Self-employment, microenterprise, and the poorest Americans

Social Service Review

Volumn 73, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 496-523

  Schreiner, Mark ^a  

^a WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040264127     PISSN: 00377961     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/514443     Document Type: Article

References (179)

1. Salome Raheim and Catherine Foster Alter, "Self-Employment as a Social and Economic Development Intervention for Recipients of AFDC," Journal of Community Practice 5, no. 1/2 (1998): 41-61; Salome Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients," Social Work 42, no. 1 (1997): 44-53; Hillary Rodham Clinton, "Foreword," in 1996 Directory of U.S. Microenterprise Programs, ed. C. Alexander Severens and Amy K. Kays (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1997), pp. ix-x; Salome Raheim, Catherine Foster Alter, and Donald Yarbrough, "Evaluating Microenterprise Programs: Issues and Lessons Learned," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 2 (1996): 87-103; Robert E. Friedman, Brian Grossman, and Puchka Sahay, Building Assets: Self Employment for Welfare Recipients. Overview of the Findings from the Self Employment Investment Demonstration (SEID) (Washington, D.C.: Corporation for Enterprise Development, 1995); Roberta Spalter-Roth, Enrique Soto, and Lily Zandniapour, Microenterprise and Women: The Viability of Self-Employment as a Strategy for Alleviating Poverty (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research, 1994); John F. Else and Salome Raheim, "AFDC Clients as Entrepreneurs: Self-Employment Offers an Important Option," Public Welfare 50, no. 4 (1992): 36-41; Steve Balkin, Self-Employment and Low-Income People (New York: Praeger, 1989); Robert E. Friedman, The Safety Net as Ladder: Transfer Payments and Economic Development (Washington, D.C.: Council of State Policy and Planning Agencies, 1988).
2. Salome Raheim and Catherine Foster Alter, "Self-Employment as a Social and Economic Development Intervention for Recipients of AFDC," Journal of Community Practice 5, no. 1/2 (1998): 41-61; Salome Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients," Social Work 42, no. 1 (1997): 44-53; Hillary Rodham Clinton, "Foreword," in 1996 Directory of U.S. Microenterprise Programs, ed. C. Alexander Severens and Amy K. Kays (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1997), pp. ix-x; Salome Raheim, Catherine Foster Alter, and Donald Yarbrough, "Evaluating Microenterprise Programs: Issues and Lessons Learned," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 2 (1996): 87-103; Robert E. Friedman, Brian Grossman, and Puchka Sahay, Building Assets: Self Employment for Welfare Recipients. Overview of the Findings from the Self Employment Investment Demonstration (SEID) (Washington, D.C.: Corporation for Enterprise Development, 1995); Roberta Spalter-Roth, Enrique Soto, and Lily Zandniapour, Microenterprise and Women: The Viability of Self-Employment as a Strategy for Alleviating Poverty (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research, 1994); John F. Else and Salome Raheim, "AFDC Clients as Entrepreneurs: Self-Employment Offers an Important Option," Public Welfare 50, no. 4 (1992): 36-41; Steve Balkin, Self-Employment and Low-Income People (New York: Praeger, 1989); Robert E. Friedman, The Safety Net as Ladder: Transfer Payments and Economic Development (Washington, D.C.: Council of State Policy and Planning Agencies, 1988).
3. Salome Raheim and Catherine Foster Alter, "Self-Employment as a Social and Economic Development Intervention for Recipients of AFDC," Journal of Community Practice 5, no. 1/2 (1998): 41-61; Salome Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients," Social Work 42, no. 1 (1997): 44-53; Hillary Rodham Clinton, "Foreword," in 1996 Directory of U.S. Microenterprise Programs, ed. C. Alexander Severens and Amy K. Kays (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1997), pp. ix-x; Salome Raheim, Catherine Foster Alter, and Donald Yarbrough, "Evaluating Microenterprise Programs: Issues and Lessons Learned," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 2 (1996): 87-103; Robert E. Friedman, Brian Grossman, and Puchka Sahay, Building Assets: Self Employment for Welfare Recipients. Overview of the Findings from the Self Employment Investment Demonstration (SEID) (Washington, D.C.: Corporation for Enterprise Development, 1995); Roberta Spalter-Roth, Enrique Soto, and Lily Zandniapour, Microenterprise and Women: The Viability of Self-Employment as a Strategy for Alleviating Poverty (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research, 1994); John F. Else and Salome Raheim, "AFDC Clients as Entrepreneurs: Self-Employment Offers an Important Option," Public Welfare 50, no. 4 (1992): 36-41; Steve Balkin, Self-Employment and Low-Income People (New York: Praeger, 1989); Robert E. Friedman, The Safety Net as Ladder: Transfer Payments and Economic Development (Washington, D.C.: Council of State Policy and Planning Agencies, 1988).
4. Salome Raheim and Catherine Foster Alter, "Self-Employment as a Social and Economic Development Intervention for Recipients of AFDC," Journal of Community Practice 5, no. 1/2 (1998): 41-61; Salome Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients," Social Work 42, no. 1 (1997): 44-53; Hillary Rodham Clinton, "Foreword," in 1996 Directory of U.S. Microenterprise Programs, ed. C. Alexander Severens and Amy K. Kays (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1997), pp. ix-x; Salome Raheim, Catherine Foster Alter, and Donald Yarbrough, "Evaluating Microenterprise Programs: Issues and Lessons Learned," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 2 (1996): 87-103; Robert E. Friedman, Brian Grossman, and Puchka Sahay, Building Assets: Self Employment for Welfare Recipients. Overview of the Findings from the Self Employment Investment Demonstration (SEID) (Washington, D.C.: Corporation for Enterprise Development, 1995); Roberta Spalter-Roth, Enrique Soto, and Lily Zandniapour, Microenterprise and Women: The Viability of Self-Employment as a Strategy for Alleviating Poverty (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research, 1994); John F. Else and Salome Raheim, "AFDC Clients as Entrepreneurs: Self-Employment Offers an Important Option," Public Welfare 50, no. 4 (1992): 36-41; Steve Balkin, Self-Employment and Low-Income People (New York: Praeger, 1989); Robert E. Friedman, The Safety Net as Ladder: Transfer Payments and Economic Development (Washington, D.C.: Council of State Policy and Planning Agencies, 1988).
5. Salome Raheim and Catherine Foster Alter, "Self-Employment as a Social and Economic Development Intervention for Recipients of AFDC," Journal of Community Practice 5, no. 1/2 (1998): 41-61; Salome Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients," Social Work 42, no. 1 (1997): 44-53; Hillary Rodham Clinton, "Foreword," in 1996 Directory of U.S. Microenterprise Programs, ed. C. Alexander Severens and Amy K. Kays (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1997), pp. ix-x; Salome Raheim, Catherine Foster Alter, and Donald Yarbrough, "Evaluating Microenterprise Programs: Issues and Lessons Learned," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 2 (1996): 87-103; Robert E. Friedman, Brian Grossman, and Puchka Sahay, Building Assets: Self Employment for Welfare Recipients. Overview of the Findings from the Self Employment Investment Demonstration (SEID) (Washington, D.C.: Corporation for Enterprise Development, 1995); Roberta Spalter-Roth, Enrique Soto, and Lily Zandniapour, Microenterprise and Women: The Viability of Self-Employment as a Strategy for Alleviating Poverty (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research, 1994); John F. Else and Salome Raheim, "AFDC Clients as Entrepreneurs: Self-Employment Offers an Important Option," Public Welfare 50, no. 4 (1992): 36-41; Steve Balkin, Self-Employment and Low-Income People (New York: Praeger, 1989); Robert E. Friedman, The Safety Net as Ladder: Transfer Payments and Economic Development (Washington, D.C.: Council of State Policy and Planning Agencies, 1988).
6. Salome Raheim and Catherine Foster Alter, "Self-Employment as a Social and Economic Development Intervention for Recipients of AFDC," Journal of Community Practice 5, no. 1/2 (1998): 41-61; Salome Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients," Social Work 42, no. 1 (1997): 44-53; Hillary Rodham Clinton, "Foreword," in 1996 Directory of U.S. Microenterprise Programs, ed. C. Alexander Severens and Amy K. Kays (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1997), pp. ix-x; Salome Raheim, Catherine Foster Alter, and Donald Yarbrough, "Evaluating Microenterprise Programs: Issues and Lessons Learned," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 2 (1996): 87-103; Robert E. Friedman, Brian Grossman, and Puchka Sahay, Building Assets: Self Employment for Welfare Recipients. Overview of the Findings from the Self Employment Investment Demonstration (SEID) (Washington, D.C.: Corporation for Enterprise Development, 1995); Roberta Spalter-Roth, Enrique Soto, and Lily Zandniapour, Microenterprise and Women: The Viability of Self-Employment as a Strategy for Alleviating Poverty (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research, 1994); John F. Else and Salome Raheim, "AFDC Clients as Entrepreneurs: Self-Employment Offers an Important Option," Public Welfare 50, no. 4 (1992): 36-41; Steve Balkin, Self-Employment and Low-Income People (New York: Praeger, 1989); Robert E. Friedman, The Safety Net as Ladder: Transfer Payments and Economic Development (Washington, D.C.: Council of State Policy and Planning Agencies, 1988).
7. Salome Raheim and Catherine Foster Alter, "Self-Employment as a Social and Economic Development Intervention for Recipients of AFDC," Journal of Community Practice 5, no. 1/2 (1998): 41-61; Salome Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients," Social Work 42, no. 1 (1997): 44-53; Hillary Rodham Clinton, "Foreword," in 1996 Directory of U.S. Microenterprise Programs, ed. C. Alexander Severens and Amy K. Kays (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1997), pp. ix-x; Salome Raheim, Catherine Foster Alter, and Donald Yarbrough, "Evaluating Microenterprise Programs: Issues and Lessons Learned," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 2 (1996): 87-103; Robert E. Friedman, Brian Grossman, and Puchka Sahay, Building Assets: Self Employment for Welfare Recipients. Overview of the Findings from the Self Employment Investment Demonstration (SEID) (Washington, D.C.: Corporation for Enterprise Development, 1995); Roberta Spalter-Roth, Enrique Soto, and Lily Zandniapour, Microenterprise and Women: The Viability of Self-Employment as a Strategy for Alleviating Poverty (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research, 1994); John F. Else and Salome Raheim, "AFDC Clients as Entrepreneurs: Self-Employment Offers an Important Option," Public Welfare 50, no. 4 (1992): 36-41; Steve Balkin, Self-Employment and Low-Income People (New York: Praeger, 1989); Robert E. Friedman, The Safety Net as Ladder: Transfer Payments and Economic Development (Washington, D.C.: Council of State Policy and Planning Agencies, 1988).
8. Salome Raheim and Catherine Foster Alter, "Self-Employment as a Social and Economic Development Intervention for Recipients of AFDC," Journal of Community Practice 5, no. 1/2 (1998): 41-61; Salome Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients," Social Work 42, no. 1 (1997): 44-53; Hillary Rodham Clinton, "Foreword," in 1996 Directory of U.S. Microenterprise Programs, ed. C. Alexander Severens and Amy K. Kays (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1997), pp. ix-x; Salome Raheim, Catherine Foster Alter, and Donald Yarbrough, "Evaluating Microenterprise Programs: Issues and Lessons Learned," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 2 (1996): 87-103; Robert E. Friedman, Brian Grossman, and Puchka Sahay, Building Assets: Self Employment for Welfare Recipients. Overview of the Findings from the Self Employment Investment Demonstration (SEID) (Washington, D.C.: Corporation for Enterprise Development, 1995); Roberta Spalter-Roth, Enrique Soto, and Lily Zandniapour, Microenterprise and Women: The Viability of Self-Employment as a Strategy for Alleviating Poverty (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research, 1994); John F. Else and Salome Raheim, "AFDC Clients as Entrepreneurs: Self-Employment Offers an Important Option," Public Welfare 50, no. 4 (1992): 36-41; Steve Balkin, Self-Employment and Low-Income People (New York: Praeger, 1989); Robert E. Friedman, The Safety Net as Ladder: Transfer Payments and Economic Development (Washington, D.C.: Council of State Policy and Planning Agencies, 1988).
9. Salome Raheim and Catherine Foster Alter, "Self-Employment as a Social and Economic Development Intervention for Recipients of AFDC," Journal of Community Practice 5, no. 1/2 (1998): 41-61; Salome Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients," Social Work 42, no. 1 (1997): 44-53; Hillary Rodham Clinton, "Foreword," in 1996 Directory of U.S. Microenterprise Programs, ed. C. Alexander Severens and Amy K. Kays (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1997), pp. ix-x; Salome Raheim, Catherine Foster Alter, and Donald Yarbrough, "Evaluating Microenterprise Programs: Issues and Lessons Learned," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 2 (1996): 87-103; Robert E. Friedman, Brian Grossman, and Puchka Sahay, Building Assets: Self Employment for Welfare Recipients. Overview of the Findings from the Self Employment Investment Demonstration (SEID) (Washington, D.C.: Corporation for Enterprise Development, 1995); Roberta Spalter-Roth, Enrique Soto, and Lily Zandniapour, Microenterprise and Women: The Viability of Self-Employment as a Strategy for Alleviating Poverty (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research, 1994); John F. Else and Salome Raheim, "AFDC Clients as Entrepreneurs: Self-Employment Offers an Important Option," Public Welfare 50, no. 4 (1992): 36-41; Steve Balkin, Self-Employment and Low-Income People (New York: Praeger, 1989); Robert E. Friedman, The Safety Net as Ladder: Transfer Payments and Economic Development (Washington, D.C.: Council of State Policy and Planning Agencies, 1988).
10. Microcredit Summit, "The Microcredit Summit Declaration and Plan of Action," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 2 (1996): 131-76; Ben Rogaly, "Micro-Finance Evangelism, 'Destitute Women,' and the Hard Selling of a New Anti-Poverty Formula," Development in Practice 6, no. 2 (1996): 100-12.
11. Microcredit Summit, "The Microcredit Summit Declaration and Plan of Action," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 2 (1996): 131-76; Ben Rogaly, "Micro-Finance Evangelism, 'Destitute Women,' and the Hard Selling of a New Anti-Poverty Formula," Development in Practice 6, no. 2 (1996): 100-12.
12. Peggy Clark and Tracy Huston, Assisting the Smallest Businesses: Assessing Microenterprise Development as a Strategy for Boosting Poor Communities. An Interim Report (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1993); and Severens and Kays, eds.
13. Margaret A. Johnson, "Developing a Typology of Nonprofit Microenterprise Programs in the United States," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 3, no. 2 (1998): 165-84 (hereafter cited as "Developing a Typology"); "Clinton Remarks at Microenterprise Event," U.S. Newswire (Febuary 5, 1999); Diane Meyerhoff, "Federal Funding Opportunities for Microenterprise Programs," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 2, no. 2 (1997): 99-109.
14. Margaret A. Johnson, "Developing a Typology of Nonprofit Microenterprise Programs in the United States," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 3, no. 2 (1998): 165-84 (hereafter cited as "Developing a Typology"); "Clinton Remarks at Microenterprise Event," U.S. Newswire (Febuary 5, 1999); Diane Meyerhoff, "Federal Funding Opportunities for Microenterprise Programs," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 2, no. 2 (1997): 99-109.
15. Margaret A. Johnson, "Developing a Typology of Nonprofit Microenterprise Programs in the United States," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 3, no. 2 (1998): 165-84 (hereafter cited as "Developing a Typology"); "Clinton Remarks at Microenterprise Event," U.S. Newswire (Febuary 5, 1999); Diane Meyerhoff, "Federal Funding Opportunities for Microenterprise Programs," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 2, no. 2 (1997): 99-109.
16. Johnson, "Developing a Typology," and "An Overview of Basic Issues Facing Microenterprise Practices in the United States," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 3, no. 1 (1998): 5-21;
17. Elaine Edgcomb, Joyce Klein, and Peggy Clark, The Practice of Microenterprise in the U.S.: Strategies, Costs, and Effectiveness (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1996); Severens and Kays, eds.
18. Johnson, "Developing a Typology."
19. Lisa J. Servon, "Microenterprise Programs in U.S. Inner Cities: Economic Development or Social Welfare?" Economic Development Quarterly 11, no. 2 (1997): 166-80.
20. Severens and Kays, eds.
21. Shahidur R. Khandker, "Grameen Bank: Impact, Costs, and Program Sustainability," Asian Development Review 14, no. 1 (1996): 97-130; Mahabub Hossain, "Credit For Alleviation of Rural Poverty: The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh," Working Paper no. 65 (International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C., 1988).
22. Shahidur R. Khandker, "Grameen Bank: Impact, Costs, and Program Sustainability," Asian Development Review 14, no. 1 (1996): 97-130; Mahabub Hossain, "Credit For Alleviation of Rural Poverty: The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh," Working Paper no. 65 (International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C., 1988).
23. Lisa Young Larance, "Building Social Capital from the Center: A Village-Level Investigation of Bangladesh's Grameen Bank," Working Paper no. 98-4 (Washington University in St. Louis, Center for Social Development, 1998); Elaine Edgcomb and Laura Barton, Social Intermediation and Microfinance Programs: A Literature Review (Washington, D.C.: Development Alternatives, Inc., 1998).
24. Lisa Young Larance, "Building Social Capital from the Center: A Village-Level Investigation of Bangladesh's Grameen Bank," Working Paper no. 98-4 (Washington University in St. Louis, Center for Social Development, 1998); Elaine Edgcomb and Laura Barton, Social Intermediation and Microfinance Programs: A Literature Review (Washington, D.C.: Development Alternatives, Inc., 1998).
25. Severens and Kays, eds. (n. 1 above).
26. Johnson, "Developing a Typology."
27. Lisa J. Servon, "The Economic Development Potential of Microcredit: Myths and Misconceptions," in Local Economic Development in Europe and the Americas, ed. Christophe Demazière and Patricia A. Wilson (London: Mansell, 1995), pp. 284-307.
28. Jaqueline Novogratz, Hopeful Change: The Potential of Microenterprise Programs as a Community Revitalization Intervention (New York: Rockefeller Foundation, 1992).
29. Claudio Gonzalez-Vega, Mark Schreiner, Richard L. Meyer, Jorge Rodriguez-Meza, and Sergio Navajas, "BancoSol: The Challenge of Growth for Microfinance Organizations," in Microfinance for the Poor? ed. Hartmut Schneider (Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1997), pp. 129-70; Rodrigo A. Chaves and Claudio Gonzalez-Vega, "The Design of Successful Rural Financial Intermediaries: Evidence From Indonesia," World Development 24, no. 1 (1996): 65-78; Jacob Yaron, "What Makes Rural Finance Institutions Successful?" World Bank Research Observer 9, no. 9 (1994): 49-70.
30. Claudio Gonzalez-Vega, Mark Schreiner, Richard L. Meyer, Jorge Rodriguez-Meza, and Sergio Navajas, "BancoSol: The Challenge of Growth for Microfinance Organizations," in Microfinance for the Poor? ed. Hartmut Schneider (Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1997), pp. 129-70; Rodrigo A. Chaves and Claudio Gonzalez-Vega, "The Design of Successful Rural Financial Intermediaries: Evidence From Indonesia," World Development 24, no. 1 (1996): 65-78; Jacob Yaron, "What Makes Rural Finance Institutions Successful?" World Bank Research Observer 9, no. 9 (1994): 49-70.
31. Claudio Gonzalez-Vega, Mark Schreiner, Richard L. Meyer, Jorge Rodriguez-Meza, and Sergio Navajas, "BancoSol: The Challenge of Growth for Microfinance Organizations," in Microfinance for the Poor? ed. Hartmut Schneider (Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1997), pp. 129-70; Rodrigo A. Chaves and Claudio Gonzalez-Vega, "The Design of Successful Rural Financial Intermediaries: Evidence From Indonesia," World Development 24, no. 1 (1996): 65-78; Jacob Yaron, "What Makes Rural Finance Institutions Successful?" World Bank Research Observer 9, no. 9 (1994): 49-70.
32. Mark Schreiner, "Aspects of Outreach: A Framework for Discussion of the Social Benefits of Microfinance" (unpublished manuscript, Washington University in St. Louis, Center for Social Development, 1999).
33. Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients" (n. 1 above), p. 44.
34. Raheim, Alter, and Yarbrough (n. 1 above), p. 90.
35. Cynthia K. Sanders, "Microenterprise in the United States: Rationale and Outcomes" (unpublished manuscript, Washington University in St. Louis, 1998).
36. William J. Dennis, Jr., "Business Regulation as an Impediment to the Transition from Welfare to Self-Employment," Journal of Labor Research 19, no. 2 (1998): 263-76, quote on pp. 267, 274.
37. Timothy Bates, Race, Self-Employment, and Upward Mobility: An Illusive American Dream (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), p. 207.
38. A series of bivariate comparisons did not reject the hypothesis that members of the treatment group did not differ from members of the control group (see Jacob M. Benus, Terry B. Johnson, Michelle Wood, Neelima Grover, and Theodore Shen, Self-Employment Programs: A New Re-employment Strategy, Final Report on the UI Self-Employment Demonstration, U.S. Department of Labor, Unemployment Insurance Occasional Paper no. 95-4 [Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, 1995]).
39. J. D. Von Pischke and Dale W Adams, "Fungibility and the Design and Evaluation of Agricultural Credit Projects," American Journal of Agricultural Economics 62 (1980): 719-24.
40. Robert Moffitt, "Program Evaluation with Nonexperimental Data," Evaluation Review 15, no. 3 (1991): 291-314.
41. Balkin (n. 1 above); James J. Heckman and Jeffrey A. Smith, "Assessing the Case for Social Experiments," Journal of Economic Perspectives 9, no. 2 (1995): 85-110; David Royse, Research Methods in Social Work (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1991); Michael S. Kramer and Stanley H. Shapiro, "Scientific Challenges in the Application of Randomized Trials," Journal of the American Medical Association 252, no. 19 (1984): 2739-45.
42. Balkin (n. 1 above); James J. Heckman and Jeffrey A. Smith, "Assessing the Case for Social Experiments," Journal of Economic Perspectives 9, no. 2 (1995): 85-110; David Royse, Research Methods in Social Work (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1991); Michael S. Kramer and Stanley H. Shapiro, "Scientific Challenges in the Application of Randomized Trials," Journal of the American Medical Association 252, no. 19 (1984): 2739-45.
43. Balkin (n. 1 above); James J. Heckman and Jeffrey A. Smith, "Assessing the Case for Social Experiments," Journal of Economic Perspectives 9, no. 2 (1995): 85-110; David Royse, Research Methods in Social Work (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1991); Michael S. Kramer and Stanley H. Shapiro, "Scientific Challenges in the Application of Randomized Trials," Journal of the American Medical Association 252, no. 19 (1984): 2739-45.
44. Raheim and Alter (n. 1 above); Jonathan Morduch, "Does Microfinance Really Help the Poor? New Evidence from Flagship Programs in Bangladesh" (unpublished manuscript, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J., 1998);
45. Mark M. Pitt and Shahidur R. Khandker, "The Impact of Group-Based Credit Programs on Poor Households in Bangladesh: Does the Gender of the Participants Matter?" Journal of Political Economy 106, no. 5 (1998): 958-96.
46. Benus et al., p. i.
47. More details of the implementation of UISED in Washington and Massachusetts are in Benus et al.; Jacob M. Benus, Michelle Wood, Neelima Grover, A Comparative Analysis of the Washington and Massachusetts UI Self-Employment Demonstrations, U.S. Department of Labor, Unemployment Insurance Occasional Paper no. 94-3 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, 1994); and Mark Schreiner, "Lessons for Microenterprise Programs from a Fresh Look at the Unemployment Insurance Self-Employment Demonstration," Evaluation Review 23, no. 5 (1999): 503-26.
48. More details of the implementation of UISED in Washington and Massachusetts are in Benus et al.; Jacob M. Benus, Michelle Wood, Neelima Grover, A Comparative Analysis of the Washington and Massachusetts UI Self-Employment Demonstrations, U.S. Department of Labor, Unemployment Insurance Occasional Paper no. 94-3 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, 1994); and Mark Schreiner, "Lessons for Microenterprise Programs from a Fresh Look at the Unemployment Insurance Self-Employment Demonstration," Evaluation Review 23, no. 5 (1999): 503-26.
49. Benus et al.
50. Deirdre N. McCloskey, The Rhetoric of Economics, 2d ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998).
51. Benus et al., pp. x-xi.
52. Schreiner, "Lessons for Microenterprise Programs from a Fresh Look at the Unemployment Insurance Self-Employment Demonstration"; and Benus, Wood, and Grover.
53. Benus et al. (n. 22 above).
54. Schreiner, "Lessons for Microenterprise Programs from the Unemployment Insurance Self-Employment Demonstration."
55. Benus et al., p. 198.
56. Benus et al.
57. Schreiner, "Lessons for Microenterprise Programs from a Fresh Look at the Unemployment Insurance Self-Employment Demonstration" (n. 28 above).
58. Ibid.
59. Bates Race, Self-Employment, and Upward Mobility: An Illusive American Dream (n. 21 above).
60. Although MEPs in Massachusetts did try to link users with a local bank that agreed to consider loans that normally would be too small for its guidelines, no one knows how many users took advantage of this (Benus et al.).
61. Dennis (n. 20 above).
62. Roberta Spalter-Roth, Heidi I. Hartmann, and Lois B. Shaw, Exploring the Characteristics of Self-Employment and Part-Time Work among Women (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research, 1993); Karyn A. Loscocco and Joyce Robinson, "Barriers to Women's Small-Business Success in the United States," Gender and Society 5, no. 4 (1991): 511-32.
63. Roberta Spalter-Roth, Heidi I. Hartmann, and Lois B. Shaw, Exploring the Characteristics of Self-Employment and Part-Time Work among Women (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research, 1993); Karyn A. Loscocco and Joyce Robinson, "Barriers to Women's Small-Business Success in the United States," Gender and Society 5, no. 4 (1991): 511-32.
64. Timothy Bates, "The Financial Needs of Black-Owned Businesses," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 1 (1996): 1-15; David S. Evans and Linda S. Leighton, "Some Empirical Aspects of Enterpreneurship," American Economic Review 79, no. 3 (1989): 519-35; Novogratz (n. 14 above).
65. Timothy Bates, "The Financial Needs of Black-Owned Businesses," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 1 (1996): 1-15; David S. Evans and Linda S. Leighton, "Some Empirical Aspects of Enterpreneurship," American Economic Review 79, no. 3 (1989): 519-35; Novogratz (n. 14 above).
66. Novogratz; Dennis; Peter Nares and Rona Feit, ed., The Self-Employment Strategy: Gaining Momentum, Expanding Opportunities (Ontario and Washington, D.C.: Self-Employment Development Initiatives and Corporation for Enterprise Development, 1989), p. 49; Marc Bendick, Jr., and Mary Lou Egan, "Transfer Payment Diversion for Small Business Developopment: British and French Experience," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 40, no. 4 (1987): 528-42.
67. Novogratz; Dennis; Peter Nares and Rona Feit, ed., The Self-Employment Strategy: Gaining Momentum, Expanding Opportunities (Ontario and Washington, D.C.: Self-Employment Development Initiatives and Corporation for Enterprise Development, 1989), p. 49; Marc Bendick, Jr., and Mary Lou Egan, "Transfer Payment Diversion for Small Business Developopment: British and French Experience," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 40, no. 4 (1987): 528-42.
68. Benus et al. (n. 22 above).
69. Raheim and Alter (n. 1 above).
70. Salome Raheim, "Rejoinder: Toward a Broader Understanding fo the Needs of African-American Enterpreneurs," Journal of Developmental Enterpreneurship 1, no. 1 (1996): 17-26.
71. Friedman (n. 1 above); Raheim, "Rejoinder: Toward a Broader Understanding of the Needs of African-American Enterpreneurs"; Raheim, Alter, and Yarbrough (n. 1 above).
72. Salome Raheim, "Micro-Enterprise as an Approach for Promoting Economic Development in Social Work: Lessons from the Self-Employment Investment Demostration," International Social Work 39 (1996): 69-82, quote on 74-75.
73. Friedman, Grossman, and Sahay (n. 1 above), p. 1.
74. The Microenterprises Fund for Innovation, Effectiveness, Learning and Dissemination, "Request for Applications: Assessing the Effectiveness of Training and Technical Assistance" (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1998); Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recepients" (n. 1 above), "Rejoinder: Toward a Broader Understanding of the Needs of African-American Enterpreneurs," and "Micro-Enterprises as an Approach for Promoting Economic Development in Social Work: Lessons form the Self-Employment Investment Demonstration"; Raheim, Alter, and Yarbrough; and Else and Reheim (n. 1 above).
75. Friedman, Grossman, and Sahay. Raheim and Alter say that without an experiment, "findings cannot be generalized to the broader AFDC population. However, they may be generalizable to those individuals who will voluntary enroll in self-employment programs" (p. 59). Unfortunately, cause and effect is unclear even for self-selected users - they may have done almost as well even without MEPs.
76. Bates, Race, Self-Employment, and Upward Mobility: an Illusive American Dream (n. 21 above).
77. Friedman, Grossman, and Sahay.
78. Raheim. "Problems and Propect of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients," p. 48.
79. Friedman. Grossman, and Sahay. An early, independent evaluation of SEID was less sanguine (see Cynthia A. Guy, Fred Doolittle, adn Barbara L. Fink, Self-Employment for Welfare Recipients: Implementation of the SEID Program [Washington, D.C.: Manpower Demostration Research Corporation, 1991]).
80. Raheim and Alter (n. 1 above).
81. Mark Schreiner, "A Review of Evaluations of Microenterprise Programs in the United States" (unpublished manuscript, Washington University in St. Louis, Center for Social Development, 1999).
82. Margaret S. Sherraden, Cynthia K. Sanders, and Michael Sherraden, "From the Eyes of the Entrepreneurs: Microenterprise as an Anti-poverty Strategy" (report to the Self-Employment Learning Project, Aspen Institute, Washington, D.C., April 1998); Raheim, "Rejoinder: Toward a Broader Understanding of the Needs of African-American Entrepreneurs" (n. 47 above); Timothy Bates, "Why Do Minority Business Development Programs Generate So Little Minority Business Development?" Economic Development Quarterly 9, no. 1 (1995): 3-14 (hereafter cited as "Minority Business Development?").
83. Margaret S. Sherraden, Cynthia K. Sanders, and Michael Sherraden, "From the Eyes of the Entrepreneurs: Microenterprise as an Anti-poverty Strategy" (report to the Self-Employment Learning Project, Aspen Institute, Washington, D.C., April 1998); Raheim, "Rejoinder: Toward a Broader Understanding of the Needs of African-American Entrepreneurs" (n. 47 above); Timothy Bates, "Why Do Minority Business Development Programs Generate So Little Minority Business Development?" Economic Development Quarterly 9, no. 1 (1995): 3-14 (hereafter cited as "Minority Business Development?").
84. Margaret S. Sherraden, Cynthia K. Sanders, and Michael Sherraden, "From the Eyes of the Entrepreneurs: Microenterprise as an Anti-poverty Strategy" (report to the Self-Employment Learning Project, Aspen Institute, Washington, D.C., April 1998); Raheim, "Rejoinder: Toward a Broader Understanding of the Needs of African-American Entrepreneurs" (n. 47 above); Timothy Bates, "Why Do Minority Business Development Programs Generate So Little Minority Business Development?" Economic Development Quarterly 9, no. 1 (1995): 3-14 (hereafter cited as "Minority Business Development?").
85. Schreiner, "Lessons for Microenterprise Programs from a Fresh Look at the Unemployment Insurance Self-Employment Demonstration" (n. 28 above).
86. Timothy Bates and Lisa J. Servon, "Microenterprise as an Exit Route from Poverty: Recommendations for Programs and Policy Makers," Journal of Urban Affairs 20, no. 4 (1998): 419-44.
87. Bates, Race, Self-Employment, and Upward Mobility: An Illusive American Dream.
88. The EDWAAJCD ran from 1991 to 1993 at six nonprofits in the states of Illinois, Michigan, Georgia, Mississippi, and New York. Authorized under the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) and funded by the U.S. Department of Labor, the program aimed "to explore the effectiveness of Community Development Corporations in expanding employment opportunities for dislocated workers through entrepreneurial training and linkages to other economic-development activities" (David Drury, Stephen Walsh, and Marlene Strong, "Evaluation of the EDWAA Job Creation Demonstration," U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Office of Policy and Research, Research and Evaluation Report Series no. 94-G [Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, 1994), p. i). The mission was income growth and job creation; services included formal classroom training and individual technical assistance, but JTPA rules did not allow loans. For a time, three MEPs also offered some reemployment training and job-search assistance. The target group for three of the six MEPs was dislocated workers, including those displaced by defense cuts or by imports. Three of the MEPs aimed at a poorer target group that included more women and more nonwhites.
89. Ibid., p. xii.
90. David Smith, "Explaining Gender Differences in Earnings among the Self-Employed" (unpublished manuscript, Pepperdine University, Malibu, Calif., 1998); Loscocco and Robinson (n. 42 above).
91. Spalter-Roth, Hartmann, and Shaw (n. 42 above).
92. Bates and Servon; Johnson, "An Overview of Basic Issues Facing Microenterprise Practices in the United States" (n. 5 above). According to Spalter-Roth, Soto, and Zandniapour, "Even for motivated low-income women, micro-enterprise training does not generally increase living standards - at least in the short run" (Spalter-Roth, Soto, and Zandniapour [n. 1 above], p. 8). Others argue that MEPs encourage women to choose pink-collar businesses that keep them economically vulnerable (see Tracy Bachrach Ehlers and Karen Main, "Women and the False Promise of Microenterprise," Gender and Society 12, no. 4 [1998]: 424-40).
93. Bates and Servon; Johnson, "An Overview of Basic Issues Facing Microenterprise Practices in the United States" (n. 5 above). According to Spalter-Roth, Soto, and Zandniapour, "Even for motivated low-income women, micro-enterprise training does not generally increase living standards - at least in the short run" (Spalter-Roth, Soto, and Zandniapour [n. 1 above], p. 8). Others argue that MEPs encourage women to choose pink-collar businesses that keep them economically vulnerable (see Tracy Bachrach Ehlers and Karen Main, "Women and the False Promise of Microenterprise," Gender and Society 12, no. 4 [1998]: 424-40).
94. Bates and Servon; Johnson, "An Overview of Basic Issues Facing Microenterprise Practices in the United States" (n. 5 above). According to Spalter-Roth, Soto, and Zandniapour, "Even for motivated low-income women, micro-enterprise training does not generally increase living standards - at least in the short run" (Spalter-Roth, Soto, and Zandniapour [n. 1 above], p. 8). Others argue that MEPs encourage women to choose pink-collar businesses that keep them economically vulnerable (see Tracy Bachrach Ehlers and Karen Main, "Women and the False Promise of Microenterprise," Gender and Society 12, no. 4 [1998]: 424-40).
95. Clark and Huston (n. 3 above).
96. Drury, Walsh, and Strong.
97. Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients" (n. 1 above), p. 49.
98. Donald R. Williams, "Consequences of Self-Employment for Women and Men in the United States: Preliminary Results" (unpublished manuscript, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, 1998).
99. Lisa J. Servon, "Microenterprise Programs and Women: Entrepreneurship as Individual Empowerment," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 1, no. 1 (1996): 31-55.
100. Sherraden, Sanders, and Sherraden (n. 59 above); Timothy Bates and Lisa J. Servon, "Why Loans Won't Save the Poor," Inc. 18 (April 1996): 27-28.
101. Spalter-Roth, Soto, and Zandniapour; and Spalter-Roth, Hartmann, and Shaw.
102. Sue Birley, "Female Entrepreneurs: Are They Really Any Different?" Journal of Small Business Management 27, no. 1 (1989): 32-37.
103. Bates and Servon, "Microenterprise as an Exit Route from Poverty: Recommendations for Programs and Policy Makers" (n. 61 above).
104. Richard P. Taub, "Making the Adaptation across Cultures and Societies: A Report on an Attempt to Clone the Grameen Bank in Southern Arkansas," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 3, no. 1 (1998): 53-69, p. 67.
105. Christina Himes with Lisa J. Servon, Measuring Client Success: An Evaluation of Acción's Impact on Microenterprises in the United States, U.S. Issues Series no. 2 (Boston: Acción International 1998); Taub; Servon, "Microenterprise Programs in U.S. Inner Cities: Economic Development or Social Welfare?" (n. 7 above); and Spalter-Roth, Soto, and Zandniapour.
106. Christina Himes with Lisa J. Servon, Measuring Client Success: An Evaluation of Acción's Impact on Microenterprises in the United States, U.S. Issues Series no. 2 (Boston: Acción International 1998); Taub; Servon, "Microenterprise Programs in U.S. Inner Cities: Economic Development or Social Welfare?" (n. 7 above); and Spalter-Roth, Soto, and Zandniapour.
107. Spalter-Roth, Hartmann, and Shaw (n. 42 above).
108. Sherraden, Sanders, and Sherraden.
109. Philip Bond and Robert Townsend, "Formal and Informal Financing in a Chicago Ethnic Neighborhood," Economic Perspectives, Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago 20, no. 4 (1996): 3-27; Spalter-Roth, Hartmann, and Shaw.
110. Boyan Jovanovic, "Selection and the Evolution of Industry," Econometrica 50, no. 3 (1982): 649-70.
111. Morduch, "Does Microfinance Really Help the Poor? New Evidence from Flagship Programs in Bangladesh" (n. 26 above); Raheim and Alter (n. 1 above); Taub; Sherraden, Sanders, and Sherraden (n. 59 above); David Hulme and Paul Mosley, Finance against Poverty (London: Routledge, 1996), vol. 1; Servon, "Microenterprise Programs and Women: Entrepreneurship as Individual Empowerment" (n. 72 above).
112. Morduch, "Does Microfinance Really Help the Poor? New Evidence from Flagship Programs in Bangladesh" (n. 26 above); Raheim and Alter (n. 1 above); Taub; Sherraden, Sanders, and Sherraden (n. 59 above); David Hulme and Paul Mosley, Finance against Poverty (London: Routledge, 1996), vol. 1; Servon, "Microenterprise Programs and Women: Entrepreneurship as Individual Empowerment" (n. 72 above).
113. Morduch, "Does Microfinance Really Help the Poor? New Evidence from Flagship Programs in Bangladesh" (n. 26 above); Raheim and Alter (n. 1 above); Taub; Sherraden, Sanders, and Sherraden (n. 59 above); David Hulme and Paul Mosley, Finance against Poverty (London: Routledge, 1996), vol. 1; Servon, "Microenterprise Programs and Women: Entrepreneurship as Individual Empowerment" (n. 72 above).
114. Clark and Huston (n. 3 above).
115. Himes with Servon.
116. Elizabeth Dunn, "Diversification in the Household Economic Portfolio" (paper prepared for the Assessing Impact of Microenterprise Services Project, U.S. Agency for International Development, Global Bureau, Economic Growth Center, Office of Microenterprise Development, Management Systems International, Washington, D.C., 1997).
117. Sherraden, Sanders, and Sherraden.
118. Sergio Navajas Mark Schreiner, Richard L. Meyer, Claudio Gonzalez-Vega, and Jorge Rodriguez-Meza, "Microfinance and the Poorest of the Poor: Theory and Evidence from Bolivia," World Development 28, no. 2 (February 2000), in press; Paul Mosley and David Hulme, "Microenterprise Finance: Is There a Conflict between Growth and Poverty Alleviation?" World Development 26, no. 5 (1998): 783-90. Johnson indicates that in practice, many MEPs serve clients who are less disadvantaged than those who, in principle, the MEP would like to reach ("Developing a Typology" [n. 4 above]).
119. Sergio Navajas Mark Schreiner, Richard L. Meyer, Claudio Gonzalez-Vega, and Jorge Rodriguez-Meza, "Microfinance and the Poorest of the Poor: Theory and Evidence from Bolivia," World Development 28, no. 2 (February 2000), in press; Paul Mosley and David Hulme, "Microenterprise Finance: Is There a Conflict between Growth and Poverty Alleviation?" World Development 26, no. 5 (1998): 783-90. Johnson indicates that in practice, many MEPs serve clients who are less disadvantaged than those who, in principle, the MEP would like to reach ("Developing a Typology" [n. 4 above]).
120. Ivan Light and Michelle Pham, "Beyond Creditworthy: Microcredit and Informal Credit in the United States," Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 3, no. 1 (1998): 35-51, quote on 43.
121. Servon, "Microenterprise Programs in U.S. Inner Cities: Economic Development or Social Welfare?" (n. 7 above), p. 166.
122. Bates, "Minority Business Development?" (n. 59 above).
123. Economic Opportunities Program, "Microenterprise Assistance: What Are We Learning about Results? Key Findings from the Aspen Institute's Self-Employment Learning Project" (unpublished manuscript, Aspen Institute, Washington, D.C., 1997).
124. Benus et al. (n. 22 above); Drury, Walsh, and Strong (n. 63 above).
125. Sherraden, Sanders, and Sherraden (n. 59 above). Bond and Townsend (n. 81 above).
126. Drury, Walsh, and Strong.
127. Taub says MEPs "work best not with those who are long-term on welfare, but those who have histories of holding jobs and who have well-defined skills" (n. 77 above, p. 67).
128. Birley (n. 75 above).
129. Drury, Walsh, and Strong.
130. Friedman, Grossman, and Sahay (n. 1 above).
131. Balkin (n. 1 above).
132. Douglas Holtz-Eakin, David Joulfaian, and Harvey S. Rosen, "Sucking It Out: Entrepreneurial Survival and Liquidity Constraints," Journal of Political Economy 102, no. 1 (1994): 53-75; David S. Evans and Boyan Jovanovic, "An Estimated Model of Entrepreneurial Choice under Liquidity Constraints," Journal of Political Economy 97, no. 4 (1989): 808-27.
133. Douglas Holtz-Eakin, David Joulfaian, and Harvey S. Rosen, "Sucking It Out: Entrepreneurial Survival and Liquidity Constraints," Journal of Political Economy 102, no. 1 (1994): 53-75; David S. Evans and Boyan Jovanovic, "An Estimated Model of Entrepreneurial Choice under Liquidity Constraints," Journal of Political Economy 97, no. 4 (1989): 808-27.
134. Jonathan Morduch, "The Microfinance Promise," Journal of Economic Literature (in press); Bates, "Minority Business Development?" (n. 59 above).
135. Allen N. Berger and Gregory F. Udell, "The Economics of Small-Business Finance: The Roles of Private Equity and Debt Markets in the Financial Growth Cycle," Journal of Banking and Finance 22 (1998): 613-73.
136. Light and Pham (n. 89 above).
137. Dennis (n. 20 above); Bond and Townsend (n. 81 above).
138. Sondra G. Beverly and Michael Sherraden, "Institutional Determinants of Savings: Implications for Low-Income Households," Journal of Socio-Economics (in press); R. Glenn Hubbard, Jonathan Skinner, and Stephen P. Zeldes, "Precautionary Savings and Social Insurance," Journal of Political Economy 103, no. 2 (1995): 360-99.
139. Sondra G. Beverly and Michael Sherraden, "Institutional Determinants of Savings: Implications for Low-Income Households," Journal of Socio-Economics (in press); R. Glenn Hubbard, Jonathan Skinner, and Stephen P. Zeldes, "Precautionary Savings and Social Insurance," Journal of Political Economy 103, no. 2 (1995): 360-99.
140. Dennis; Friedman, Grossman, and Sahay; Lewis D. Soloman, "Microenterprise: Human Reconstruction in America's Inner Cities," Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy 15, no. 1 (1992): 191-221.
141. Edward N. Wolff, "Recent Trends in the Size Distribution of Household Wealth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 12, no. 3 (1998): 131-50.
142. Sherraden, Sanders, and Sherraden (n. 59 above).
143. Dennis.
144. Clark and Huston (n. 3 above).
145. Michael Sherraden, Assets and the Poor: A New American Welfare Policy (Armonk, N. Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1991).
146. Mark Schreiner, "The Context for Microenterprises and for Microenterprise Programs in the United States and Abroad" (unpublished manuscript, Washington University in St. Louis, Center for Social Development, 1998).
147. Sherraden, Sanders, and Sherraden.
148. Raheim and Alter (n. 1 above); Dennis (n. 20 above); Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients" (n. 1 above); Servon, "Microenterprise Programs in U.S. Inner Cities: Economic Development or Social Welfare?" (n. 7 above); Bates, "Minority Business Development?" (n. 59 above).
149. Raheim and Alter (n. 1 above); Dennis (n. 20 above); Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients" (n. 1 above); Servon, "Microenterprise Programs in U.S. Inner Cities: Economic Development or Social Welfare?" (n. 7 above); Bates, "Minority Business Development?" (n. 59 above).
150. Raheim and Alter (n. 1 above); Dennis (n. 20 above); Raheim, "Problems and Prospects of Self-Employment as an Economic Independence Option for Welfare Recipients" (n. 1 above); Servon, "Microenterprise Programs in U.S. Inner Cities: Economic Development or Social Welfare?" (n. 7 above); Bates, "Minority Business Development?" (n. 59 above).
151. Mark Schreiner and Jacob Yaron, "The Subsidy Dependence Index and Recent Attempts to Adjust It," Savings and Development (in press).
152. Lisa J. Servon, "Credit and Social Capital: The Community Development Potential of U.S. Microenterprise Programs," Housing Policy Debated, no. 1 (1998): 115-49.
153. Robert J. Brent, Applied Cost-Benefit Analysis (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1996); J. Price Gittinger, Economic Analysis of Agricultural Projects, 2d ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982).
154. Robert J. Brent, Applied Cost-Benefit Analysis (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1996); J. Price Gittinger, Economic Analysis of Agricultural Projects, 2d ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982).
155. Mark Schreiner, "A Framework for the Analysis of the Performance and Sustain-ability of Subsidized Microfinance Organizations with Application to BancoSol of Bolivia and Grameen Bank of Bangladesh" (Ph.D. diss., The Ohio State University, Department of Agricultural, Environmental, and Development Economics, 1997).
156. Severens and Kays, eds. (n. 1 above).
157. "User" is not defined in Severens and Kays, eds.
158. Edgcomb, Klein, and Clark (n. 5 above).
159. Ibid.
160. Friedman, Grossman, and Sahay (n. 1 above).
161. Ibid., p. 16.
162. Ibid.
163. Salome Raheim, "Self-Employment Training and Family Development: An Integrated Strategy for Family Empowerment," in Reinventing Human Services: Community-and Family-Centered Practice, ed. Paul Adams and Kristine Nelson (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1995), pp. 127-43; Else and Raheim (n. 1 above).
164. Raheim and Alter (n. 1 above).
165. Joyce A. Klein, "Small Steps toward Big Dreams: 1994 Update of Charles Stewart Mott Foundation Seed Capital Program" (unpublished manuscript, Corporation for Enterprise Development, Washington, D.C., 1994).
166. The information on MEPs in SELP is drawn from Clark and Huston (n. 3 above); from Edgcomb, Klien, and Clark (n. 5 above); and from Klein.
167. Edgcomb, Klein, and Clark.
168. Ibid.; Taub (n. 77 above).
169. Lisa J. Servon, "Microcredit in the U.S.: An Alternative Economic Survival Strategy," Berkeley Planning Journal 7 (1992): 148-56.
170. Edgcomb, Klein, and Clark, p. 8.
171. Severens and Kays, eds. (n. 1 above).
172. Pedro Belli, Handbook on Economic Analysis of Investment Operations, Operations Policy Department (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1996);
173. Gittinger (n. 118 above); U.S. Office of Management and Budget, "Discount Rates to Be Used in Evaluating Time-Distributed Costs and Benefits," Circular no. A-94, rev. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Management and Budget, 1972).
174. Severens and Kays, eds.
175. Julia Paxton, A Worldwide Inventory of Microfinance Institutions (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1996).
176. Severens and Kays, eds.
177. Raheim and Alter (n. 1 above).
178. Servon, "Microenterprise Programs in U.S. Inner Cities: Economic Development or Social Welfare?" (n. 7 above), "The Economic Development Potential of Microcredit: Myths and Misconceptions" (n. 13 above), "Microenterprise Programs and Women: Entrepreneurship as Individual Empowerment" (n. 72 above), and "Credit and Social Capital: The Community Development Potential of U.S. Microenterprise Programs" (n. 117 above).
179. Bates and Servon (n. 73 above); Servon, "Microenterprise Programs in U.S. Inner Cities: Economic Development or Social Welfare?" "The Economic Development Potential of Microcredit: Myths and Misconceptions," and "Credit and Social Capital: The Community Development Potential of U.S. Microenterprise Programs."