Conventional and military public housing for families

Social Service Review

Volumn 73, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 240-260

  Twiss, Pamela C ^a   Martin, James A ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040293689     PISSN: 00377961     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/514416     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. A briefing paper on public housing, available on-line through the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), notes that in fiscal year 1994, within a sample of 3,020 Public Housing Authorities (PHAs), 3 percent (N = 91) were classified as "troubled"; among these were 13 very large PHAs that, while representing fewer than 1 percent of all PHAs, contained 94 percent of all PHA units. See U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Facts You Should Know about Public Housing, available on-line at http:// www.hud.gov/pih/pihpgl.html (March 1996); Chester Hartman and Robin Drayer, "A Research Note: Military-Family Housing: The Other Public-Housing Program," Housing and Society 17 (1990): 67-78. The size of the DOD's housing stock changes as units are demolished, renovated, or built. In the midnineties, the DOD had approximately 387,000 family homes it owned or leased. By the late 1990s, congressional reports indicated that number had dropped to 313,000. The DOD also has a stock of approximately 612,000 housing spaces for unmarried (or unaccompanied) military members. For a more detailed description of the military's housing programs, see U.S. Defense Science Board, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology, Department of Defense, Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Quality of Life (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Secretaiy of Defense, 1995) ; and U.S. House Committee on Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations Bill, 1999, Report no. 105-578, 105th Cong., 2d Sess. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1998).
2. A briefing paper on public housing, available on-line through the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), notes that in fiscal year 1994, within a sample of 3,020 Public Housing Authorities (PHAs), 3 percent (N = 91) were classified as "troubled"; among these were 13 very large PHAs that, while representing fewer than 1 percent of all PHAs, contained 94 percent of all PHA units. See U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Facts You Should Know about Public Housing, available on-line at http:// www.hud.gov/pih/pihpgl.html (March 1996); Chester Hartman and Robin Drayer, "A Research Note: Military-Family Housing: The Other Public-Housing Program," Housing and Society 17 (1990): 67-78. The size of the DOD's housing stock changes as units are demolished, renovated, or built. In the midnineties, the DOD had approximately 387,000 family homes it owned or leased. By the late 1990s, congressional reports indicated that number had dropped to 313,000. The DOD also has a stock of approximately 612,000 housing spaces for unmarried (or unaccompanied) military members. For a more detailed description of the military's housing programs, see U.S. Defense Science Board, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology, Department of Defense, Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Quality of Life (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Secretaiy of Defense, 1995) ; and U.S. House Committee on Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations Bill, 1999, Report no. 105-578, 105th Cong., 2d Sess. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1998).
3. A briefing paper on public housing, available on-line through the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), notes that in fiscal year 1994, within a sample of 3,020 Public Housing Authorities (PHAs), 3 percent (N = 91) were classified as "troubled"; among these were 13 very large PHAs that, while representing fewer than 1 percent of all PHAs, contained 94 percent of all PHA units. See U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Facts You Should Know about Public Housing, available on-line at http:// www.hud.gov/pih/pihpgl.html (March 1996); Chester Hartman and Robin Drayer, "A Research Note: Military-Family Housing: The Other Public-Housing Program," Housing and Society 17 (1990): 67-78. The size of the DOD's housing stock changes as units are demolished, renovated, or built. In the midnineties, the DOD had approximately 387,000 family homes it owned or leased. By the late 1990s, congressional reports indicated that number had dropped to 313,000. The DOD also has a stock of approximately 612,000 housing spaces for unmarried (or unaccompanied) military members. For a more detailed description of the military's housing programs, see U.S. Defense Science Board, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology, Department of Defense, Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Quality of Life (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Secretaiy of Defense, 1995) ; and U.S. House Committee on Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations Bill, 1999, Report no. 105-578, 105th Cong., 2d Sess. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1998).
4. A briefing paper on public housing, available on-line through the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), notes that in fiscal year 1994, within a sample of 3,020 Public Housing Authorities (PHAs), 3 percent (N = 91) were classified as "troubled"; among these were 13 very large PHAs that, while representing fewer than 1 percent of all PHAs, contained 94 percent of all PHA units. See U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Facts You Should Know about Public Housing, available on-line at http:// www.hud.gov/pih/pihpgl.html (March 1996); Chester Hartman and Robin Drayer, "A Research Note: Military-Family Housing: The Other Public-Housing Program," Housing and Society 17 (1990): 67-78. The size of the DOD's housing stock changes as units are demolished, renovated, or built. In the midnineties, the DOD had approximately 387,000 family homes it owned or leased. By the late 1990s, congressional reports indicated that number had dropped to 313,000. The DOD also has a stock of approximately 612,000 housing spaces for unmarried (or unaccompanied) military members. For a more detailed description of the military's housing programs, see U.S. Defense Science Board, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology, Department of Defense, Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Quality of Life (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Secretaiy of Defense, 1995) ; and U.S. House Committee on Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations Bill, 1999, Report no. 105-578, 105th Cong., 2d Sess. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1998).
5. Defense Science Board, Report on Quality of Life (n. 1 above).
6. Because of military service requirements, military families move often (every 2-3 years) and typically encounter long waiting lists for military housing in high-cost areas. See, e.g., U.S. Department of Defense, Housing Revitalization Support Office (HRSO), "Meet the Tenant: A Profile of the Military Housing Tenant" (Washington, D.C.: HRSO, 1997). Approximately 30 percent of those in the military services are classified as racial or ethnic minorities. Defense Manpower Data Center (DMDC), East, Active Duty Family Files for September 30, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990, and 1995, and Average Years of Service by Pay Grade (electronic data files from Active Duty Master Edit File) (Arlington, Va.: DMDC, 1996-97).
7. Because of military service requirements, military families move often (every 2-3 years) and typically encounter long waiting lists for military housing in high-cost areas. See, e.g., U.S. Department of Defense, Housing Revitalization Support Office (HRSO), "Meet the Tenant: A Profile of the Military Housing Tenant" (Washington, D.C.: HRSO, 1997). Approximately 30 percent of those in the military services are classified as racial or ethnic minorities. Defense Manpower Data Center (DMDC), East, Active Duty Family Files for September 30, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990, and 1995, and Average Years of Service by Pay Grade (electronic data files from Active Duty Master Edit File) (Arlington, Va.: DMDC, 1996-97).
8. 1992 Department of Defense Surveys of Officers and Enlisted Personnel and Their Spouses: Background Characteristics of Military Families (Rockville, Md.: Westat, May 1994).
9. Ibid.; and Karen Jowers, "Single Parents a Growing Segment of Military," Army Times, January 25, 1999, p. 18.
10. Ibid.; and Karen Jowers, "Single Parents a Growing Segment of Military," Army Times, January 25, 1999, p. 18.
11. Base pay and rations for a married junior sergeant with 4 years of military service are approximately $1,725 per month. This does not include a small housing subsidy for those who live in civilian housing. It is estimated that a married junior enlisted member now spends 32 percent of his or her total income on housing. Thus, while military members are clearly better off financially than poor civilians living in public housing (whose median household income was $6,420 in the mid-1990s), their incomes frequently place them below 80 percent of the median family income in high-cost areas of the country, such as Washington, D.C., or San Diego, California. The figures on military pay were taken from Beth J. Asch, Richard Jonson, and John T. Warner, "Reforming the Military Retirement System," available on-line at www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR748/MR748.pdr (RAND). The Army Times published the figure of 32 percent out-of-pocket income spent on housing by junior enlisted members. See Rick Maze, "Report: Housing Allowances Could Be Better," Army Times (November 23, 1998), p. 10; median household income for conventional public housing residents was taken from HUD (n. 1 above).
12. Base pay and rations for a married junior sergeant with 4 years of military service are approximately $1,725 per month. This does not include a small housing subsidy for those who live in civilian housing. It is estimated that a married junior enlisted member now spends 32 percent of his or her total income on housing. Thus, while military members are clearly better off financially than poor civilians living in public housing (whose median household income was $6,420 in the mid-1990s), their incomes frequently place them below 80 percent of the median family income in high-cost areas of the country, such as Washington, D.C., or San Diego, California. The figures on military pay were taken from Beth J. Asch, Richard Jonson, and John T. Warner, "Reforming the Military Retirement System," available on-line at www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR748/MR748.pdr (RAND). The Army Times published the figure of 32 percent out-of-pocket income spent on housing by junior enlisted members. See Rick Maze, "Report: Housing Allowances Could Be Better," Army Times (November 23, 1998), p. 10; median household income for conventional public housing residents was taken from HUD (n. 1 above).
13. Rachel Brau, "The Public Housing Program," in Rebuilding a Low-Income Housing Policy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), pp. 53-85; Hartman and Drayer (n. 1 above).
14. Hartman and Drayer (n. 1 above).
15. Pamela C. Twiss and James A. Martin, Quality of Life and Shelter: A History of Military Housing Policy and Initiatives (1973-1996), MFI Technical Report 98-1 (Scranton, Pa.: Military Family Institute, Marywood University, 1998), and Quality of Life and Shelter: An Overview of the History of Military Housing Policy and Initiatives since the Adoption of the All-Volunteer Force Concept (1973-1996), MFI Technical Report 97-3 (Scranton, Pa.: Military Family Institute, Marywood University, 1997).
16. Pamela C. Twiss and James A. Martin, Quality of Life and Shelter: A History of Military Housing Policy and Initiatives (1973-1996), MFI Technical Report 98-1 (Scranton, Pa.: Military Family Institute, Marywood University, 1998), and Quality of Life and Shelter: An Overview of the History of Military Housing Policy and Initiatives since the Adoption of the All-Volunteer Force Concept (1973-1996), MFI Technical Report 97-3 (Scranton, Pa.: Military Family Institute, Marywood University, 1997).
17. Language in the United States Code is unambiguous: any member of the armed forces who is not assigned to housing owned or leased by the United States is entitled to receive a housing allowance in lieu of government owned or leased housing. Military members are thus entitled to either direct provision of government owned or leased housing or money to rent or purchase housing on the private market (an indirect provision of shelter through additional compensation). See 37 United States Code Annotated (U.S.C.A.), sec. 403, "Pay and Allowances of the Uniformed Services: Basic Allowance for Quarters" (St. Paul, Minn.: West, 1997).
18. William C. Baldwin, A History of Army Peacetime Housing (Alexandria, Va.: Headquarters U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Office of History [HQUSACE] 1993); Hartman and Drayer (n. 1 above). Baldwin chronicles the cyclical nature of attention to military housing, focusing on the Army's experiences. This history and that provided by his work on privatization initiatives, William C. Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs: A History of the Wherry, Capehart, Section 801, and Section 802 Family Housing Programs in the Army (Alexandria, Va.: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Office of History, 1996), are rich sources on the history of nineteenth-and twentieth-century military housing developments.
19. William C. Baldwin, A History of Army Peacetime Housing (Alexandria, Va.: Headquarters U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Office of History [HQUSACE] 1993); Hartman and Drayer (n. 1 above). Baldwin chronicles the cyclical nature of attention to military housing, focusing on the Army's experiences. This history and that provided by his work on privatization initiatives, William C. Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs: A History of the Wherry, Capehart, Section 801, and Section 802 Family Housing Programs in the Army (Alexandria, Va.: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Office of History, 1996), are rich sources on the history of nineteenth-and twentieth-century military housing developments.
20. 37 U.S.C.A. § 403 (n. 10 above).
21. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing, and Four Housing Privatization Programs (both n. 11 above).
22. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above); Congressional Budget Office, Military Family Housing in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Budget Office, September, 1993); Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Personnel and Readiness) (OASDP&R), Family Status and Initial Term of Service, vol. 2, Trends and Indicators (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, 1993).
23. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above); Congressional Budget Office, Military Family Housing in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Budget Office, September, 1993); Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Personnel and Readiness) (OASDP&R), Family Status and Initial Term of Service, vol. 2, Trends and Indicators (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, 1993).
24. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above); Congressional Budget Office, Military Family Housing in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Budget Office, September, 1993); Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Personnel and Readiness) (OASDP&R), Family Status and Initial Term of Service, vol. 2, Trends and Indicators (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, 1993).
25. Sondra Albano, "Military Recognition of Family Concerns: Revolutionary War to 1993," Armed Forces and Society 20 (1994): 283-302.
26. Defense Science Board, Report on Quality of Life (n. 1 above).
27. A. Brett-James, A Life In Wellington's Army (London: Allen & Unwin, 1972); Barbara Klaw, Camp Follower (New York: Random House, 1944).
28. A. Brett-James, A Life In Wellington's Army (London: Allen & Unwin, 1972); Barbara Klaw, Camp Follower (New York: Random House, 1944).
29. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above); Defense Science Board, Report on Quality of Life (n. 1 above). Baldwin reports that in the nineteenth century, legislation and regulations barely addressed the housing of military members, yet the Army "assumed that officers would have families and provided most of them with some sort of housing" (p. 1 ); further, officers as individual members of the military were entitled to quarters and assigned them on a seniority basis.
30. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above); Defense Science Board, Report on Quality of Life (n. 1 above). Baldwin reports that in the nineteenth century, legislation and regulations barely addressed the housing of military members, yet the Army "assumed that officers would have families and provided most of them with some sort of housing" (p. 1 ); further, officers as individual members of the military were entitled to quarters and assigned them on a seniority basis.
31. Twiss and Martin, A History of Military Housing (n. 9 above).
32. Albano (n. 15 above); Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above); OASDP&R (n. 14 above).
33. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above); James A. Martin and Dennis K. Orthner, "The 'Company Town' in Transition: Rebuilding Military Communities," in The Organization Family: Work and Family Linkages in the U.S. Military, ed. G. L. Bowen and D. K. Orthner (New York: Praeger, 1989), pp. 163-77.
34. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above); James A. Martin and Dennis K. Orthner, "The 'Company Town' in Transition: Rebuilding Military Communities," in The Organization Family: Work and Family Linkages in the U.S. Military, ed. G. L. Bowen and D. K. Orthner (New York: Praeger, 1989), pp. 163-77.
35. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above). Baldwin notes that recruitment and retention were serious problems in the boom years of the 1920s, and Congress responded with legislation to address pay and allowances. This benefited more senior military members and actually penalized enlisted men.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid., and Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs (n. 11 above); Robert E. Parker and Joe R. Feagin, "Military Spending in Free Enterprise Cities: The Military-Industrial Complex in Houston and Las Vegas," in The Pentagon and the Cities, ed. A. Kirby (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992), pp. 100-125.
39. Ibid., and Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs (n. 11 above); Robert E. Parker and Joe R. Feagin, "Military Spending in Free Enterprise Cities: The Military-Industrial Complex in Houston and Las Vegas," in The Pentagon and the Cities, ed. A. Kirby (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992), pp. 100-125.
40. Ibid., and Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs (n. 11 above); Robert E. Parker and Joe R. Feagin, "Military Spending in Free Enterprise Cities: The Military-Industrial Complex in Houston and Las Vegas," in The Pentagon and the Cities, ed. A. Kirby (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992), pp. 100-125.
41. Barry Checkoway, "Large Builders, Federal Housing Programs, and Post-war Suburbanization," in Critical Perspectives on Housing, ed. R. G. Bratt, C. Hartman, and A. Meyerson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), pp. 119-38; "A Brief History of U.S. Housing Policy to 1980," Mortgage Banking 55 (October 1994): 52.
42. Barry Checkoway, "Large Builders, Federal Housing Programs, and Post-war Suburbanization," in Critical Perspectives on Housing, ed. R. G. Bratt, C. Hartman, and A. Meyerson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), pp. 119-38; "A Brief History of U.S. Housing Policy to 1980," Mortgage Banking 55 (October 1994): 52.
43. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing, and Four Housing Privatization Programs (both n. 11 above); Defense Science Board, Report on Quality of Life (n. 1 above); OASDP&R (n. 14 above).
44. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing, and Four Housing Privatization Programs (both n. 11 above); Defense Science Board, Report on Quality of Life (n. 1 above); OASDP&R (n. 14 above).
45. Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs (n. 11 above).
46. Nonmetropolitan areas offered the military services access to relatively inexpensive tracts of open land appropriate for large training centers and air strips.
47. Congressional Budget Office (n. 14 above); Defense Science Board, Report on Quality of Life (n. 1 above); Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs (n. 11 above).
48. Congressional Budget Office (n. 14 above); Defense Science Board, Report on Quality of Life (n. 1 above); Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs (n. 11 above).
49. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing, and Four Housing Privatization Programs (both n. 11 above); Hartman and Drayer (n. 1 above).
50. Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs (n. 11 above).
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid.
54. Patricia M. Shields, "A New Paradigm for Military Policy: Socioeconomics," Armed Forces and Society 19 (1993): 511-31.
55. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above).
56. In 1948, then President Harry Truman ended segregation in the military via executive order. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above), noted that, subsequently, over a period of years military units and facilities were desegregated.
57. David C. Hershfield, "Attacking Housing Discrimination: Economic Power of the Military in Desegregating Off-Base Rental Housing," American Journal of Economics and Sociology 44 (January 1985): 23-28.
58. Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above).
59. Arthur T. Hadley, The Straw Giant: Triumph and Failure, America's Armed Forces: A Report from the Field (New York: Random House, 1986); and Guenter Lewy, America in Vietnam: Illusion, Myth, and Reality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978).
60. Arthur T. Hadley, The Straw Giant: Triumph and Failure, America's Armed Forces: A Report from the Field (New York: Random House, 1986); and Guenter Lewy, America in Vietnam: Illusion, Myth, and Reality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978).
61. Ibid.; Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above).
62. Ibid.; Baldwin, Army Peacetime Housing (n. 11 above).
63. Twiss and Martin, Overview of Military Housing (n. 9 above).
64. Ibid.; See also J. Weible, "Constance: Best Marines Are Single Marines," Army Times 57 (March 1997): 10.
65. Ibid.; See also J. Weible, "Constance: Best Marines Are Single Marines," Army Times 57 (March 1997): 10.
66. U.S. Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Personnel and Readiness), Monthly Basic Pay Tables (Washington, D.C.: Assistant Secretary of Defense), and Basic Allowance for Quarters, Detailed RMC Tables, Monthly BAQ Rates for Married (CASH) by Pay Grade (Washington, D.C.: Assistant Secretary of Defense).
67. U.S. Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Personnel and Readiness), Monthly Basic Pay Tables (Washington, D.C.: Assistant Secretary of Defense), and Basic Allowance for Quarters, Detailed RMC Tables, Monthly BAQ Rates for Married (CASH) by Pay Grade (Washington, D.C.: Assistant Secretary of Defense).
68. Marshall M. A. Feldman and Richard L. Florida, "Economic Restructuring and the Changing Role of the State in U. S. Housing," in Government and Housing: Developments in Seven Countries, ed. W. van Vliet and J. van Weesop (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Urban Affairs Annual Reviews, 1990), pp. 31-46; U.S. House Subcommittee on Military Construction Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations for 1975, Part 1: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 93d Cong., 2d Sess. 61 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1974).
69. Marshall M. A. Feldman and Richard L. Florida, "Economic Restructuring and the Changing Role of the State in U. S. Housing," in Government and Housing: Developments in Seven Countries, ed. W. van Vliet and J. van Weesop (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Urban Affairs Annual Reviews, 1990), pp. 31-46; U.S. House Subcommittee on Military Construction Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations for 1975, Part 1: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 93d Cong., 2d Sess. 61 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1974).
70. U.S. House Subcommittee on Military Construction Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations for 1976, Part 1: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 94th Cong., 1st Sess. 76 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1975).
71. House Subcommittee, Military Construction Appropriations for 1975, p. 62.
72. House Subcommittee on Military Construction Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations for 1977, Part 2: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 94th Cong., 2d Sess. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1976), pp. 331-56.
73. Comptroller General, Lower Graded Military Personnel with Families Are Not Suitably Housed but Should Be, Report no. CED079092 (Washington, D.C.: Comptroller General, 1979). HUD's Section 8 program tended not to be used in the areas studied for this report because poorer civilians, as well as disabled and elderly people, had higher priorities for this housing.
74. House Subcommittee, Appropriations for 1977 (n. 49 above). These pages present an investigative report on HUD housing program availability and access for military personnel. The report includes information on the prolonged difficulties between HUD and DOD regarding extending FHA insurance availability to high-risk areas. The report includes commentary on disagreements regarding military member use of HUD programs.
75. House Subcommittee, Appropriations for 1976 (n. 47 above), pp. 82-83; Twiss and Martin, A History of Military Housing (n. 9 above).
76. House Subcommittee, Appropriations for 1976 (n. 47 above), pp. 82-83; Twiss and Martin, A History of Military Housing (n. 9 above).
77. House Subcommittee on Military Construction Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations for 1981, Part 6: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 96th Cong., 2d Sess. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1980), pp. 556-62, 572-83.
78. Ibid.
79. Rachel Bratt, "Housing Problems and Current Responses," in Rebuilding a Low-Income Housing Policy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989).
80. Recent legislation merged the Variable Housing Allowance and the Basic Allowance for Quarters into a single allowance termed the "Basic Allowance for Housing (BAH)."
81. Hartman and Drayer (n. 1 above); Congressional Budget Office (n. 14 above).
82. Dennis G. Smythe, "Options Available for Providing Family Housing to Navy Families in the Continental United States" (master's thesis, U.S. Navy, Naval Post-graduate School, Monterey, Calif., 1994); Frank Camm, Housing Demand and Department of Defense Policy on Housing Allowances (Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Corporation, 1990).
83. Dennis G. Smythe, "Options Available for Providing Family Housing to Navy Families in the Continental United States" (master's thesis, U.S. Navy, Naval Post-graduate School, Monterey, Calif., 1994); Frank Camm, Housing Demand and Department of Defense Policy on Housing Allowances (Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Corporation, 1990).
84. William Baldwin notes in Four Housing Privatization Programs (n. 11 above) that in fiscal year 1989 the services made their final payments on Capehart mortgages.
85. Defense Science Board, Report on Quality of Life (n. 1 above).
86. House Committee on Appropriations, Committee of the Conference, Making Appropriations for Military Construction for the Department of Defense for the Fiscal Year Ending September 30, 1986, and for Other Purposes, House Report 99-380, 99th Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington, D.C.; Government Printing Office, November 19, 1985); House Subcommittee on Military Construction Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations for 1987, Part 5: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 99th Cong., 2d Sess. 489 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1986); Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs (n. 11 above).
87. House Committee on Appropriations, Committee of the Conference, Making Appropriations for Military Construction for the Department of Defense for the Fiscal Year Ending September 30, 1986, and for Other Purposes, House Report 99-380, 99th Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington, D.C.; Government Printing Office, November 19, 1985); House Subcommittee on Military Construction Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations for 1987, Part 5: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 99th Cong., 2d Sess. 489 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1986); Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs (n. 11 above).
88. House Committee on Appropriations, Committee of the Conference, Making Appropriations for Military Construction for the Department of Defense for the Fiscal Year Ending September 30, 1986, and for Other Purposes, House Report 99-380, 99th Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington, D.C.; Government Printing Office, November 19, 1985); House Subcommittee on Military Construction Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations for 1987, Part 5: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 99th Cong., 2d Sess. 489 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1986); Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs (n. 11 above).
89. Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs (n. 11 above).
90. Ibid.; House Subcommittee on Military Construction Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations for 1988, Part 5: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 100th Cong., 1st Sess. 401 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1987); House Subcommittee, Appropriations for 1987 (n. 61 above).
91. Ibid.; House Subcommittee on Military Construction Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations for 1988, Part 5: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 100th Cong., 1st Sess. 401 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1987); House Subcommittee, Appropriations for 1987 (n. 61 above).
92. Ibid.; House Subcommittee on Military Construction Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations for 1988, Part 5: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 100th Cong., 1st Sess. 401 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1987); House Subcommittee, Appropriations for 1987 (n. 61 above).
93. Baldwin, Four Housing Privatization Programs (n. 11 above).
94. Defense Science Board, Report on Quality of Life (n. 1 above).
95. Ibid.
96. Defense Science Board, Department of Defense, Achieving an Innovative Support Structure for Twenty-First Century Military Superiority: Higher Performance at Lower Costs (Washington, D.C.: Department of Defense, 1996).
97. United States, Public Law 104-106; U.S. Department of Defense, Housing Revitalization Support Office (HRSO), The Privatization of Military Housing, available on-line at www.acq.osd.mil/iai/hrso, 1996. Of note, some of the authorities included in the 1996 legislation were discussed as possible program initiatives as early as the 1970s; at that time, they were rejected as solutions by DOD because they either involved financial arrangements labeled as "backdoor" financing or because they involved entering into program development and authority in areas already the purview of another department (e.g., HUD). See, e.g., House Subcommittee, Appropriations for 1977 (n. 49 above).
98. United States, Public Law 104-106; U.S. Department of Defense, Housing Revitalization Support Office (HRSO), The Privatization of Military Housing, available on-line at www.acq.osd.mil/iai/hrso, 1996. Of note, some of the authorities included in the 1996 legislation were discussed as possible program initiatives as early as the 1970s; at that time, they were rejected as solutions by DOD because they either involved financial arrangements labeled as "backdoor" financing or because they involved entering into program development and authority in areas already the purview of another department (e.g., HUD). See, e.g., House Subcommittee, Appropriations for 1977 (n. 49 above).
99. See, e.g., the testimony of John B. Goodman, Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Industrial Affairs and Installations), March 12, 1998, before the Subcommittee on Military Construction of the House Appropriations Committee, available on-line through the Hous-ing Revitalization Support Office (HRSO) of the Department of Defense at http:// www.acq.osd.mil/iai/hrso/testimonies.htm#RPC.
100. "Mutinous Mood: Soldiers' Homes," Economist 340, no. 7973 (July 6, 1996): 50.
101. Hartman and Drayer (n. 1 above).
102. See, e.g., Carol S. Cohen and Michael H. Phillips, "Building Community: Principles for Social Work Practice in Housing Settings," Social Work 42, no. 5 (September 1997): 471-81.
103. Comptroller General (n. 50 above); Twiss and Martin, A History of Military Housing (n. 9 above).
104. The implications of changing the rank mix in military housing on base is discussed in Twiss and Martin, Overview of Military Housing (n. 9 above).
105. Twiss and Martin, A History of Military Housing (n. 9 above) ; G. E. Willis, "Equal Housing for All at Fort Bragg," Army Times 57 (November 4, 1996), p. 8, and "Rank Is Key Factor in Lewis Housing," Army Times 57 (January 27, 1997), p. 16.
106. Twiss and Martin, A History of Military Housing (n. 9 above) ; G. E. Willis, "Equal Housing for All at Fort Bragg," Army Times 57 (November 4, 1996), p. 8, and "Rank Is Key Factor in Lewis Housing," Army Times 57 (January 27, 1997), p. 16.
107. Twiss and Martin, A History of Military Housing (n. 9 above) ; G. E. Willis, "Equal Housing for All at Fort Bragg," Army Times 57 (November 4, 1996), p. 8, and "Rank Is Key Factor in Lewis Housing," Army Times 57 (January 27, 1997), p. 16.
108. Smythe (n. 58 above).
109. Twiss and Martin, A History of Military Housing (n. 9 above).
110. Ibid.
111. Bradford McKee, "Public Housing's Last Hope," Architecture 86, no. 8 (1997): 94-105.
112. J. D. Lipchitz, "Avoiding the Specter of Patriot Village: The Military Housing Privatization Initiative's Effect on Federal Funding of Education," Army Lawyer, DA-PAM 27-50-303 (February, 1998), pp. 41-47.
113. Twiss and Martin, A History of Military Housing (n. 9 above).
114. Martin and Orthner (n. 21 above).
115. U.S. House Subcommittee on Military Construction Appropriations, Military Construction Appropriations for 1985, Part 4: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 98th Cong., 2d Sess. 107 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1984).
116. Defense Science Board, Report on Quality of Life (n. 1 above); OASDP&R (n. 14 above).
117. Hartman and Drayer (n. 1 above).
118. Emilia E. Martinez-Brawley, Perspectives on the Small Community (Silver Spring, Md.: National Association of Social Workers Press, 1990).