Masculinities, IR and the 'gender variable': A cost-benefit analysis for (sympathetic) gender sceptics

Review of International Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 475-491

  Hooper, Charlotte ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0040318445     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210599004751     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. The author would like to thank the Economic and Social Science research Council for financial help during the research for this article, and also members of the International Politics Research Group at the University of Bristol for their helpful comments.
2. For example: Rebecca Grant, 'The Sources of Gender Bias in International Relations Theory', in Rebecca Grant and Kathleen Newland (eds.), Gender and International Relations (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1991), pp. 8-26; J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations (Oxford, 1992); V. Spike Peterson, 'Introduction', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.) Gendered States: Feminist (Re) Visions of International Relations Theory (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 1-64; Christine Sylvester, Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Postmodern Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
3. For example: Rebecca Grant, 'The Sources of Gender Bias in International Relations Theory', in Rebecca Grant and Kathleen Newland (eds.), Gender and International Relations (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1991), pp. 8-26; J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations (Oxford, 1992); V. Spike Peterson, 'Introduction', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.) Gendered States: Feminist (Re) Visions of International Relations Theory (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 1-64; Christine Sylvester, Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Postmodern Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
4. For example: Rebecca Grant, 'The Sources of Gender Bias in International Relations Theory', in Rebecca Grant and Kathleen Newland (eds.), Gender and International Relations (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1991), pp. 8-26; J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations (Oxford, 1992); V. Spike Peterson, 'Introduction', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.) Gendered States: Feminist (Re) Visions of International Relations Theory (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 1-64; Christine Sylvester, Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Postmodern Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
5. For example: Rebecca Grant, 'The Sources of Gender Bias in International Relations Theory', in Rebecca Grant and Kathleen Newland (eds.), Gender and International Relations (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1991), pp. 8-26; J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations (Oxford, 1992); V. Spike Peterson, 'Introduction', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.) Gendered States: Feminist (Re) Visions of International Relations Theory (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 1-64; Christine Sylvester, Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Postmodern Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
6. See Robert O. Keohane, 'International Relations Theory: Contributions of a Feminist Standpoint', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 18:2 (1989) pp. 245-50; on incorporating feminine qualities into IR, and the critical reply by Cynthia Weber, 'Good Girls, Little Girls and Bad Girls: Male Paranoia in Robert Keohane's Critique of Feminist International Relations', Millennium, 23:1 (1994), pp. 377-49.
7. See Robert O. Keohane, 'International Relations Theory: Contributions of a Feminist Standpoint', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 18:2 (1989) pp. 245-50; on incorporating feminine qualities into IR, and the critical reply by Cynthia Weber, 'Good Girls, Little Girls and Bad Girls: Male Paranoia in Robert Keohane's Critique of Feminist International Relations', Millennium, 23:1 (1994), pp. 377-49.
8. See Adam Jones, 'Does Gender Make the World go Round? Feminist Critiques of International Relations', in Review of International Studies, 22:4 (1996), pp. 405-30.
9. Keohane, 'International Relations Theory'; J. Ann Tickner 'You Just Don't Understand: Troubled Engagements Between Feminists and IR Theorists', unpublished paper given at the School of International Relations, University of Southern California, August 1996.
10. Keohane, 'International Relations Theory'; J. Ann Tickner 'You Just Don't Understand: Troubled Engagements Between Feminists and IR Theorists', unpublished paper given at the School of International Relations, University of Southern California, August 1996.
11. This question has occasionally been asked by feminists before, most often specifically in relation to soldiering and war. See for example Barbara Ehrenreich 'Foreword', in Klaus Theweleit, Male Fantasies, vol. 1. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. ix-xvii; Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); and Joanna Bourke, Dismembering the Male: Men's Bodies, Britain and the Great War (London, 1996). In more general terms the question remains relatively neglected, although it was raised recently by Marysia Zalewski and Cynthia Enloe in 'Questions about Identity in International Relations' in Ken Booth and Steve Smith (eds.), International Relations Theory Today (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995).
12. This question has occasionally been asked by feminists before, most often specifically in relation to soldiering and war. See for example Barbara Ehrenreich 'Foreword', in Klaus Theweleit, Male Fantasies, vol. 1. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. ix-xvii; Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); and Joanna Bourke, Dismembering the Male: Men's Bodies, Britain and the Great War (London, 1996). In more general terms the question remains relatively neglected, although it was raised recently by Marysia Zalewski and Cynthia Enloe in 'Questions about Identity in International Relations' in Ken Booth and Steve Smith (eds.), International Relations Theory Today (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995).
13. This question has occasionally been asked by feminists before, most often specifically in relation to soldiering and war. See for example Barbara Ehrenreich 'Foreword', in Klaus Theweleit, Male Fantasies, vol. 1. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. ix-xvii; Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); and Joanna Bourke, Dismembering the Male: Men's Bodies, Britain and the Great War (London, 1996). In more general terms the question remains relatively neglected, although it was raised recently by Marysia Zalewski and Cynthia Enloe in 'Questions about Identity in International Relations' in Ken Booth and Steve Smith (eds.), International Relations Theory Today (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995).
14. This question has occasionally been asked by feminists before, most often specifically in relation to soldiering and war. See for example Barbara Ehrenreich 'Foreword', in Klaus Theweleit, Male Fantasies, vol. 1. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. ix-xvii; Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); and Joanna Bourke, Dismembering the Male: Men's Bodies, Britain and the Great War (London, 1996). In more general terms the question remains relatively neglected, although it was raised recently by Marysia Zalewski and Cynthia Enloe in 'Questions about Identity in International Relations' in Ken Booth and Steve Smith (eds.), International Relations Theory Today (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995).
15. External to the relevant practices of international relations, that is. Of course as Kenneth Waltz argues, not everything that varies is a variable - nor are any variables truly independent of the theoretical perspectives in which they are embedded. See Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979), ch. 1.
16. Terms as used by Martin Hollis and Steve Smith, in Explaining and Understanding International Relations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990).
17. See for example Peter N. Stearns, Be a Man: Males in Modern Society (London: Holmes and Meier, 1979); J. A. Mangan and James Walvin (eds.), Manliness and Morality: Middle Class Masculinity in Britain and America 1800-1940 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987); Michael Roper and John Tosh (eds.), Manful Assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800 (London: Routledge, 1991); R. W. Connell, 'The Big Picture: Masculinities in Recent World History', Theory and Society, 22 (1993), pp. 579-623; Andrea Cornwall and Nancy Lindisfarne (eds.), Dislocating Masculinity: Comparative Ethnographies (London: Routledge, 1994); Harry Brod and Michael Kaufman (eds.), Theorizing Masculinities (London: Sage, 1994).
18. See for example Peter N. Stearns, Be a Man: Males in Modern Society (London: Holmes and Meier, 1979); J. A. Mangan and James Walvin (eds.), Manliness and Morality: Middle Class Masculinity in Britain and America 1800-1940 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987); Michael Roper and John Tosh (eds.), Manful Assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800 (London: Routledge, 1991); R. W. Connell, 'The Big Picture: Masculinities in Recent World History', Theory and Society, 22 (1993), pp. 579-623; Andrea Cornwall and Nancy Lindisfarne (eds.), Dislocating Masculinity: Comparative Ethnographies (London: Routledge, 1994); Harry Brod and Michael Kaufman (eds.), Theorizing Masculinities (London: Sage, 1994).
19. See for example Peter N. Stearns, Be a Man: Males in Modern Society (London: Holmes and Meier, 1979); J. A. Mangan and James Walvin (eds.), Manliness and Morality: Middle Class Masculinity in Britain and America 1800-1940 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987); Michael Roper and John Tosh (eds.), Manful Assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800 (London: Routledge, 1991); R. W. Connell, 'The Big Picture: Masculinities in Recent World History', Theory and Society, 22 (1993), pp. 579-623; Andrea Cornwall and Nancy Lindisfarne (eds.), Dislocating Masculinity: Comparative Ethnographies (London: Routledge, 1994); Harry Brod and Michael Kaufman (eds.), Theorizing Masculinities (London: Sage, 1994).
20. See for example Peter N. Stearns, Be a Man: Males in Modern Society (London: Holmes and Meier, 1979); J. A. Mangan and James Walvin (eds.), Manliness and Morality: Middle Class Masculinity in Britain and America 1800-1940 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987); Michael Roper and John Tosh (eds.), Manful Assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800 (London: Routledge, 1991); R. W. Connell, 'The Big Picture: Masculinities in Recent World History', Theory and Society, 22 (1993), pp. 579-623; Andrea Cornwall and Nancy Lindisfarne (eds.), Dislocating Masculinity: Comparative Ethnographies (London: Routledge, 1994); Harry Brod and Michael Kaufman (eds.), Theorizing Masculinities (London: Sage, 1994).
21. See for example Peter N. Stearns, Be a Man: Males in Modern Society (London: Holmes and Meier, 1979); J. A. Mangan and James Walvin (eds.), Manliness and Morality: Middle Class Masculinity in Britain and America 1800-1940 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987); Michael Roper and John Tosh (eds.), Manful Assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800 (London: Routledge, 1991); R. W. Connell, 'The Big Picture: Masculinities in Recent World History', Theory and Society, 22 (1993), pp. 579-623; Andrea Cornwall and Nancy Lindisfarne (eds.), Dislocating Masculinity: Comparative Ethnographies (London: Routledge, 1994); Harry Brod and Michael Kaufman (eds.), Theorizing Masculinities (London: Sage, 1994).
22. See for example Peter N. Stearns, Be a Man: Males in Modern Society (London: Holmes and Meier, 1979); J. A. Mangan and James Walvin (eds.), Manliness and Morality: Middle Class Masculinity in Britain and America 1800-1940 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987); Michael Roper and John Tosh (eds.), Manful Assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800 (London: Routledge, 1991); R. W. Connell, 'The Big Picture: Masculinities in Recent World History', Theory and Society, 22 (1993), pp. 579-623; Andrea Cornwall and Nancy Lindisfarne (eds.), Dislocating Masculinity: Comparative Ethnographies (London: Routledge, 1994); Harry Brod and Michael Kaufman (eds.), Theorizing Masculinities (London: Sage, 1994).
23. Sources: Stearns, Be a Man; Jean Bethke Elshtain, Public Man, Private Woman: Women in Social and Political Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981): Joan Cocks, The Oppositional Imagination: Feminism, Critique and Political Theory (London: Routledge, 1989); David H. J Morgan, Discovering Men (London: Routledge, 1992); Connell, 'The Big Picture'; Victor J. Seidler, 'Fathering, Authority and Masculinity', in Rowena Chapman and Johnathan Rutherford (eds.), Male Order: Unwrapping Masculinity (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1988), pp. 272-302. As both Seidler and Morgan argue, Weber's seminal work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism can be fruitfully read as a discussion of modern bourgeois masculinity.
24. Sources: Stearns, Be a Man; Jean Bethke Elshtain, Public Man, Private Woman: Women in Social and Political Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981): Joan Cocks, The Oppositional Imagination: Feminism, Critique and Political Theory (London: Routledge, 1989); David H. J Morgan, Discovering Men (London: Routledge, 1992); Connell, 'The Big Picture'; Victor J. Seidler, 'Fathering, Authority and Masculinity', in Rowena Chapman and Johnathan Rutherford (eds.), Male Order: Unwrapping Masculinity (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1988), pp. 272-302. As both Seidler and Morgan argue, Weber's seminal work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism can be fruitfully read as a discussion of modern bourgeois masculinity.
25. Sources: Stearns, Be a Man; Jean Bethke Elshtain, Public Man, Private Woman: Women in Social and Political Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981): Joan Cocks, The Oppositional Imagination: Feminism, Critique and Political Theory (London: Routledge, 1989); David H. J Morgan, Discovering Men (London: Routledge, 1992); Connell, 'The Big Picture'; Victor J. Seidler, 'Fathering, Authority and Masculinity', in Rowena Chapman and Johnathan Rutherford (eds.), Male Order: Unwrapping Masculinity (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1988), pp. 272-302. As both Seidler and Morgan argue, Weber's seminal work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism can be fruitfully read as a discussion of modern bourgeois masculinity.
26. Sources: Stearns, Be a Man; Jean Bethke Elshtain, Public Man, Private Woman: Women in Social and Political Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981): Joan Cocks, The Oppositional Imagination: Feminism, Critique and Political Theory (London: Routledge, 1989); David H. J Morgan, Discovering Men (London: Routledge, 1992); Connell, 'The Big Picture'; Victor J. Seidler, 'Fathering, Authority and Masculinity', in Rowena Chapman and Johnathan Rutherford (eds.), Male Order: Unwrapping Masculinity (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1988), pp. 272-302. As both Seidler and Morgan argue, Weber's seminal work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism can be fruitfully read as a discussion of modern bourgeois masculinity.
27. Sources: Stearns, Be a Man; Jean Bethke Elshtain, Public Man, Private Woman: Women in Social and Political Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981): Joan Cocks, The Oppositional Imagination: Feminism, Critique and Political Theory (London: Routledge, 1989); David H. J Morgan, Discovering Men (London: Routledge, 1992); Connell, 'The Big Picture'; Victor J. Seidler, 'Fathering, Authority and Masculinity', in Rowena Chapman and Johnathan Rutherford (eds.), Male Order: Unwrapping Masculinity (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1988), pp. 272-302. As both Seidler and Morgan argue, Weber's seminal work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism can be fruitfully read as a discussion of modern bourgeois masculinity.
28. Sources: Stearns, Be a Man; Jean Bethke Elshtain, Public Man, Private Woman: Women in Social and Political Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981): Joan Cocks, The Oppositional Imagination: Feminism, Critique and Political Theory (London: Routledge, 1989); David H. J Morgan, Discovering Men (London: Routledge, 1992); Connell, 'The Big Picture'; Victor J. Seidler, 'Fathering, Authority and Masculinity', in Rowena Chapman and Johnathan Rutherford (eds.), Male Order: Unwrapping Masculinity (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1988), pp. 272-302. As both Seidler and Morgan argue, Weber's seminal work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism can be fruitfully read as a discussion of modern bourgeois masculinity.
29. Sources: Stearns, Be a Man; Jean Bethke Elshtain, Public Man, Private Woman: Women in Social and Political Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981): Joan Cocks, The Oppositional Imagination: Feminism, Critique and Political Theory (London: Routledge, 1989); David H. J Morgan, Discovering Men (London: Routledge, 1992); Connell, 'The Big Picture'; Victor J. Seidler, 'Fathering, Authority and Masculinity', in Rowena Chapman and Johnathan Rutherford (eds.), Male Order: Unwrapping Masculinity (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1988), pp. 272-302. As both Seidler and Morgan argue, Weber's seminal work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism can be fruitfully read as a discussion of modern bourgeois masculinity.
30. Lynne Segal, Slow Motion: Changing Masculinities, Changing Men (London: Virago, 1990).
31. See Ole Waever, Barry Buzan, Morten Kelstrup and Pierre Lemaitre, Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe (London: Pinter, 1993), for a recent example.
32. Zalewski and Enloe, 'Questions about Identity'.
33. J. Ann Tickner, 'Identity in International Relations Theory: Feminist Perspectives', in Yosef Lapid and Friedrich Kratochwil (eds.), The Return of Culture and Identity in IR Theory (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1996), pp. 147-62.
34. Bob Connell, 'Masculinity, Violence and War' in Michael S. Kimmel and Michael A. Messner (eds.), Men's Lives (New York: Macmillan, 1989), p. 194. This figure allows for an estimated 2 million women in total armies of 22 million.
35. Ehrenreich, 'Introduction' in Male Fantasies, p. xvi (see fn.6 above).
36. David H. J Morgan, 'Theatre of War: Combat, the Military and Masculinities', in Brod and Kaufman, Theorizing Masculinities, p. 168.
37. Bourke, Dismembering the Male (see fn.6 above).
38. Quoted in ibid., pp. 15-16.
39. Ibid., pp. 178-80.
40. Ibid., p. 58.
41. Ibid., p. 56.
42. Theweleit, Male Fantasies (see fn. 6 above).
43. Ibid., pp. 385-438.
44. Enloe, The Morning After (see fn. 6 above).
45. Ibid., p. 79.
46. Cynthia Enloe, Ethnic Soldiers: State Security in a Divided Society (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1980).
47. A contemporary example that springs to mind is of Arab citizens of Israel, and of Palestinians in many other Arab countries.
48. Connell, 'Masculinity, Violence and War'.
49. Sources: Segal, Changing Masculinities, Chandra Talpade Mohanty, 'Introduction' in Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo and Lourdes Torres (eds.), Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991); Richard Fung, 'Burdens of Representation, Burdens of Responsibility' in Maurice Berger, Brian Wallis and Simon Watson (eds.), Constructing Masculinity (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 291-98.
50. Sources: Segal, Changing Masculinities, Chandra Talpade Mohanty, 'Introduction' in Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo and Lourdes Torres (eds.), Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991); Richard Fung, 'Burdens of Representation, Burdens of Responsibility' in Maurice Berger, Brian Wallis and Simon Watson (eds.), Constructing Masculinity (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 291-98.
51. Sources: Segal, Changing Masculinities, Chandra Talpade Mohanty, 'Introduction' in Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo and Lourdes Torres (eds.), Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991); Richard Fung, 'Burdens of Representation, Burdens of Responsibility' in Maurice Berger, Brian Wallis and Simon Watson (eds.), Constructing Masculinity (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 291-98.
52. David Jackson, Unmasking Masculinity (London: Routledge, 1990); Michael J. Shapiro 'The Sport/War Intertext' in James Der Derian and Michael J. Shapiro (eds.), International/Intertextual Relations: Postmodern Readings of World Politics (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1989), pp. 69-96.
53. David Jackson, Unmasking Masculinity (London: Routledge, 1990); Michael J. Shapiro 'The Sport/War Intertext' in James Der Derian and Michael J. Shapiro (eds.), International/Intertextual Relations: Postmodern Readings of World Politics (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1989), pp. 69-96.
54. Enloe, The Morning After, pp. 18-19.
55. David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992), p. 166.
56. Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men: American Dreams and the Flight from Commitment (London: Pluto Press, 1983).
57. Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men, p. 103.
58. Helen Kanitkar, '"Real True Boys", Moulding the Cadets of Imperialism' in Cornwall and Lindisfarne, Dislocating Masculinity, pp. 184-96; Graham Dawson, 'The Blond Bedouin: Lawrence of Arabia, imperial adventure and the imagining of English-British masculinity', in Roper and Tosh, Manful Assertions, pp. 113-44.
59. Helen Kanitkar, '"Real True Boys", Moulding the Cadets of Imperialism' in Cornwall and Lindisfarne, Dislocating Masculinity, pp. 184-96; Graham Dawson, 'The Blond Bedouin: Lawrence of Arabia, imperial adventure and the imagining of English-British masculinity', in Roper and Tosh, Manful Assertions, pp. 113-44.
60. James Der Derian, 'Spy Versus Spy: The Intertextual Power of International Intrigue' in Der Derian and Shapiro, International/Intertextual Relations, pp. 163-74.
61. Der Derian, 'Spy Versus Spy', p. 172.
62. Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men.
63. Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men, p. 104.
64. Advertisement for Omega watches. The Economist, 6/4/96, p. 4.
65. Discussed in the Independent on Sunday, 20/10/96, review p. 34.
66. The Economist, 9/9/95, p. 9.
67. Some of the arguments made in this section have been adapted from an earlier discussion in Charlotte Hooper 'Masculinist Practices and Gender Politics: the Operation of Multiple Masculinities in International Relations', in Marysia Zalewski and Jane Parpart, (eds.), The Man Question in IR (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997).
68. Robert O. Keohane, 'Realism, Neorealism and the Study of world Politics', in Robert O. Keohane (ed.), Neo-Realism and its Critics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), pp. 11-12.
69. E.g. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (see fn. 7 above).
70. Martin Wight, 'Why is there no International Theory' in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1966), p. 30.
71. Hollis and Smith, Explaining and Understanding.
72. See for example Barry Buzan, Charles Jones and Richard Little, The Logic of Anarchy : Neorealism to Structural Realism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
73. See for example, Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1988).
74. Will Kymlicka, Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Introduction (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990).
75. Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Relations (London: Pandora, 1990), p. 195.
76. See for example, Sandra Harding, The Science Question in Feminism (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1986).
77. Campbell, Writing Security.
78. Tickner, Gender in International Relations (see fn. 2 above).
79. The inscription of different masculinities into the discipline and the rivalries between them is discussed in more detail in Hooper 'Masculinist Practices and Gender Politics' (see fn. 44 above).
80. Some post-structuralist scholarship in IR may embody a new informal and playful but technocratic form of hegemonic masculinity associated with globalisation. See Hooper 'Masculinist practices and Gender Politics', and also Charlotte Hooper 'Hegemonic Masculinity in Transition: The Case of Globalization', in Marianne Marchand and Anne Sisson Runyan (eds.), Gender and Global Restructuring: Shifting Sights and Sightings (London: Routledge, forthcoming).
81. Some post-structuralist scholarship in IR may embody a new informal and playful but technocratic form of hegemonic masculinity associated with globalisation. See Hooper 'Masculinist practices and Gender Politics', and also Charlotte Hooper 'Hegemonic Masculinity in Transition: The Case of Globalization', in Marianne Marchand and Anne Sisson Runyan (eds.), Gender and Global Restructuring: Shifting Sights and Sightings (London: Routledge, forthcoming).
82. Pateman, The Sexual Contract; Kymlicka, Contemporary Political Philosophy. The position of women and children in families was devalued in classic liberal discussions of justice and freedom.
83. Which is why much feminist scholarship on international relations, which bridges these divides, is often seen as irrelevant. See Tickner, 'You Just Don't Understand'.
84. It has been argued that in societies where there is greater segregation of the sexes, there are generally more marked gender inequalities. See David Gilmore, Manhood in the Making (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990).
85. Terrell Carver, Molly Cochran and Judith Squires, 'Gendering Jones: Feminisms. IRs, Masculinities', Review of International Studies, 24:2 (1998), pp. 283-97.
86. Zillah Eisenstein, The Radical Future of Liberal Feminism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1981).
87. In which Campbell, for example, calls for a serious engagement with post-positivism. See Campbell, Writing Security.
88. See Zalewski and Enloe, 'Questions about Identity' (see fn. 6 above).
89. Yosef Lapid, 'Culture's Ship: Returns and Departures in International Relations Theory', in Lapid and Kratochwil, The Return of Culture and Identity (see fn. 14 above), p. 3.
90. Lapid, 'Cultures Ship', p. 7.
91. See Alexander Wendt, 'Anarchy is what states make of it: the social construction of power politics', in International Organisation, 46, 2 (1992), pp. 391-425; and the debate in Lapid and Kratochwil, The Return of Culture and Identity. Wendt divides constructivists into modern and post-modern varieties. However Wendt's own (modern) constructivism leans problematically towards an overly deterministic structuralism which, while avoiding some of the problems of methodological individualism, can only examine one direction of influence in the two-way traffic between identity construction and international relations.
92. See Alexander Wendt, 'Anarchy is what states make of it: the social construction of power politics', in International Organisation, 46, 2 (1992), pp. 391-425; and the debate in Lapid and Kratochwil, The Return of Culture and Identity. Wendt divides constructivists into modern and post-modern varieties. However Wendt's own (modern) constructivism leans problematically towards an overly deterministic structuralism which, while avoiding some of the problems of methodological individualism, can only examine one direction of influence in the two-way traffic between identity construction and international relations.
93. Tickner 'Identity in International Relations Theory'.
94. In feminist literature at least, such debates have been articulated with reference to the need for applied research agendas. See Harding, The Science Question.