Validity," Psychological Reports 26 (June 1970): 791-98; Susan T. Rydell and Ephraim Rosen, "Measurement and Some Correlates of Need-Cognition," Psychological Reports 19 (1966): 139-65 ; Donna M. Webster and Arie W. Kruglanski, "Individual Differences in Need for Cognitive Closure," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (December 1994): 1049-1062.
62. Stanley Budner, "Intolerance for Ambiguity as a Personality Variable," Journal of Personality 30 (1962): 29-50; Arie W. Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics and Human Knowledge: Cognitive and Motivational Bases (NY: Plenum, 1989); A. P. MacDonald, "Revised Scale for Ambiguity Tolerance: Reliability and Validity," Psychological Reports 26 (June 1970): 791-98; Susan T. Rydell and Ephraim Rosen, "Measurement and Some Correlates of Need-Cognition," Psychological Reports 19 (1966): 139-65 ; Donna M. Webster and Arie W. Kruglanski, "Individual Differences in Need for Cognitive Closure," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (December 1994): 1049-1062.
63. Stanley Budner, "Intolerance for Ambiguity as a Personality Variable," Journal of Personality 30 (1962): 29-50; Arie W. Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics and Human Knowledge: Cognitive and Motivational Bases (NY: Plenum, 1989); A. P. MacDonald, "Revised Scale for Ambiguity Tolerance: Reliability and Validity," Psychological Reports 26 (June 1970): 791-98; Susan T. Rydell and Ephraim Rosen, "Measurement and Some Correlates of Need-Cognition," Psychological Reports 19 (1966): 139-65 ; Donna M. Webster and Arie W. Kruglanski, "Individual Differences in Need for Cognitive Closure," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (December 1994): 1049-1062.
64. Stanley Budner, "Intolerance for Ambiguity as a Personality Variable," Journal of Personality 30 (1962): 29-50; Arie W. Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics and Human Knowledge: Cognitive and Motivational Bases (NY: Plenum, 1989); A. P. MacDonald, "Revised Scale for Ambiguity Tolerance: Reliability and Validity," Psychological Reports 26 (June 1970): 791-98; Susan T. Rydell and Ephraim Rosen, "Measurement and Some Correlates of Need-Cognition," Psychological Reports 19 (1966): 139-65 ; Donna M. Webster and Arie W. Kruglanski, "Individual Differences in Need for Cognitive Closure," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (December 1994): 1049-1062.
65. Stanley Budner, "Intolerance for Ambiguity as a Personality Variable," Journal of Personality 30 (1962): 29-50; Arie W. Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics and Human Knowledge: Cognitive and Motivational Bases (NY: Plenum, 1989); A. P. MacDonald, "Revised Scale for Ambiguity Tolerance: Reliability and Validity," Psychological Reports 26 (June 1970): 791-98; Susan T. Rydell and Ephraim Rosen, "Measurement and Some Correlates of Need-Cognition," Psychological Reports 19 (1966): 139-65 ; Donna M. Webster and Arie W. Kruglanski, "Individual Differences in Need for Cognitive Closure," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (December 1994): 1049-1062.
66. Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics, 14.
67. Horace B. English and Ava C. English, A Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychological and Psychoanalytical Terms (NY: McKay, 1958); Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics; Arie W. Kruglanski, Donna M. Webster, and Adena Klem, "Motivated Resistance and Openness to Persuasion in the Presence or Absence of Prior Information," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (November 1993): 861-76; Webster and Kruglanski, "Individual Differences."
68. Horace B. English and Ava C. English, A Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychological and Psychoanalytical Terms (NY: McKay, 1958); Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics; Arie W. Kruglanski, Donna M. Webster, and Adena Klem, "Motivated Resistance and Openness to Persuasion in the Presence or Absence of Prior Information," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (November 1993): 861-76; Webster and Kruglanski, "Individual Differences."
69. Horace B. English and Ava C. English, A Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychological and Psychoanalytical Terms (NY: McKay, 1958); Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics; Arie W. Kruglanski, Donna M. Webster, and Adena Klem, "Motivated Resistance and Openness to Persuasion in the Presence or Absence of Prior Information," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (November 1993): 861-76; Webster and Kruglanski, "Individual Differences."
70. Horace B. English and Ava C. English, A Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychological and Psychoanalytical Terms (NY: McKay, 1958); Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics; Arie W. Kruglanski, Donna M. Webster, and Adena Klem, "Motivated Resistance and Openness to Persuasion in the Presence or Absence of Prior Information," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (November 1993): 861-76; Webster and Kruglanski, "Individual Differences."
71. Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics; Kruglanski, Webster, and Klem, "Motivated Resistance"; K. McPherson, "Opinion-Related Information Seeking: Personal and Siruational Variables," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 9 (March 1983): 116-24; Webster and Kruglanski, "Individual Differences."
72. Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics; Kruglanski, Webster, and Klem, "Motivated Resistance"; K. McPherson, "Opinion-Related Information Seeking: Personal and Siruational Variables," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 9 (March 1983): 116-24; Webster and Kruglanski, "Individual Differences."
73. Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics; Kruglanski, Webster, and Klem, "Motivated Resistance"; K. McPherson, "Opinion-Related Information Seeking: Personal and Siruational Variables," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 9 (March 1983): 116-24; Webster and Kruglanski, "Individual Differences."
74. Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics; Kruglanski, Webster, and Klem, "Motivated Resistance"; K. McPherson, "Opinion-Related Information Seeking: Personal and Siruational Variables," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 9 (March 1983): 116-24; Webster and Kruglanski, "Individual Differences."
75. Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; W. Russell Neuman, "Patterns of Recall Among Television News Viewers," Public Opinion Quarterly 40 (spring 1976): 115-23; W. Russell Neuman, Marion Just, and Ann Crigler, Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning (IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Vincent Price and John Zaller, "Who Gets the News? Alternative Measures of News Reception and Their Implications for Research," Public Opinion Quarterly 57 (summer 1993): 133-64; John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, The Main Source: Learning From Television News (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986); John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, "News Media Use and the Informed Public: A 1990s Update," Journal of Communication 46 (spring 1996): 129-35.
76. Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; W. Russell Neuman, "Patterns of Recall Among Television News Viewers," Public Opinion Quarterly 40 (spring 1976): 115-23; W. Russell Neuman, Marion Just, and Ann Crigler, Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning (IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Vincent Price and John Zaller, "Who Gets the News? Alternative Measures of News Reception and Their Implications for Research," Public Opinion Quarterly 57 (summer 1993): 133-64; John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, The Main Source: Learning From Television News (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986); John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, "News Media Use and the Informed Public: A 1990s Update," Journal of Communication 46 (spring 1996): 129-35.
77. Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; W. Russell Neuman, "Patterns of Recall Among Television News Viewers," Public Opinion Quarterly 40 (spring 1976): 115-23; W. Russell Neuman, Marion Just, and Ann Crigler, Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning (IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Vincent Price and John Zaller, "Who Gets the News? Alternative Measures of News Reception and Their Implications for Research," Public Opinion Quarterly 57 (summer 1993): 133-64; John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, The Main Source: Learning From Television News (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986); John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, "News Media Use and the Informed Public: A 1990s Update," Journal of Communication 46 (spring 1996): 129-35.
78. Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; W. Russell Neuman, "Patterns of Recall Among Television News Viewers," Public Opinion Quarterly 40 (spring 1976): 115-23; W. Russell Neuman, Marion Just, and Ann Crigler, Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning (IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Vincent Price and John Zaller, "Who Gets the News? Alternative Measures of News Reception and Their Implications for Research," Public Opinion Quarterly 57 (summer 1993): 133-64; John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, The Main Source: Learning From Television News (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986); John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, "News Media Use and the Informed Public: A 1990s Update," Journal of Communication 46 (spring 1996): 129-35.
79. Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; W. Russell Neuman, "Patterns of Recall Among Television News Viewers," Public Opinion Quarterly 40 (spring 1976): 115-23; W. Russell Neuman, Marion Just, and Ann Crigler, Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning (IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Vincent Price and John Zaller, "Who Gets the News? Alternative Measures of News Reception and Their Implications for Research," Public Opinion Quarterly 57 (summer 1993): 133-64; John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, The Main Source: Learning From Television News (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986); John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, "News Media Use and the Informed Public: A 1990s Update," Journal of Communication 46 (spring 1996): 129-35.
80. Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; W. Russell Neuman, "Patterns of Recall Among Television News Viewers," Public Opinion Quarterly 40 (spring 1976): 115-23; W. Russell Neuman, Marion Just, and Ann Crigler, Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning (IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Vincent Price and John Zaller, "Who Gets the News? Alternative Measures of News Reception and Their Implications for Research," Public Opinion Quarterly 57 (summer 1993): 133-64; John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, The Main Source: Learning From Television News (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986); John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, "News Media Use and the Informed Public: A 1990s Update," Journal of Communication 46 (spring 1996): 129-35.
81. Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; W. Russell Neuman, "Patterns of Recall Among Television News Viewers," Public Opinion Quarterly 40 (spring 1976): 115-23; W. Russell Neuman, Marion Just, and Ann Crigler, Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning (IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Vincent Price and John Zaller, "Who Gets the News? Alternative Measures of News Reception and Their Implications for Research," Public Opinion Quarterly 57 (summer 1993): 133-64; John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, The Main Source: Learning From Television News (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986); John P. Robinson and Mark Levy, "News Media Use and the Informed Public: A 1990s Update," Journal of Communication 46 (spring 1996): 129-35.
82. Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; Robinson and Levy, The Main Source; Robinson and Levy, "News Media Use."
83. Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; Robinson and Levy, The Main Source; Robinson and Levy, "News Media Use."
84. Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; Robinson and Levy, The Main Source; Robinson and Levy, "News Media Use."
85. Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; Robinson and Levy, The Main Source; Robinson and Levy, "News Media Use."
86. Christopher J. Bosso, "Setting the Agenda: Mass Media and the Discovery of Famine in Ethiopia," in Manipulating Public Opinion: Essays on Public Opinion as a Dependent Variable, ed. M. Margolis and G. A. Mauser (Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1989), 153-74; Everett M. Rogers and Soonbum Chang, "Media Coverage of Technology Issues: Ethiopian Drought of 1984, AIDS, Challenger, and Chernobyl," in Risky Business: Communicating Issues of Science, Risk, and Public Policy, ed. L. Wilkins and P. Patterson (NY: Greenwood Press, 1991): 75-96.
87. Christopher J. Bosso, "Setting the Agenda: Mass Media and the Discovery of Famine in Ethiopia," in Manipulating Public Opinion: Essays on Public Opinion as a Dependent Variable, ed. M. Margolis and G. A. Mauser (Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1989), 153-74; Everett M. Rogers and Soonbum Chang, "Media Coverage of Technology Issues: Ethiopian Drought of 1984, AIDS, Challenger, and Chernobyl," in Risky Business: Communicating Issues of Science, Risk, and Public Policy, ed. L. Wilkins and P. Patterson (NY: Greenwood Press, 1991): 75-96.
88. Rogers and Chang, "Media Coverage of Technology."
89. Bosso, "Setting the Agenda."
90. Gerald M. Kosicki, "Problems and Opportunities in Agenda-Setting Research," Journal of Communication 43 (spring 1993): 109.
91. Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; W. Gill Woodall, "Information-Processing Theory and Television News," in The Main Source: Learning from Television News, ed. John P. Robinson and Mark R. Levy (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986), 133-58.
92. Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; W. Gill Woodall, "Information-Processing Theory and Television News," in The Main Source: Learning from Television News, ed. John P. Robinson and Mark R. Levy (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986), 133-58.
93. Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; W. Gill Woodall, "Information-Processing Theory and Television News," in The Main Source: Learning from Television News, ed. John P. Robinson and Mark R. Levy (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986), 133-58.
94. Graber, Processing the News; Gunter, Poor Reception; Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; W. Gill Woodall, "Information-Processing Theory and Television News," in The Main Source: Learning from Television News, ed. John P. Robinson and Mark R. Levy (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986), 133-58.
95. Rogers and Chang, "Media Coverage of Technology," 75-76. See also Bosso, "Setting the Agenda"; Robert M. Press, "Reasons for Ethiopian Drought Will Not Go Away" Christian Science Monitor, 3 October 1989.
96. Rogers and Chang, "Media Coverage of Technology," 75-76. See also Bosso, "Setting the Agenda"; Robert M. Press, "Reasons for Ethiopian Drought Will Not Go Away" Christian Science Monitor, 3 October 1989.
97. Rogers and Chang, "Media Coverage of Technology," 75-76. See also Bosso, "Setting the Agenda"; Robert M. Press, "Reasons for Ethiopian Drought Will Not Go Away" Christian Science Monitor, 3 October 1989.
98. Bosso, "Setting the Agenda," 171.
99. Petty and Cacioppo, Attitudes and Persuasion, 132.
100. Lauren B. Alloy and Lyn Y. Abramson, "Judgment of Contingency in Depressed and Nondepressed Students: Sadder but Wiser?" Journal of Experimental Psychology 108 (December 1979): 441-85; Lauren B. Alloy and Lyn Y. Abramson, "Depressive Realism: Four Theoretical Perspectives," in Cognitive Processes in Depression, ed. Lauren B. Alloy (NY: Guilford, 1988), 223-65. Linda S. Ruehlman, Steven G. West, and Robert J. Pasahow, "Depression and Evaluative Schemata," Journal of Personality 53 (March 1985): 6-92; Shelley E. Taylor and David A. Armor, "Positive Illusions and Coping with Adversity," Journal of Personality 64 (December 1996):873-98. But see Ruby Ackermann and Robert J. DeRubeis, "Is Depressive Realism Real?" Clinical Psychology Review 11 (1991): 565-584, for a contrasting view.
101. Lauren B. Alloy and Lyn Y. Abramson, "Judgment of Contingency in Depressed and Nondepressed Students: Sadder but Wiser?" Journal of Experimental Psychology 108 (December 1979): 441-85; Lauren B. Alloy and Lyn Y. Abramson, "Depressive Realism: Four Theoretical Perspectives," in Cognitive Processes in Depression, ed. Lauren B. Alloy (NY: Guilford, 1988), 223-65. Linda S. Ruehlman, Steven G. West, and Robert J. Pasahow, "Depression and Evaluative Schemata," Journal of Personality 53 (March 1985): 6-92; Shelley E. Taylor and David A. Armor, "Positive Illusions and Coping with Adversity," Journal of Personality 64 (December 1996):873-98. But see Ruby Ackermann and Robert J. DeRubeis, "Is Depressive Realism Real?" Clinical Psychology Review 11 (1991): 565-584, for a contrasting view.
102. Lauren B. Alloy and Lyn Y. Abramson, "Judgment of Contingency in Depressed and Nondepressed Students: Sadder but Wiser?" Journal of Experimental Psychology 108 (December 1979): 441-85; Lauren B. Alloy and Lyn Y. Abramson, "Depressive Realism: Four Theoretical Perspectives," in Cognitive Processes in Depression, ed. Lauren B. Alloy (NY: Guilford, 1988), 223-65. Linda S. Ruehlman, Steven G. West, and Robert J. Pasahow, "Depression and Evaluative Schemata," Journal of Personality 53 (March 1985): 6-92; Shelley E. Taylor and David A. Armor, "Positive Illusions and Coping with Adversity," Journal of Personality 64 (December 1996):873-98. But see Ruby Ackermann and Robert J. DeRubeis, "Is Depressive Realism Real?" Clinical Psychology Review 11 (1991): 565-584, for a contrasting view.
103. Lauren B. Alloy and Lyn Y. Abramson, "Judgment of Contingency in Depressed and Nondepressed Students: Sadder but Wiser?" Journal of Experimental Psychology 108 (December 1979): 441-85; Lauren B. Alloy and Lyn Y. Abramson, "Depressive Realism: Four Theoretical Perspectives," in Cognitive Processes in Depression, ed. Lauren B. Alloy (NY: Guilford, 1988), 223-65. Linda S. Ruehlman, Steven G. West, and Robert J. Pasahow, "Depression and Evaluative Schemata," Journal of Personality 53 (March 1985): 6-92; Shelley E. Taylor and David A. Armor, "Positive Illusions and Coping with Adversity," Journal of Personality 64 (December 1996):873-98. But see Ruby Ackermann and Robert J. DeRubeis, "Is Depressive Realism Real?" Clinical Psychology Review 11 (1991): 565-584, for a contrasting view.
104. Lauren B. Alloy and Lyn Y. Abramson, "Judgment of Contingency in Depressed and Nondepressed Students: Sadder but Wiser?" Journal of Experimental Psychology 108 (December 1979): 441-85; Lauren B. Alloy and Lyn Y. Abramson, "Depressive Realism: Four Theoretical Perspectives," in Cognitive Processes in Depression, ed. Lauren B. Alloy (NY: Guilford, 1988), 223-65. Linda S. Ruehlman, Steven G. West, and Robert J. Pasahow, "Depression and Evaluative Schemata," Journal of Personality 53 (March 1985): 6-92; Shelley E. Taylor and David A. Armor, "Positive Illusions and Coping with Adversity," Journal of Personality 64 (December 1996):873-98. But see Ruby Ackermann and Robert J. DeRubeis, "Is Depressive Realism Real?" Clinical Psychology Review 11 (1991): 565-584, for a contrasting view.
105. Alloy and Abramson, "Judgment of Contingency," 479-80.
106. Ronnie Janoff-Bulman and Bernard Hecker, "Depression, Vulnerability, and World Assumptions," in Cognitive Processes in Depression, ed. Lauren B. Alloy (NY: Guilford, 1988), 177-92. See also Shelley E. Taylor, Positive Illusions (NY: Basic Books, 1989) for a review.
107. Ronnie Janoff-Bulman and Bernard Hecker, "Depression, Vulnerability, and World Assumptions," in Cognitive Processes in Depression, ed. Lauren B. Alloy (NY: Guilford, 1988), 177-92. See also Shelley E. Taylor, Positive Illusions (NY: Basic Books, 1989) for a review.
108. There may be another force operating to enhance a positivity bias in inferring closure for news issues that, ironically, stems from the media themselves. A common view of news coverage is that it focuses on the negative (e.g., social problems, crime, unemployment, disasters, etc.). If people perceive news coverage of issues and events to be largely negative in tone, then hearing no news about an issue may suggest that it is no longer a problem. In other words, while the positivity bias as a psychological defense mechanism may lead news consumers to believe that an issue must have been resolved in a positive way, a general negativity bias in how news covers issues might serve to reinforce that belief.
109. The 13 issues were: the environmental after-effects of the Persian Gulf war, problems with the Hubble space telescope, FDA approval of RU486, North Korea's development of a nuclear weapons program, global warming, cut in the Capital Gains tax, gang truce in Los Angeles, plight of the Kurds in Iraq, the Family Leave Bill, war between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the Brady Bill, famine in Somalia, and the civil war in Rwanda.
110. See Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Watt, Mazza, and Snyder, "Agenda-Setting Effects of Television News Coverage"; Harold G. Zucker, "The Variable Nature of News Media Influence" in Communication Yearbook 2, ed. B. R. Rubin (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1978), 225-246.
111. See Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Watt, Mazza, and Snyder, "Agenda-Setting Effects of Television News Coverage"; Harold G. Zucker, "The Variable Nature of News Media Influence" in Communication Yearbook 2, ed. B. R. Rubin (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1978), 225-246.
112. See Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics"; Watt, Mazza, and Snyder, "Agenda-Setting Effects of Television News Coverage"; Harold G. Zucker, "The Variable Nature of News Media Influence" in Communication Yearbook 2, ed. B. R. Rubin (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1978), 225-246.
113. Petty and Cacioppo, Attitudes and Persuasion. 44. Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics."
114. Petty and Cacioppo, Attitudes and Persuasion. 44. Findahl and Hoijer, "Some Characteristics."
115. All analyses were, however, re-run excluding anyone who indicated that they did not live in the United States at the time this study was conducted. Because no differences emerged, the analyses reported here include all 264 respondents.
116. R. W. Blood, "Unobtrusive Issues in the Agenda-Setting Role of the Press" (Ph.D. diss, Dissertation Abstracts International, 43, 01A, 1981); David Demers, Dennis Craff, Yang-Ho Choi, and Beth Pessin, "Issue Obtrusiveness and the Agenda-Setting Effects of national Network News," Communication Research 16 (December 1989): 793-812; Edna F. Einsiedel, K. L. Salomone, and F. P. Schneider, "Crime: Effects of Media Exposure and Personal Experience on Issue Salience," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1984): 942-49; Lasorsa and Wanta, "Effects of Personal, Interpersonal, and Media Experiences"; Watt, Mazza, and Snyder, "Agenda-Setting Effects of Television News Coverage."
117. R. W. Blood, "Unobtrusive Issues in the Agenda-Setting Role of the Press" (Ph.D. diss, Dissertation Abstracts International, 43, 01A, 1981); David Demers, Dennis Craff, Yang-Ho Choi, and Beth Pessin, "Issue Obtrusiveness and the Agenda-Setting Effects of national Network News," Communication Research 16 (December 1989): 793-812; Edna F. Einsiedel, K. L. Salomone, and F. P. Schneider, "Crime: Effects of Media Exposure and Personal Experience on Issue Salience," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1984): 942-49; Lasorsa and Wanta, "Effects of Personal, Interpersonal, and Media Experiences"; Watt, Mazza, and Snyder, "Agenda-Setting Effects of Television News Coverage."
118. R. W. Blood, "Unobtrusive Issues in the Agenda-Setting Role of the Press" (Ph.D. diss, Dissertation Abstracts International, 43, 01A, 1981); David Demers, Dennis Craff, Yang-Ho Choi, and Beth Pessin, "Issue Obtrusiveness and the Agenda-Setting Effects of national Network News," Communication Research 16 (December 1989): 793-812; Edna F. Einsiedel, K. L. Salomone, and F. P. Schneider, "Crime: Effects of Media Exposure and Personal Experience on Issue Salience," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1984): 942-49; Lasorsa and Wanta, "Effects of Personal, Interpersonal, and Media Experiences"; Watt, Mazza, and Snyder, "Agenda-Setting Effects of Television News Coverage."
119. R. W. Blood, "Unobtrusive Issues in the Agenda-Setting Role of the Press" (Ph.D. diss, Dissertation Abstracts International, 43, 01A, 1981); David Demers, Dennis Craff, Yang-Ho Choi, and Beth Pessin, "Issue Obtrusiveness and the Agenda-Setting Effects of national Network News," Communication Research 16 (December 1989): 793-812; Edna F. Einsiedel, K. L. Salomone, and F. P. Schneider, "Crime: Effects of Media Exposure and Personal Experience on Issue Salience," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1984): 942-49; Lasorsa and Wanta, "Effects of Personal, Interpersonal, and Media Experiences"; Watt, Mazza, and Snyder, "Agenda-Setting Effects of Television News Coverage."
120. R. W. Blood, "Unobtrusive Issues in the Agenda-Setting Role of the Press" (Ph.D. diss, Dissertation Abstracts International, 43, 01A, 1981); David Demers, Dennis Craff, Yang-Ho Choi, and Beth Pessin, "Issue Obtrusiveness and the Agenda-Setting Effects of national Network News," Communication Research 16 (December 1989): 793-812; Edna F. Einsiedel, K. L. Salomone, and F. P. Schneider, "Crime: Effects of Media Exposure and Personal Experience on Issue Salience," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1984): 942-49; Lasorsa and Wanta, "Effects of Personal, Interpersonal, and Media Experiences"; Watt, Mazza, and Snyder, "Agenda-Setting Effects of Television News Coverage."
121. See Kruglanski, Webster, and Klem, "Motivated Resistance" and Webster and Kruglanski, "Individual Differences."
122. See Kruglanski, Webster, and Klem, "Motivated Resistance" and Webster and Kruglanski, "Individual Differences."
123. Webster and Kruglanski, "Individual Differences," 1049.
124. Webster and Kruglanski, "Individual Differences."
125. One item was modified slightly from the original NFCS to make it more applicable to post-college age respondents. Item number 27 originally read "I think I would learn best in a class that lacks clearly stated objectives and requirements" and was changed to read "I think that I do best in a job that lacks clearly stated objectives and requirements."
126. See Kruglanski, Webster, and Klem, "Motivated Resistance."
127. See John Nunnally, Psychometric Theory (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1967).
128. As explained, the knowledge and personally affected by items were combined into one measure of issue involvement in this study based on theory, and because consistent positive correlations between the two variables and Cronbach's alpha coefficients provide evidence of scale reliability. Of course, these two concepts could be separable. In fact, it is reasonable to propose a causal path between them whereby the degree to which an issue personally affects someone influences how much he or she knows about that issue. Although it was outside the scope of the present study, the relationships between the exogenous variables should be investigated in future research on this topic.
129. Jacob Cohen and Patricia Cohen, Applied Multiple Regression/ Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, 2d ed. (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1983).
130. See Whitney, "Psychological Theories" for a review of elaborative inferences while reading.
131. The media usage data were collected, although not reported earlier, because they were not germane to the research hypotheses presented in this study. Respondents were asked to indicate how often they watch local and national news on television and how often they read a daily newspaper ranging from: "every day," "3-4 times a week," "1-2 times a week," "less often," and "never."
132. Magliano, Dijkstra, and Zwaan, "Generating Predictive Inferences."
133. Susan T. Fiske, "Schema-Based Versus Piecemeal Politics: A Patchwork Quilt, But Not a Blanket, of Evidence," in Political Cognition: The 19th Annual Carneige Symposium on Cognition, ed. Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1986), 41-53.
134. Interestingly, many respondents used a schema that was current in the media at the time the study was conducted in 1996. One common frame used by the media in their coverage of the escalating violence in Bosnia during 1996 was the "ethnic hatreds are deep seated" schema. Several respondents seemed to be using this schema to infer that the wars in Rwanda and Armenia/Azerbaijan, and the situation of the Kurds in Iraq were not resolved even though the media had stopped covering these conflicts. Some participants interpreted the war between Armenia and Azerbaijan in this context, saying such things as: "Since the breakup of the Soviet Union, old hatreds and blood feuds have become more commonplace," and "Tensions in a historical dispute don't often disappear." Another respondent said this about the events in Rwanda: "Fighting such as this will go on and has gone on for hundreds of years as old tribal hatreds come out and now there is a new generation that will have the same hatreds." Prior research has found that people interpret information about current events in the context of former events (Kepplinger and Daschmann, "Today's News-Tomorrow's Context"). These findings give rise to another possibility; that people retrospectively interpret former events in the context of information they are receiving about current events. This suggests a truly dynamic model of news processing whereby past and current events mutually inform one another.
135. The open-ended responses were not subjected to in-depth coding or content analysis for this study. However, simply whether each participant responded to the open-ended questions or not was recorded (0 = "no written response", 1 = "written response") and then tallied for each issue. Also, for those who did respond to the open-ended question, the frequency that respondents referred to prior news stories in their explanations of how each issue was resolved was noted.
136. See Watt, Mazza, and Snyder, "Agenda-Setting Effects of Television News Coverage."
137. Martin Linsky, Impact: How the Press Affects Federal Policy Making (NY: W. W. Norton, 1986); Harvey L. Molotch, David L. Protess, D. L., and M. T. Gordon, "The Media-Policy Connection: Ecologies of News," in Political Communication Research, ed. David Paletz (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1987), 26-48; Everett M. Rogers and James Dearing, "Agenda-Setting Research: Where Has it Been, Where is it Going?" in Communication Yearbook 11, ed. James A. Anderson (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1988), 555-94; Everett M. Rogers, Kevin McGilly, and Kelly M. McIntosh, "Diffusion of Innovations: How the Environment Got on the National Agenda," in Proceedings of the Symposium on Volunteers and Communication in National Resource Education, ed. S. H. Broderick and L. B. Snyder (East Windsor, CT, 24-26 October, 1990), 3-11; Trumbo, "Longitudinal Modeling of Public Issues."
138. Martin Linsky, Impact: How the Press Affects Federal Policy Making (NY: W. W. Norton, 1986); Harvey L. Molotch, David L. Protess, D. L., and M. T. Gordon, "The Media-Policy Connection: Ecologies of News," in Political Communication Research, ed. David Paletz (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1987), 26-48; Everett M. Rogers and James Dearing, "Agenda-Setting Research: Where Has it Been, Where is it Going?" in Communication Yearbook 11, ed. James A. Anderson (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1988), 555-94; Everett M. Rogers, Kevin McGilly, and Kelly M. McIntosh, "Diffusion of Innovations: How the Environment Got on the National Agenda," in Proceedings of the Symposium on Volunteers and Communication in National Resource Education, ed. S. H. Broderick and L. B. Snyder (East Windsor, CT, 24-26 October, 1990), 3-11; Trumbo, "Longitudinal Modeling of Public Issues."
139. Martin Linsky, Impact: How the Press Affects Federal Policy Making (NY: W. W. Norton, 1986); Harvey L. Molotch, David L. Protess, D. L., and M. T. Gordon, "The Media-Policy Connection: Ecologies of News," in Political Communication Research, ed. David Paletz (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1987), 26-48; Everett M. Rogers and James Dearing, "Agenda-Setting Research: Where Has it Been, Where is it Going?" in Communication Yearbook 11, ed. James A. Anderson (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1988), 555-94; Everett M. Rogers, Kevin McGilly, and Kelly M. McIntosh, "Diffusion of Innovations: How the Environment Got on the National Agenda," in Proceedings of the Symposium on Volunteers and Communication in National Resource Education, ed. S. H. Broderick and L. B. Snyder (East Windsor, CT, 24-26 October, 1990), 3-11; Trumbo, "Longitudinal Modeling of Public Issues."
140. Martin Linsky, Impact: How the Press Affects Federal Policy Making (NY: W. W. Norton, 1986); Harvey L. Molotch, David L. Protess, D. L., and M. T. Gordon, "The Media-Policy Connection: Ecologies of News," in Political Communication Research, ed. David Paletz (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1987), 26-48; Everett M. Rogers and James Dearing, "Agenda-Setting Research: Where Has it Been, Where is it Going?" in Communication Yearbook 11, ed. James A. Anderson (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1988), 555-94; Everett M. Rogers, Kevin McGilly, and Kelly M. McIntosh, "Diffusion of Innovations: How the Environment Got on the National Agenda," in Proceedings of the Symposium on Volunteers and Communication in National Resource Education, ed. S. H. Broderick and L. B. Snyder (East Windsor, CT, 24-26 October, 1990), 3-11; Trumbo, "Longitudinal Modeling of Public Issues."
141. Martin Linsky, Impact: How the Press Affects Federal Policy Making (NY:
142. Bosso, "Setting the Agenda"; Rogers and Chang, "Media Coverage of Technology."
143. Bosso, "Setting the Agenda"; Rogers and Chang, "Media Coverage of Technology."
144. James Dearing and Everett M. Rogers, Agenda-Setting (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 22.