Parliamentary government with a strong president: The post-1989 Turkish experience

Political Science Quarterly

Volumn 111, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 483-502

  Heper, Metin ^a   Çinar, Menderes ^b  

^a BILKENT UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040304682     PISSN: 00323195     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2151972     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. Juan J. Linz, "The Perils of Presidentialism," Journal of Democracy 1 (Winter 1990): 51-69; Linz, "The Virtues of Parliamentarism," Journal of Democracy 1 (Fall 1990): 84-91.
2. Juan J. Linz, "The Perils of Presidentialism," Journal of Democracy 1 (Winter 1990): 51-69; Linz, "The Virtues of Parliamentarism," Journal of Democracy 1 (Fall 1990): 84-91.
3. Donald L. Horowitz, "Comparing Democratic Systems," Journal of Democracy, 1 (Winter 1990): 73-79; Seymour Martin Lipset, "The Centrality of Political Culture," Journal of Democracy 1 (Winter 1990): 80-83.
4. Donald L. Horowitz, "Comparing Democratic Systems," Journal of Democracy, 1 (Winter 1990): 73-79; Seymour Martin Lipset, "The Centrality of Political Culture," Journal of Democracy 1 (Winter 1990): 80-83.
5. Giovanni Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited, Part One: The Contemporary Debate (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House Publishers, 1987), 131-132.
6. This point has been overlooked not only by Juan J. Linz and his detractors vis-à-vis the question of the presidentialism versus parliamentarianism but also by the proponents of the "Transitions" project, who have placed emphasis on the skillfulness of political actors to bring about a gradual and controlled regime change. See Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 4 vols. For an elaboration, see Metin Heper, "Transitions to Democracy Reconsidered: A Historical Perspective," in Dankwart A. Rustow and Kenneth Paul Erickson, eds., Comparative Political Dynamics: Global Research Perspectives (New York: HarperCollins, 1991).
7. This point has been overlooked not only by Juan J. Linz and his detractors vis-à-vis the question of the presidentialism versus parliamentarianism but also by the proponents of the "Transitions" project, who have placed emphasis on the skillfulness of political actors to bring about a gradual and controlled regime change. See Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 4 vols. For an elaboration, see Metin Heper, "Transitions to Democracy Reconsidered: A Historical Perspective," in Dankwart A. Rustow and Kenneth Paul Erickson, eds., Comparative Political Dynamics: Global Research Perspectives (New York: HarperCollins, 1991).
8. Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968).
9. Linz, "The Virtues of Parliamentarism," 85.
10. The idea of "mixed" constitutions goes back to Aristotle. Closer to our time, Montesquieu denounced despotism and preferred a constitutional monarchy, that is, a mixture of the republican and monarchial forms. See Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), 43-50. An historical example is the "constitutional dualism" of the Bismarckian Reich of the late nineteenth century that combined a concession to the democratic norm with a commitment to the monarchical principle. See Gordon Smith, Democracy in Western Germany: Parties and Politics in the Federal Republic (London: Heineman, 1979), 10.
11. The idea of "mixed" constitutions goes back to Aristotle. Closer to our time, Montesquieu denounced despotism and preferred a constitutional monarchy, that is, a mixture of the republican and monarchial forms. See Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), 43-50. An historical example is the "constitutional dualism" of the Bismarckian Reich of the late nineteenth century that combined a concession to the democratic norm with a commitment to the monarchical principle. See Gordon Smith, Democracy in Western Germany: Parties and Politics in the Federal Republic (London: Heineman, 1979), 10.
12. Lowell G. Nooman, France: The Politics of Continuity and Change (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), 98.
13. Renate Mayntz, "Executive Leadership in Germany: Dispersion of Power or 'Kanzlerdemokratie'? in Richard Rose and Ezra N. Suleiman, eds., Presidents and Prime Ministers (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Research, 1981), 147.
14. Jean V. Poulard, "The French Double Executive and the Experience of Cohabitation," Political Science Quarterly 105 (Summer 1990): 243-267.
15. John A. Rohr, "Executive Power and Republican Principles at the Founding of the Fifth Republic," Governance 7 (April 1994): 113.
16. Mayntz, "Executive Leadership in Germany," 140.
17. Nevil Johnson, Government in the Federal Republic of Germany: The Executive at Work (Oxford, England: Pergamon Press, 1973), 27.
18. Mayntz, "Executive Leadership in Germany," 147.
19. Arnold J. Heidenheimer, The Government of Germany (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1971), 156.
20. Anne Stevens, The Government and Politics of France (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), 39.
21. Ibid., 61.
22. Ezra N. Suleiman, "Presidential Government in France" in Rose and Suleiman, eds., Presidents and Prime Ministers, 106. Also see Jack Hayward, "From Republican Sovereign to Partisan Statesman" in Jack Hayward, ed., De Gaulle to Mitterand: Presidential Power in France (New York: New York University Press, 1993); and Harvey B. Feigenbaum, "Recent Evolution of the French Executive," Governance 3 (July 1990): 264-278.
23. Ezra N. Suleiman, "Presidential Government in France" in Rose and Suleiman, eds., Presidents and Prime Ministers, 106. Also see Jack Hayward, "From Republican Sovereign to Partisan Statesman" in Jack Hayward, ed., De Gaulle to Mitterand: Presidential Power in France (New York: New York University Press, 1993); and Harvey B. Feigenbaum, "Recent Evolution of the French Executive," Governance 3 (July 1990): 264-278.
24. Ezra N. Suleiman, "Presidential Government in France" in Rose and Suleiman, eds., Presidents and Prime Ministers, 106. Also see Jack Hayward, "From Republican Sovereign to Partisan Statesman" in Jack Hayward, ed., De Gaulle to Mitterand: Presidential Power in France (New York: New York University Press, 1993); and Harvey B. Feigenbaum, "Recent Evolution of the French Executive," Governance 3 (July 1990): 264-278.
25. Stanford J. Shaw, "Some Aspects of the Aims and Achievements of the Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Reformers," in William P. Polk and Richard L. Chambers, eds., Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1968); Roderic H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963).
26. Stanford J. Shaw, "Some Aspects of the Aims and Achievements of the Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Reformers," in William P. Polk and Richard L. Chambers, eds., Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1968); Roderic H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963).
27. Feroz Ahmad, The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908-1914 (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1969), chaps. 6 and 7.
28. Metin Heper, The State Tradition in Turkey (Walkington, U.K.: The Eothen Press, 1985), chap. 4; on "rational democracy," we draw upon Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited, Part Two: Classical Issues, 51-55.
29. Metin Heper, The State Tradition in Turkey (Walkington, U.K.: The Eothen Press, 1985), chap. 4; on "rational democracy," we draw upon Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited, Part Two: Classical Issues, 51-55.
30. Heper, The State Tradition in Turkey, 78.
31. Ibid., chaps. 4 and 5.
32. Füruzan Tekil, İnönü Menderes Kavgasi (Istanbul: Tekin Nesriyat, 1989).
33. Metin Heper, "The Strong State as a Problem for the Consolidation of Democracy: Turkey and Germany Compared," Comparative Political Studies 25 (July 1992): 186.
34. Heper, The State Tradition in Turkey, 89.
35. Metin Heper, "Turkish Democracy Reconsidered; Illusion Breeding Disillusion" in Heiko Körner and Rasual Shams, eds., Institutional Aspects of Economic Integration of Turkey into the European Community (Hamburg: Verlag Weltarchiv G.MBH, 1990).
36. C. H. Dodd, The Crisis of Turkish Democracy, enlarged second edition (Huntingdon, U.K.: The Eothen Press, 1990), 45-48. First published in 1983.
37. Metin Heper, "The State, the Military and Democracy in Turkey," Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 9 (September 1987): 52-64. According to the 1982 Constitution, the Council of Ministers is obliged to "give priority consideration to the decisions of the NSC concerning the measures that it deems necessary for the preservation of the existence and independent of the state, the integrity and indivisibility of the country, and the peace and security of society" (Article 118).
38. Ergun Özbudun, "The Status of the President of the Republic under the Constitution of 1982: Presidentialism or Parliamentarism?" in Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin, eds., State, Democracy and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1988), 37.
39. C. H. Dodd, "Political Modernization, the State, and Democracy: Approaches to the Study of Politics in Turkey" in ibid., 20.
40. Özbudun, "The Status of the President of the Republic under the Constitution of 1982," 42-43.
41. Ibid., 43.
42. Douglas E. Ashford, Policy and Politics in France: Living with Uncertainty (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982), 19ff.
43. Kemal H. Karpat, "Military Interventions: Army-Civilian Relations in Turkey Before and After 1980" in Heper and Evin, eds., State, Democracy and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s, 152.
44. Çiǧdem Kaǧitçibaşi, "Social Norms and Authoritarianism: A Comparison of Turkish and American Adolescents," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16 (1970): 444-451.
45. Frederick W. Frey, The Turkish Political Elite (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1965).
46. For Evren presidency, see Metin Heper, "The Executive in the Third Turkish Republic, 1982-1989," Governance 3 (July 1990): 299-314; C. H. Dodd, "Kenan Evren as President: From Conflict to Compromise" in Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin, eds., Politics in the Third Turkish Republic (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994).
47. For Evren presidency, see Metin Heper, "The Executive in the Third Turkish Republic, 1982-1989," Governance 3 (July 1990): 299-314; C. H. Dodd, "Kenan Evren as President: From Conflict to Compromise" in Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin, eds., Politics in the Third Turkish Republic (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994).
48. He, for instance, mentioned this mission of his at the presidential oath-taking ceremony on 19 November 1989.
49. Cumhurbaşkani Turgut Özal'in Türkiye'miz, Dünya ve Gelecek Konulu Konuşmalari, Ankara, 1990, booklet compiled by the President's Office, 22.
50. Heper, "Turgut Özal's Presidency: Crisis and the Glimmerings of Consensus" in Heper and Evin, eds., Politics in the Third Turkish Republic, 194.
51. Milliyet, (Istanbul daily), 30 November 1990. In France, the president himself can proclaim a state of emergency; in Turkey a state of emergency can only be declared by the Council of Ministers chaired by the president.
52. Milliyet, 21 March 1990.
53. Akbulut himself disclosed that his government was formed in this manner. Hürriyet (Istanbul daily), 30 May 1991.
54. For instance, Lütfi Duran, "Türk Anayasasi ve Fransa Örneǧi," Cumhuriyet (Istanbul daily), 13 December 1990.
55. Columnist Derya Sazak in Milliyet, 3 March 1990.
56. Editorial in Hürriyet, 30 November 1990.
57. For examples of such criticisms directed to the government by Özal, see Cumhurbaşkam Turgut Özal'in Türkiye Tarim Kredi Kooperatifleri Merkez Birliǧi Genel Kurulindaki Konuşmalari, Ankara, 1990, 18; Dünya'daki Dengeler ve Türkiye, Ankara, 1991, 23-23; Geleceǧe Bakiş, Ankara, 1992, 27-30, all booklets compiled by the President's Office.
58. For examples of such criticisms directed to the government by Özal, see Cumhurbaşkam Turgut Özal'in Türkiye Tarim Kredi Kooperatifleri Merkez Birliǧi Genel Kurulindaki Konuşmalari, Ankara, 1990, 18; Dünya'daki Dengeler ve Türkiye, Ankara, 1991, 23-23; Geleceǧe Bakiş, Ankara, 1992, 27-30, all booklets compiled by the President's Office.
59. For examples of such criticisms directed to the government by Özal, see Cumhurbaşkam Turgut Özal'in Türkiye Tarim Kredi Kooperatifleri Merkez Birliǧi Genel Kurulindaki Konuşmalari, Ankara, 1990, 18; Dünya'daki Dengeler ve Türkiye, Ankara, 1991, 23-23; Geleceǧe Bakiş, Ankara, 1992, 27-30, all booklets compiled by the President's Office.
60. Reported in Türkiye'miz, Dünya ve Gelecek, 40-41.
61. Among others, see Cumhuriyet, 1 January 1990; Milliyet 28 March 1990.
62. Among others, see Cumhuriyet, 1 January 1990; Milliyet 28 March 1990.
63. Turkish Daily News (Ankara daily), 15 March 1990.
64. Hürriyet, 4 July 1991.
65. Milliyet, 15 August 1992.
66. Heper, "Turgut Özal's Presidency: Crisis and the Glimmerings of Consensus̈ in Heper and Evin, eds., Politics in the Third Turkish Republic, 197.
67. Cumhuriyet, 4 January 1992.
68. Ibid., 31 January 1991.
69. Ibid., 1 January 1992.
70. Milliyet, 1 January 1992.
71. Ibid., 4 January 1992.
72. Hürriyet, 2 February 1992.
73. Ibid., 5 June 1992.
74. Sabah (Istanbul daily), 21 September 1992.
75. Mehmet Barlas, Turgut Özal'in Anilari (Istanbul: Gençlik Yayinlari, 1994), 166.
76. Milliyet, 26 June 1993.
77. Tercüman (Istanbul daily), 18 May 1994.
78. Milliyet, 17 May 1993.
79. Cumhuriyet, 15 May 1993. Since Demirel had fiercely criticized Özal of having transgressed his powers, he was now being too careful regarding this matter.
80. For one such statement, see Sabah, 5 December 1993.
81. Abdullah Uraz, Millet Devlet Kucaklaşmasi (Ankara: Eka, 1994), 74-116.
82. Türkiye (Istanbul daily), 22 May 1994 and his press conference on 16 May 1994.
83. Sabah, 5 April 1994; Hürriyet, 2 February 1994.
84. Sabah, 5 April 1994; Hürriyet, 2 February 1994.
85. Meydan (Istanbul daily), 9 May 1994.
86. Sabah, 13 November 1994.
87. Hürriyet, 6 May 1994.
88. Milliyet, 21 October 1993.
89. Cumhuriyet, 16 May 1993.
90. Hürriyet, 25 September 1993 and 21 February 1994.
91. Sabah, 20 December 1993; Milliyet, 27 June 1993; Hürriyet, 22 December 1993.
92. Sabah, 20 December 1993; Milliyet, 27 June 1993; Hürriyet, 22 December 1993.
93. Sabah, 20 December 1993; Milliyet, 27 June 1993; Hürriyet, 22 December 1993.
94. Sabah, 5 May 1994.
95. Milliyet, 16 May 1994.
96. Ibid., 27 June 1993; also see Uraz, Millet Devlet Kucaklaşmasi, 199, 276.
97. Ibid., 27 June 1993; also see Uraz, Millet Devlet Kucaklaşmasi, 199, 276.
98. Hürriyet, 11 August 1993.
99. Ibid.
100. Milliyet, 24 May 1994.
101. Ibid., 12 July 1993.
102. Meydan, 15 June 1994.
103. Ahmet Evin, "Demilitarization and Civilization of the Regime" in Heper and Evin, eds., Politics in the Third Turkish Republic, 23-40.
104. Hale, Turkish Politics and the Military.