The United States and South Korean democratization

Political Science Quarterly

Volumn 114, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 265-288

  Fowler, James ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0040213327     PISSN: 00323195     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2657739     Document Type: Article

References (195)

1. At President Jimmy Carter's first transition meeting with President Ronald Reagan in 1980, Carter noted that Reagan "expressed with some enthusiasm his envy of the authority that Korean President Park Chung Hee had exercised during a time of campus unrest, when he had closed the universities and drafted the demonstrators." Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (New York: Bantam Books, 1982), 578.
2. Telegrams from U.S. Ambassador to South Korea William Gleysteen to Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, "Reaction to Prisoner Release," 19 July 1979, and "Prisoners Released as Expected on ROK Independence Day," 16 August 1979. These and all telegrams cited were released by the Department of State in response to a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request originally filed by Tim Shorrock and can be found in the Kwangju Documents Collection, Government Documents and Information Center, Mudd Library, Yale University.
3. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "National Assembly Finishes Fourth Day of Interpellations," 26 July 1979.
4. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Kim Young Sam's September 10 Press Conference," 10 September 1979.
5. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "ROKG Limits Dissent," 14 September 1979.
6. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Situation in Pusan Following Declaration of Martial Law," 18 October 1979.
7. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "More on Pusan Demonstration; Demonstration at EWHA University in Seoul," 17 October 1979.
8. Ironically, Gleysteen writes: "None of our contacts, including the dissidents, see the current situation in Pusan as an indication that the Park Government faces real problems in staying afloat." Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Update on Martial Law Situation October 22," 22 October 1979.
9. Kihl Young Whan, Politics and Policies in Divided Korea: Regimes in Contrast (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1984), 76. In private conversations with Ambassador Gleysteen, Kim said that he thought EM-9 should be repealed and that he was concerned about "the accumulation of grievances against the Park government and the relatively depressed economic climate in which such grievances can grow." See telegrams from Gleysteen to Vance, "Meeting with Kim," 17 March 1979, and "Charges of U.S. Complicity in President Park's Death," 19 November 1979.
10. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "ROK Announce Partial Investigative Results on President's Death," 28 October 1979.
11. Kihl, Politics and Policies, 78.
12. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Martial Law Administrator General Chong Song-Hwa Briefs the Press," 29 November 1979.
13. Kihl, Politics and Policies, 77; and telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "ROKG Announces the Lifting of Emergency Measure 9," 7 December 1979.
14. Kihl, Politics and Policies, 77; and telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "ROKG Announces the Lifting of Emergency Measure 9," 7 December 1979.
15. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Younger ROK Officers Grab Power Positions," 13 December 1979.
16. Yang Sung Chul, The North and South Korean Political Systems (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994), 429; and telegram from Christopher to Vance, "Military Power Play in South Korea," 12 December 1979.
17. Yang Sung Chul, The North and South Korean Political Systems (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994), 429; and telegram from Christopher to Vance, "Military Power Play in South Korea," 12 December 1979.
18. Donald Stone MacDonald, The Koreans: Contemporary Politics and Society (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990), 58; and telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Younger ROK Officers Grab Power Positions," 13 December 1979.
19. Donald Stone MacDonald, The Koreans: Contemporary Politics and Society (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990), 58; and telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Younger ROK Officers Grab Power Positions," 13 December 1979.
20. Kihl, Politics and Policies, 78.
21. Telegrams from Gleysteen to Vance, "Release of Prisoners on Occasion of Inauguration," 21 December 1979, and "Political Rights Restored," 29 February 1980.
22. Telegrams from Gleysteen to Vance, "Release of Prisoners on Occasion of Inauguration," 21 December 1979, and "Political Rights Restored," 29 February 1980.
23. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "ROK Universities: Off to a Calm Start," 14 March 1980.
24. Kihl, Politics and Policies, 78.
25. Ibid.; and telegram from Gleysteen to SecState, "More Violence on Labor Scene," 1 May 1980. NB: "SecState" was used in the interim period after Secretary Vance resigned and before Edwin Muskie became secretary of State.
26. Ibid.; and telegram from Gleysteen to SecState, "More Violence on Labor Scene," 1 May 1980. NB: "SecState" was used in the interim period after Secretary Vance resigned and before Edwin Muskie became secretary of State.
27. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Organized Labor Calls for Suspension of Special Measures Law," 29 April 1980.
28. Telegram from Gleysteen to SecState, "Martial Law Command Threatens Action Against Future Disturbances," 1 May 1980.
29. Telegram from Gleysteen to SecState, "Student-Police Clashes Occur for First Time This Year," 2 May 1980.
30. Telegram from Gleysteen to SecState, "Student Activism Turns to National Political Issues," 5 May 1980.
31. Telegram from Gleysteen to SecState, "National Alliance Calls for Resignation of Prime Minister and Acting Chief of KCIA," 8 May 1980; and telegrams from Gleysteen to Secretary of State Edwin Muskie, "Kim Young Sam May 9 Press Conference," 9 May 1980, and "Catholic Church Calls for Lifting of Martial Law," 9 May 1980.
32. Telegram from Gleysteen to SecState, "National Alliance Calls for Resignation of Prime Minister and Acting Chief of KCIA," 8 May 1980; and telegrams from Gleysteen to Secretary of State Edwin Muskie, "Kim Young Sam May 9 Press Conference," 9 May 1980, and "Catholic Church Calls for Lifting of Martial Law," 9 May 1980.
33. Telegram from Gleysteen to SecState, "National Alliance Calls for Resignation of Prime Minister and Acting Chief of KCIA," 8 May 1980; and telegrams from Gleysteen to Secretary of State Edwin Muskie, "Kim Young Sam May 9 Press Conference," 9 May 1980, and "Catholic Church Calls for Lifting of Martial Law," 9 May 1980.
34. Telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Seoul Sitrep, 2000 May 15: Demonstrations Out in Force but Police Lines Holding," 15 May 1980.
35. Telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Kim Dae Jung and Kim Young Sam Join in Call for Lifting of Martial Law and Resignation of Prime Minister and Acting KCIA Chief," 16 May 1980.
36. Telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Crackdown in Seoul," 17 May 1980.
37. See Kihl, Politics and Policies, 79; and telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "ROK Sitrep as of 0900 18 May," 18 May 1980.
38. For an excellent account of the Kwangju uprising, see Nam Koon Woo, South Korean Politics: The Search for Political Consensus and Stability (New York: University Press of America, 1989), 221-224.
39. See MacDonald, The Koreans, 58-59; and telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Korea Sitrep - 5 M. May 19," 19 May 1980.
40. See MacDonald, The Koreans, 58-59; and telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Korea Sitrep - 5 M. May 19," 19 May 1980.
41. Telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Seoul Sitrep, 1430 May 21," 21 May 1980.
42. MacDonald, The Koreans, 58-59.
43. Nam, South Korean Politics, 223.
44. Yang, The North and South, 429-431. For example, the human rights group AsiaWatch maintains that 2,000 civilians were killed.
45. James Cotton, "From Authoritarianism to Democracy in South Korea" in James Cotton, ed., Korea Under Roh Tae-woo: Democratization, Northern Policy and Inter-Korean Relations (Canberra: Allen & Unwin, 1993), 33.
46. Cotton, "From Authoritarianism," 33; Robert E. Bedeski, "State Reform and Democracy in South Korea" in Cotton, Korea Under Roh, 65; and Edward A. Olsen, "The Challenge of Political Change Overseas," Washington Quarterly 10 (Spring 1987): 177.
47. Cotton, "From Authoritarianism," 33; Robert E. Bedeski, "State Reform and Democracy in South Korea" in Cotton, Korea Under Roh, 65; and Edward A. Olsen, "The Challenge of Political Change Overseas," Washington Quarterly 10 (Spring 1987): 177.
48. Cotton, "From Authoritarianism," 33; Robert E. Bedeski, "State Reform and Democracy in South Korea" in Cotton, Korea Under Roh, 65; and Edward A. Olsen, "The Challenge of Political Change Overseas," Washington Quarterly 10 (Spring 1987): 177.
49. Don Oberdorder, "U.S. Policy in the 1987 Crisis Compared With Other Allies" in Robert A. Scalapino and Lee Hongkoo, eds., Korea-U.S. Relations: The Politics of Trade and Security (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 180;
50. and Okonogi Masao, "South Korea's Experiment in Democracy" in Cotton, Korea Under Roh, 11.
51. Author's interview with U.S. Ambassador to South Korea James Lilley, 28 February 1997.
52. See Guillermo O'Donnell, "Notas para el estudio de procesos de democratización a partir del estado burocrático-autoritario," Estudios CEDES (Buenos Aires: Centro de Estudios de Estado y Sociedad, 1979).
53. Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 136-137.
54. Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University, 1991), 60.
55. Ibid., 67.
56. Courtney Jung and Ian Shapiro, "South Africa's Negotiated Transition: Democracy, Opposition, and the New Constitutional Order," Politics and Society 23 (September 1995): 278-280.
57. For samples, see Okonogi, "South Korea's Experiment," 11; Bedeski, "State Reform," 65; and Sam Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly Had Little Influence in South Korean Policy Turnabout," Los Angeles Times, 3 July 1987.
58. For samples, see Okonogi, "South Korea's Experiment," 11; Bedeski, "State Reform," 65; and Sam Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly Had Little Influence in South Korean Policy Turnabout," Los Angeles Times, 3 July 1987.
59. For samples, see Okonogi, "South Korea's Experiment," 11; Bedeski, "State Reform," 65; and Sam Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly Had Little Influence in South Korean Policy Turnabout," Los Angeles Times, 3 July 1987.
60. See Daniel A. Bell, Towards Illiberal Democracy in Pacific Asia (New York: St. Martin's, 1995), 87;
61. Bedeski, "State Reform," 65;
62. Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly," 12;
63. Oberdorfer, "U.S. Policy," 180;
64. and Russell Watson, "Crisis in Korea," Newsweek, 29 June 1987, 8. This view was also expressed in the author's interviews with Ambassador William Gleysteen, 27 February 1997 and Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Michael Armacost, 28 February 1997.
65. Soo, "The Impact of Value Change on Democratization in Korea," (http://www.kois.go.kr/ Explore/Studies/15.html), 1 January 1997. See also Tat Yan Kong, "From Relative Autonomy to Consensual Development: The Case of South Korea," Political Studies 43 (December 1995): 641. For a description of the theory of postmaterialist values, see Ronald Inglehart, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).
66. Soo, "The Impact of Value Change on Democratization in Korea," (http://www.kois.go.kr/ Explore/Studies/15.html), 1 January 1997. See also Tat Yan Kong, "From Relative Autonomy to Consensual Development: The Case of South Korea," Political Studies 43 (December 1995): 641. For a description of the theory of postmaterialist values, see Ronald Inglehart, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).
67. Soo, "The Impact of Value Change on Democratization in Korea," (http://www.kois.go.kr/ Explore/Studies/15.html), 1 January 1997. See also Tat Yan Kong, "From Relative Autonomy to Consensual Development: The Case of South Korea," Political Studies 43 (December 1995): 641. For a description of the theory of postmaterialist values, see Ronald Inglehart, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).
68. Author's interview with Gleysteen, 27 February 1997.
69. Bedeski, "State Reform," 69.
70. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "More on Pusan Demonstration; Demonstration at EWHA University in Seoul," 17 October 1979.
71. MacDonald, The Koreans, 127.
72. See, for instance, Chalmers Johnson, "South Korean Democratization: The Role of Economic Development" in Cotton, Korea Under Roh, 105.
73. See, for example, Bedeski, "State Reform," 64.
74. Robert E. Bedeski, The Transformation of South Korea: Reform and Reconstitution in the Sixth Republic Under Roe Tae Woo, 1987-1992 (New York: Routledge, 1994), 115.
75. Sakong H, Korea in the World Economy (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 1993), 54; and MacDonald, The Koreans, 57-58.
76. Sakong H, Korea in the World Economy (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 1993), 54; and MacDonald, The Koreans, 57-58.
77. Though the empirical evidence is inconclusive, Przeworski intuits that "finer analysis may still show that economic factors operate in a uniform way: Liberalization occurs when an economic crisis follows a long period of growth." Przeworski, Democracy and the Market, 97.
78. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Second Demonstration at Seoul National University," 20 September 1979.
79. MacDonald, The Koreans, 58.
80. Tat, "From Relative Autonomy," 638; and Kihl, Politics and Policies, 76-78.
81. Tat, "From Relative Autonomy," 638; and Kihl, Politics and Policies, 76-78.
82. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Garment Workers Strike," 11 April 1980; Kihl, Politics and Policies, 78;
83. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Garment Workers Strike," 11 April 1980; Kihl, Politics and Policies, 78;
84. telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Organized Labor Calls for Suspension of Special Measures Law," 29 April 1980;
85. telegram from Gleysteen to SecState, "More Violence on Labor Scene," 1 May 1980;
86. telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "FKTU Holds Rally for Right to Strike," 14 May 1980;
87. Frederica M. Bunge, ed., South Korea: A Country Study (Washington, DC.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982), 179;
88. and telegram from Gleysteen to Christopher, "The Labor Scene: Disputes, Remedies and Recommendations," 6 May 1980.
89. MacDonald, The Koreans, 131.
90. Telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Unions Feel Pressure from ROKG," 3 June 1980.
91. Huntington, The Third Wave, 196; Former Director of Korean Affairs Robert G. Rich, Jr. concurred with this assertion in an interview with the author on 27 February 1997.
92. Huntington, The Third Wave, 196; Former Director of Korean Affairs Robert G. Rich, Jr. concurred with this assertion in an interview with the author on 27 February 1997.
93. Okonogi, "South Korea's Experiment," 11; Cotton, "From Authoritarianism," 33; and Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly," 12.
94. Okonogi, "South Korea's Experiment," 11; Cotton, "From Authoritarianism," 33; and Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly," 12.
95. Okonogi, "South Korea's Experiment," 11; Cotton, "From Authoritarianism," 33; and Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly," 12.
96. Johnson, "South Korean Democratization," 104.
97. Bell, Towards Illiberal Democracy, 87.
98. Author's interview with Rich, 27 February 1997; Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly," 12; and Kihl, Politics and Policies, 77.
99. Author's interview with Rich, 27 February 1997; Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly," 12; and Kihl, Politics and Policies, 77.
100. Author's interview with Rich, 27 February 1997; Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly," 12; and Kihl, Politics and Policies, 77.
101. Kihl, Politics and Policies, 77.
102. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Acting President's Speech and Dissidents," 10 November 1979. It should be noted that after much prodding, Choi did meet with Kim Young Sam and dissident groups two weeks later. See telegrams from Gleysteen to Vance, "Acting President Meets Opposition Leader," 24 November 1979, and "Acting President Meets Religious Leaders," 26 November 1979.
103. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Acting President's Speech and Dissidents," 10 November 1979. It should be noted that after much prodding, Choi did meet with Kim Young Sam and dissident groups two weeks later. See telegrams from Gleysteen to Vance, "Acting President Meets Opposition Leader," 24 November 1979, and "Acting President Meets Religious Leaders," 26 November 1979.
104. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Acting President's Speech and Dissidents," 10 November 1979. It should be noted that after much prodding, Choi did meet with Kim Young Sam and dissident groups two weeks later. See telegrams from Gleysteen to Vance, "Acting President Meets Opposition Leader," 24 November 1979, and "Acting President Meets Religious Leaders," 26 November 1979.
105. Telegram from Rich to Holbrooke, "Weekly Status Report - Korea," 7 December 1979; and telegrams from Gleysteen to Vance, "Conversation with NDP Assemblymen," 12 December 1979, and "My December 20 Conversation with NDP President Kim Young Sam," 21 December 1979.
106. Telegram from Rich to Holbrooke, "Weekly Status Report - Korea," 7 December 1979; and telegrams from Gleysteen to Vance, "Conversation with NDP Assemblymen," 12 December 1979, and "My December 20 Conversation with NDP President Kim Young Sam," 21 December 1979.
107. Telegram from Rich to Holbrooke, "Weekly Status Report - Korea," 7 December 1979; and telegrams from Gleysteen to Vance, "Conversation with NDP Assemblymen," 12 December 1979, and "My December 20 Conversation with NDP President Kim Young Sam," 21 December 1979.
108. See telegrams from Gleysteen to Vance, "Current Political Scene Review with Member of Acting President's Staff," 30 November 1979, "Discussion of Military Grab With President Choi," 13 December 1979, "New Defense Minister," 15 December 1979, and "Korea Focus - My Meeting With Prime Minister December 18," 18 December 1979.
109. Telegram from Gleysteen to Christopher, "Korea Focus: Building Tensions and Concern Over Student Issue," 8 May 1980.
110. Telegram from Christopher to Gleysteen, "Korea Focus - Tensions in the ROK," 8 May 1980; and Kihl, Politics and Policies, 77.
111. Telegram from Christopher to Gleysteen, "Korea Focus - Tensions in the ROK," 8 May 1980; and Kihl, Politics and Policies, 77.
112. Telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "My 17 Meeting with Blue House SYG Choi Kwang Soo," 17 May 1980.
113. 76 Author's interview with Gleysteen, 27 February 1997.
114. Even though reformers did retain posts in the military (some of whom would be instrumental in 1987), Chun effectively forced them to remain silent by installing loyalists deep within the ranks. Author's interview with Gleysteen, 27 February 1997. By February, a reformer faction in the military was "virtually non-existent," meaning that a negotiated transition to democracy was unlikely. See telegram from Gleysteem to Vance, "Role of the Moderate Opposition in the Transition Away from Authoritarianism," 11 February 1980.
115. See Kim Hyun K., "Unification Fever and Resentment: A Comparative Analysis of U.S. and Korean Press Reports on Radical Student Movement" in Tae-Hwan Kwak and Lee Seong Hyong, eds., Forty Years of Korea-U.S. Relations, 1948-1988 (Seoul: Kyung Hee University, 1990), 194. For an especially balanced treatment, see Donald Clark, Korea Briefing, 1991 (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991), 156-159.
116. See Kim Hyun K., "Unification Fever and Resentment: A Comparative Analysis of U.S. and Korean Press Reports on Radical Student Movement" in Tae-Hwan Kwak and Lee Seong Hyong, eds., Forty Years of Korea-U.S. Relations, 1948-1988 (Seoul: Kyung Hee University, 1990), 194. For an especially balanced treatment, see Donald Clark, Korea Briefing, 1991 (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991), 156-159.
117. See Yang, The North and South, 431-432; Selig S. Harrison, "Political Alliance in the Two Koreas: The Impact of the American Presence" in Doug Bandow and Ted Galen Carpenter, eds., The U.S.-South Korean Alliance (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1991) 123; and Tim Shorrock, "U.S. Knew of South Korean Crackdown: Ex-Leaders Go on Trial in Seoul," Journal of Commerce 27 (February 1996).
118. See Yang, The North and South, 431-432; Selig S. Harrison, "Political Alliance in the Two Koreas: The Impact of the American Presence" in Doug Bandow and Ted Galen Carpenter, eds., The U.S.-South Korean Alliance (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1991) 123; and Tim Shorrock, "U.S. Knew of South Korean Crackdown: Ex-Leaders Go on Trial in Seoul," Journal of Commerce 27 (February 1996).
119. See Yang, The North and South, 431-432; Selig S. Harrison, "Political Alliance in the Two Koreas: The Impact of the American Presence" in Doug Bandow and Ted Galen Carpenter, eds., The U.S.-South Korean Alliance (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1991) 123; and Tim Shorrock, "U.S. Knew of South Korean Crackdown: Ex-Leaders Go on Trial in Seoul," Journal of Commerce 27 (February 1996).
120. Moon Ihlwan, "U.S. Still under Fire for 'Role' in 1980 S. Korea Massacre," Reuters North American Wire, 30 November 1995. See also Kim Hyun K., "Unification Fever," 195.
121. Moon Ihlwan, "U.S. Still under Fire for 'Role' in 1980 S. Korea Massacre," Reuters North American Wire, 30 November 1995. See also Kim Hyun K., "Unification Fever," 195.
122. For an interesting discussion of the uniqueness of the CFC system, see Harrison, "Political Alliance," 123.
123. Clark, Korea Briefing, 158.
124. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Text of Scope Paper RE State Funeral for Korean President Park," 1 November 1979.
125. Pae Sung Moon, "Korean Perspectives on American Democracy" in Kim Ilpyong J., ed., Korean Challenges and American Policy (New York: Paragon House, 1991), 468-469; and Harrison, "Political Alliance," 123.
126. Pae Sung Moon, "Korean Perspectives on American Democracy" in Kim Ilpyong J., ed., Korean Challenges and American Policy (New York: Paragon House, 1991), 468-469; and Harrison, "Political Alliance," 123.
127. Michael Armacost in Hearings before the Subcommittee on Asian and Public Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Affairs House of Representatives, 96th Congress, 2nd sess., 25 June 1980 and 28 August 1980, 10. See also Harrison, "Political Alliance," 123.
128. Armacost, Hearings, 10; Kim Hyun K., "Unification Fever," 195.
129. Armacost, Hearings, 10; Kim Hyun K., "Unification Fever," 195.
130. Telegram from Gleysteen to SecState, "ROKG Shifts Special Forces Units," 7 May 1980.
131. Telegram from Gleysteen to Christopher, "Korea Focus: Building Tensions and Concern Over Student Issue," 8 May 1980. See also telegrams from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Korea Focus: May 9 Conversation with Blue House SYG Kwang Soo Choi," 10 May 1980, and "May 19 Discussion with FonMin on Domestic Politics," 20 May 1980.
132. Telegram from Gleysteen to Christopher, "Korea Focus: Building Tensions and Concern Over Student Issue," 8 May 1980. See also telegrams from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Korea Focus: May 9 Conversation with Blue House SYG Kwang Soo Choi," 10 May 1980, and "May 19 Discussion with FonMin on Domestic Politics," 20 May 1980.
133. Telegram from Gleysteen to Christopher, "Korea Focus: Building Tensions and Concern Over Student Issue," 8 May 1980. See also telegrams from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Korea Focus: May 9 Conversation with Blue House SYG Kwang Soo Choi," 10 May 1980, and "May 19 Discussion with FonMin on Domestic Politics," 20 May 1980.
134. Telegram from Christopher to Gleysteen, "Korea Focus - Tensions in the ROK," 8 May 1980.
135. Armacost, Hearings, 11. General Wickham approved 20th division reinforcements. See Clark, Korea Briefing, 158; Pae, "Korean Perspectives," 469; and telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Korea Sitrep, 1800, May 22, 1980," 22 May 1980.
136. Armacost, Hearings, 11. General Wickham approved 20th division reinforcements. See Clark, Korea Briefing, 158; Pae, "Korean Perspectives," 469; and telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Korea Sitrep, 1800, May 22, 1980," 22 May 1980.
137. Armacost, Hearings, 11. General Wickham approved 20th division reinforcements. See Clark, Korea Briefing, 158; Pae, "Korean Perspectives," 469; and telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Korea Sitrep, 1800, May 22, 1980," 22 May 1980.
138. Armacost, Hearings, 11. General Wickham approved 20th division reinforcements. See Clark, Korea Briefing, 158; Pae, "Korean Perspectives," 469; and telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Korea Sitrep, 1800, May 22, 1980," 22 May 1980.
139. Telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Possible ROK Domestic Reaction to U.S. Position," 23 May 1980.
140. Telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "May 26 Meeting with Blue House SYG Choi," 26 May 1980.
141. Doug Bandow, Tripwire: Korea and U.S. Foreign Policy in a Changed World (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, 1996), 42.
142. Sohn Hak-Kyu, Authoritarianism and Opposition in South Korea (New York: Routledge, 1989), 146; author's interview with Gleysteen, 28 February 1997; Lee Manwoo, Ronald D. McLaurin, and Moon Chung-in, Alliance Under Tension: The Evolution of Korean-U.S. Relations (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988), 45, 150; and Holbrooke, Hearings, 28.
143. Sohn Hak-Kyu, Authoritarianism and Opposition in South Korea (New York: Routledge, 1989), 146; author's interview with Gleysteen, 28 February 1997; Lee Manwoo, Ronald D. McLaurin, and Moon Chung-in, Alliance Under Tension: The Evolution of Korean-U.S. Relations (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988), 45, 150; and Holbrooke, Hearings, 28.
144. Sohn Hak-Kyu, Authoritarianism and Opposition in South Korea (New York: Routledge, 1989), 146; author's interview with Gleysteen, 28 February 1997; Lee Manwoo, Ronald D. McLaurin, and Moon Chung-in, Alliance Under Tension: The Evolution of Korean-U.S. Relations (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988), 45, 150; and Holbrooke, Hearings, 28.
145. Sohn Hak-Kyu, Authoritarianism and Opposition in South Korea (New York: Routledge, 1989), 146; author's interview with Gleysteen, 28 February 1997; Lee Manwoo, Ronald D. McLaurin, and Moon Chung-in, Alliance Under Tension: The Evolution of Korean-U.S. Relations (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988), 45, 150; and Holbrooke, Hearings, 28.
146. Claude A. Buss, The United States and Korea: Background for Policy (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1982), 164; Harrison, "Political Alliance," 123; and Bandow, Tripwire, 42.
147. Claude A. Buss, The United States and Korea: Background for Policy (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1982), 164; Harrison, "Political Alliance," 123; and Bandow, Tripwire, 42.
148. Claude A. Buss, The United States and Korea: Background for Policy (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1982), 164; Harrison, "Political Alliance," 123; and Bandow, Tripwire, 42.
149. William Gleysteen and Alan D. Romberg, "Korea: Asian Paradox," Foreign Affairs 65 (Summer 1987): 1052. See also Oberdorfer, "U.S. Policy," 179;
150. William Gleysteen and Alan D. Romberg, "Korea: Asian Paradox," Foreign Affairs 65 (Summer 1987): 1052. See also Oberdorfer, "U.S. Policy," 179;
151. Lee, McLaurin, and Moon, Alliance, 44;
152. Kim Chonghan, "Korea-U.S. Relations: The Convergence and Divergence of National Interests" in Kwak and Lee, Forty Years, 12;
153. and Morton Kondracke, "Seoul Searching: South Korea Isn't a Democracy -Yet," The New Republic, 27 July 1987, 24.
154. Bedeski, "State Reform," 65.
155. Harrison, "Political Alliance," 123; and Oberdorfer, "U.S. Policy," 180.
156. Harrison, "Political Alliance," 123; and Oberdorfer, "U.S. Policy," 180.
157. Kondracke, "Seoul Searching," 24.
158. Oberdorfer, "U.S. Policy," 179. Ambassador Lilley concurred in his interview with the author, 28 February 1997.
159. Telegrams from Gleysteen to Vance, "Embassy Expresses Concern Over Arrest of NDP Newspaper Editor," 2 August 1979, and "U.S. Criticism of EM-9," 9 August 1979; telegrams from Vance to Gleysteen, "U.S. Criticism of EM-9," 9 August 1979, and "Police Assault on NDP Headquarters in Trading Co Sit-in Incident," 14 August 1979; and telegrams from Gleysteen to Vance, "Police Assault on NDP Headquarters," 14 August 1979, and "Situation Report: Y. H. Incident - August 16," 16 August 1979.
160. Telegram from Rich to Holbrooke, "Weekly Status Report - Korea," 4 October 1979.
161. Sohn, Authoritarianism, 163.
162. Author's interview with Gleysteen, 27 February 1997.
163. William Gleysteen in David D. Newsom, ed., The Diplomacy of Human Rights (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1986).
164. Author's interview with Rich, 27 February 1997.
165. Pae, "Korean Perspectives," 468.
166. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Younger ROK Officers Grab Power Positions," 13 December 1979.
167. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Trial Balloon RE Visit of President Choi to US," 7 January 1980.
168. Lee, McLaurin, and Moon, Alliance, 38. For a specific example, see the telegram from Christopher to Gleysteen, "Crackdown in Seoul," 18 May 1980, in which the State Department deliberately delays and weakens its response.
169. See, for example, the telegram from Christopher to Gleysteen, "Korea Focus: Instructions to See General Chun," 7 August 1980.
170. Ibid.
171. Telegram from Gleysteen to Vance, "Initial Reflections on Post-Park Chung Hee Situation in Korea," 28 October 1979.
172. There is widespread agreement on this point. See Lee, McLaurin, and Moon, Alliance, 10; Nam, South Korean Politics, 223; Kwak Tae-Hwan and Wayne Patterson, "Security Relations Between Korea and the United States 1960-1984" in Lee Yur-Bok and Wayne Patterson, eds., One Hundred Years of Korean-American Relations, 1882-1982 (University: University of Alabama Press, 1986), 120; Hyun Sing-il, "Anti-Americanism in Korean Student Movement" in Kwak and Lee, Forty Years, 36; Bandow, Tripwire, 42; and Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly," 12.
173. There is widespread agreement on this point. See Lee, McLaurin, and Moon, Alliance, 10; Nam, South Korean Politics, 223; Kwak Tae-Hwan and Wayne Patterson, "Security Relations Between Korea and the United States 1960-1984" in Lee Yur-Bok and Wayne Patterson, eds., One Hundred Years of Korean-American Relations, 1882-1982 (University: University of Alabama Press, 1986), 120; Hyun Sing-il, "Anti-Americanism in Korean Student Movement" in Kwak and Lee, Forty Years, 36; Bandow, Tripwire, 42; and Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly," 12.
174. There is widespread agreement on this point. See Lee, McLaurin, and Moon, Alliance, 10; Nam, South Korean Politics, 223; Kwak Tae-Hwan and Wayne Patterson, "Security Relations Between Korea and the United States 1960-1984" in Lee Yur-Bok and Wayne Patterson, eds., One Hundred Years of Korean-American Relations, 1882-1982 (University: University of Alabama Press, 1986), 120; Hyun Sing-il, "Anti-Americanism in Korean Student Movement" in Kwak and Lee, Forty Years, 36; Bandow, Tripwire, 42; and Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly," 12.
175. There is widespread agreement on this point. See Lee, McLaurin, and Moon, Alliance, 10; Nam, South Korean Politics, 223; Kwak Tae-Hwan and Wayne Patterson, "Security Relations Between Korea and the United States 1960-1984" in Lee Yur-Bok and Wayne Patterson, eds., One Hundred Years of Korean-American Relations, 1882-1982 (University: University of Alabama Press, 1986), 120; Hyun Sing-il, "Anti-Americanism in Korean Student Movement" in Kwak and Lee, Forty Years, 36; Bandow, Tripwire, 42; and Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly," 12.
176. There is widespread agreement on this point. See Lee, McLaurin, and Moon, Alliance, 10; Nam, South Korean Politics, 223; Kwak Tae-Hwan and Wayne Patterson, "Security Relations Between Korea and the United States 1960-1984" in Lee Yur-Bok and Wayne Patterson, eds., One Hundred Years of Korean-American Relations, 1882-1982 (University: University of Alabama Press, 1986), 120; Hyun Sing-il, "Anti-Americanism in Korean Student Movement" in Kwak and Lee, Forty Years, 36; Bandow, Tripwire, 42; and Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly," 12.
177. There is widespread agreement on this point. See Lee, McLaurin, and Moon, Alliance, 10; Nam, South Korean Politics, 223; Kwak Tae-Hwan and Wayne Patterson, "Security Relations Between Korea and the United States 1960-1984" in Lee Yur-Bok and Wayne Patterson, eds., One Hundred Years of Korean-American Relations, 1882-1982 (University: University of Alabama Press, 1986), 120; Hyun Sing-il, "Anti-Americanism in Korean Student Movement" in Kwak and Lee, Forty Years, 36; Bandow, Tripwire, 42; and Jameson, "U.S. Reportedly," 12.
178. Bandow, Tripwire, 42; and telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Kwangju Riot and Political Stability," 21 May 1980.
179. Bandow, Tripwire, 42; and telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Kwangju Riot and Political Stability," 21 May 1980.
180. Telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "May 22 Meeting with FonMin," 22 May 1980.
181. Lee, McLaurin, and Moon, Alliance, 11.
182. Nam, South Korean Politics, 223; Doug Bandow in Bandow and Carpenter, U.S.-South Korean Alliance, 80; and telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Kwangju Riot and Political Stability," 21 May 1980.
183. Nam, South Korean Politics, 223; Doug Bandow in Bandow and Carpenter, U.S.-South Korean Alliance, 80; and telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Kwangju Riot and Political Stability," 21 May 1980.
184. Nam, South Korean Politics, 223; Doug Bandow in Bandow and Carpenter, U.S.-South Korean Alliance, 80; and telegram from Gleysteen to Muskie, "Kwangju Riot and Political Stability," 21 May 1980.
185. Vincent S. R. Brandt in Lee Chong-Sik, ed., Korea Briefing, 1990 (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990), 92.
186. Bandow, Tripwire, 28.
187. Harrison, "Political Alliance," 123-124.
188. Kwak and Patterson, "Security Relations," 125-126.
189. Oberdorfer, "U.S. Policy," 179.
190. Bedeski, "State Reform," 63.
191. Olsen, "The Challenge," 173.
192. Raymond Bonner, "It's Time We Start Backing Democracy in South Korea," New York Times, 28 June 1987.
193. Memo, ID#390429SS, FG001, WHORM: Alpha File, Ronald Reagan Library.
194. Oberdorfer, "U.S. Policy," 179.
195. Olsen, "The Challenge," 173.