Religion, race, and the debate over mut' a in Dar es Salaam

Feminist Studies

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 661-690

  Nagar, Richa ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040198071     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3178645     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. Shahla Haeri, Law of Desire: Temporary Marriage in Shi'i Iran (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989), 1. The terms "Shia" and "Shi'ite" have been used synonymously in this essay.
2. Hereafter, I use the term "Ithna Asheris" to refer to the Khoja Shia Ithna Asheris. The title "Khoja" was given by the Persian Ismaili missionary Pir Sadruddin to his Hindu Indian converts to Islam in the fourteenth century (Abdulaziz Sachedina, unpublished manuscript obtained through the courtesy of Mohammed Khalfan). Until 1862, all the Khojas were under the leadership of Aga Khan. In 1862, Sunni Khojas split from Nizari Shi'ite Khojas. The Nizari Shi'ite group formally split into Khoja Ismailis and Khoja Shia Ithna Asheris in 1899 (Sachedina's manuscript and Abdul Sheriff's research notes on "Separation between Ismaili and Ithna Asheri Khojas").
3. The debate discussed here was confined to the Asian Ithna Asheri community in Dar es Salaam. The African Ithna Asheris did not participate in it. For an analysis of mut'a in another racialized context, see Shahnaz Khan, "Race, Gender, and Orientalism: Muta and the Canadian Legal System," Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 8 (1995): 1-13.
4. Each life history involved ten to fifteen hours of conversations with the "narrator" over several weeks on topics such as childhood, family, and marriage; racial, religious, caste, and class politics; and everyday social activities. The shorter interviews usually lasted less than three hours and focused on one or two issues, for example, intercommunal marriages or views about religious organizations.
5. For a detailed discussion of my positionality, see Richa Nagar, "Exploring Methodological Borderlands through Oral Narratives," in Thresholds in Feminist Geography, ed. J.P Jones, H.J. Nast, and S.M. Roberts (Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997), 203-24.
6. I highlight the construction of caste and religious differences among Tanzanian Hindus elsewhere. See Richa Nagar, "The Making of Hindu Communal Organizations, Places, and Identities in Postcolonial Dar es Salaam," Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 15 (December 1997): 707-30.
7. Haeri, 1, 2; Mukhtar Raza (an alias), interview by author, 15 Jan. 1993. Although theoretically it seems possible for "temporary" spouses (through mut'a) to become "permanent" spouses through nikah, such a phenomenon is rare in Dar es Salaam.
8. Haeri, 8; Fatim Dewji, interview by author, 7 Feb. 1993; Waheeda Lalji (an alias), interview by author; and Azeez Ali (an alias), interview by author, both on 31 July, 1993.
9. In Tanzania, Sunnis include Africans, Arabs, and Asians, and the term "Arab" is often employed to refer to people of mixed racial background. African Muslims and Arabs are predominantly Sunni (CIA World Factbook, web edition, http://www.odci.gov/cia/ publications/factbook/tz.html, accessed 2 July 1999). The stigma associated with women who contracted mut'a and the intense racial segregation in Dar es Salaam made it extremely difficult for me to interview women about their personal mut'a relationships, especially if they were not Ithna Asheris. However, in my interviews with Ithna Asheris and other Asians, at least eight racially mixed (Arab) Sunni women from poor backgrounds were named, all of whom had contracted mut 'a multiple times as a way of supporting themselves and/or the children that they had from these unions.
10. Haeri, 4, 20, 30.
11. Neil Smith, "Geography, Difference, and the Politics of Scale," in Postmodernism and the Social Sciences, ed. Joe Doherty, Elspeth Graham, and Mo Malek (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), 73.
12. The number of settler Asians in Tanganyika increased from just over 10,000 in 1921 to 92,000 in 1962. Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged in 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania.
13. In 1970, shortly before the massive exodus of Asians from Tanzania, the total Tanzanian population was roughly 11.6 million. Of these, approximately 75,000 were Asians, 30,000 were Arabs, 17,000 were Europeans, the remaining majority being Africans (United Republic of Tanzania, Statistical Abstract 1970 [Dar es Salaam: Government Printer, 1972]), 52; Janet Bujra, "Ethnicity and Class: The Case of East African Asians," in Poverty and Development in the 1990s, ed., Tim Allen and Alan Thomas (Oxford and Milton Keynes: Oxford University Press, 1992), 347-61. It is critical to note, however, that these racialized categories overlooked the tremendous ethnic and regional differences within these three groups, and they also made little room for racially mixed people who did not easily fit classification.
14. In 1970, shortly before the massive exodus of Asians from Tanzania, the total Tanzanian population was roughly 11.6 million. Of these, approximately 75,000 were Asians, 30,000 were Arabs, 17,000 were Europeans, the remaining majority being Africans (United Republic of Tanzania, Statistical Abstract 1970 [Dar es Salaam: Government Printer, 1972]), 52; Janet Bujra, "Ethnicity and Class: The Case of East African Asians," in Poverty and Development in the 1990s, ed., Tim Allen and Alan Thomas (Oxford and Milton Keynes: Oxford University Press, 1992), 347-61. It is critical to note, however, that these racialized categories overlooked the tremendous ethnic and regional differences within these three groups, and they also made little room for racially mixed people who did not easily fit classification.
15. See Tanganyika National Assembly Official Report, Assembly Debates (Hansard), 36th sess., 5th meeting, sittings from 10th to 20th October, 1961 (Dar es Salaam: Government Printer, 1961).
16. For details, see Richa Nagar, "The South Asian Diaspora in Tanzania: A History Retold," Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East 16, no. 2 (1996): 62-80.
17. Often described in the socialist period as "capitalists and racketeers" who "exploited the toiling masses" (Daily News, 17 Apr. 1972), Asian traders now came to be valued by some African politicians and businessmen as investors and partners in joint ventures.
18. See Richa Nagar, "Indigenisation Debate and Tanzanian Asians," Africa World Review (May-October 1993): 24-25.
19. According to Asian communal organizations, the estimated Asian population of the country in 1993 was approximately 70,000. Of these, roughly 40,000 Asians lived in Dar es Salaam.
20. Prem Chowdhry, "Enforcing Cultural Codes: Gender and Violence in Northern India," Economic and Political Weekly 32 (10 May 1997): 1019-28.
21. For example, see D.J. Guy, " 'White Slavery/Citizenship, and Nationality in Argentina," in Nationalisms and Sexualities, ed. Andrew Parker et al. (New York: Routledge, 1992), 202; Ann Stoler, "Making Empire Respectable: The Politics of Race and Sexual Morality in Twentieth-Century Colonial Cultures," American Ethnologist 16 (November 1989): 634-55.
22. For example, see D.J. Guy, " 'White Slavery/Citizenship, and Nationality in Argentina," in Nationalisms and Sexualities, ed. Andrew Parker et al. (New York: Routledge, 1992), 202; Ann Stoler, "Making Empire Respectable: The Politics of Race and Sexual Morality in Twentieth-Century Colonial Cultures," American Ethnologist 16 (November 1989): 634-55.
23. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), 139.
24. Ann Stoler, "Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers" (University of Minnesota, Working Paper no. 4, ser. 5, October 1991); Kamala Kempadoo, " 'Sandoms' and Other Exotic Women: Prostitution and Race in the Caribbean," Race and Reason (1996-97): 48-54.
25. Ann Stoler, "Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers" (University of Minnesota, Working Paper no. 4, ser. 5, October 1991); Kamala Kempadoo, " 'Sandoms' and Other Exotic Women: Prostitution and Race in the Caribbean," Race and Reason (1996-97): 48-54.
26. Discourses serve to naturalize certain worldviews and the positions of subjects within them, and they are characterized by specific constellations of power and knowledge that are open to contestation and negotiation. In this sense, the multiple ideologies that inform and invigorate diverse social realities and struggles are part of discourses and form the "creative and constitutive elements" of our everyday social lives. See R.J. Johnston, Derek Gregory, and David M. Smith, The Dictionary of Human Geography, 3d ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), 136, 272-73.
27. Narottam Swali, a seventy-year-old Bhatia man, interviewed by author, Mandvi (India), 27 Aug. 1991. Swali was raised in Zanzibar and returned to India in the mid-1970s.
28. Alexander D'Souza (an alias), interview by author, 20 Oct.1992; Rajan Bhai (an alias), interview by author, 23 Jan. 1991; Waheeda Lalji (an alias), interview by author, 20 Oct. 1992.
29. Kamaal Othman and Haseena Othman (aliases), interview by author, both on 1 July 1991; Rajan Bhai (an alias), interview by author, 23 Jan. 1993; Satish Khetia, interview by author, 17 Nov. 1992.
30. Rajan Bhai (an alias), interview by author, 23 Jan. 1993.
31. Lata Mani, "Contentious Traditions: The Debate on Sati in Colonial India," in The Nature and Context of Minority Discourse, ed., A.R. JanMohamed and David Lloyd (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); Partha Chatterjee, "Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonized Women," American Ethnologist 16 (November 1989): 622-33.
32. Lata Mani, "Contentious Traditions: The Debate on Sati in Colonial India," in The Nature and Context of Minority Discourse, ed., A.R. JanMohamed and David Lloyd (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); Partha Chatterjee, "Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonized Women," American Ethnologist 16 (November 1989): 622-33.
33. Chatterjee, 630.
34. Alice Sambulika (an alias), interview by author, 8 Feb. 1993; Julie Mohammed, interview by author, 13 Nov. and 19 Dec. 1992.
35. Doreen Cambra (an alias), interview by author, 31 Oct. 1992. Maggie [D'Souza] (an alias) is an active member of the Goan club and "the pride" of the Goan badminton team; her daughters are among the "star" children of the community (Francis Fernandes, (an alias), interview by author, 10 Dec. 1992).
36. Maggie D'Souza, interview by author, 12 Aug. 1993.
37. Laura Fair, " 'A House of Mud, Stories of Stone': Tarab as an Expression of Struggles over Class, Gender, and Sexuality" (Paper presented at the African Studies Association Meetings, Boston, 1993); Tanganyika National Assembly Official Report.
38. Nagar, "Indigenisation Debate."
39. Smriti Thakkar (an alias), interview by author, 25 Nov. 1992.
40. Stoler, "Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers."
41. The total figure for Dar es Salaam is based on Tanzania Sensa, 1988 Population Census: Preliminary Report (Dar es Salaam: Bureau of Statistics, 1988). The estimated Asian population is based on interviews with the representatives of the Ithna Asheri, Hindu, Goan, and Sikh communities.
42. These population figures are based on interviews, the Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Directory, 1969, and the Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaat, Dar es Salaam, Directory, 1986. Although these three communities expanded in numbers and developed strong communal organizations in the post-independence period, Dar es Salaam's other Asian groups, including the Sikhs, the Goans, and the (Asian) Sunnis, suffered from dwindling sizes and weakened communal bodies.
43. The federation brought under its fold all the Jamaats in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Zaire, Rwanda, Burundi, Somalia, Madagascar, Reunion, and Mauritius Islands. The federation was established because the community leaders felt that the lack of formal links among local Jamaats negatively affected the material and social well-being of the Ithna Asheris, especially compared with their rival Asian group, Ismailis, whose centrally organized structure enabled them to prosper. See Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-1989 and Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Directory, 1961, Dar es Salaam, 114; Abdul Sheriff's research notes on "The Federation of the Jamaats," "Dar es Salaam," "Educational Activities," and the "Ithna Asheri Investment Company"; Maqbool Rahim, "The Role of the Federation in the Next Twenty-Five Years" (manuscript obtained through the courtesy of Abdul Sheriff).
44. The federation brought under its fold all the Jamaats in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Zaire, Rwanda, Burundi, Somalia, Madagascar, Reunion, and Mauritius Islands. The federation was established because the community leaders felt that the lack of formal links among local Jamaats negatively affected the material and social well-being of the Ithna Asheris, especially compared with their rival Asian group, Ismailis, whose centrally organized structure enabled them to prosper. See Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-1989 and Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Directory, 1961, Dar es Salaam, 114; Abdul Sheriff's research notes on "The Federation of the Jamaats," "Dar es Salaam," "Educational Activities," and the "Ithna Asheri Investment Company"; Maqbool Rahim, "The Role of the Federation in the Next Twenty-Five Years" (manuscript obtained through the courtesy of Abdul Sheriff).
45. The federation brought under its fold all the Jamaats in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Zaire, Rwanda, Burundi, Somalia, Madagascar, Reunion, and Mauritius Islands. The federation was established because the community leaders felt that the lack of formal links among local Jamaats negatively affected the material and social well-being of the Ithna Asheris, especially compared with their rival Asian group, Ismailis, whose centrally organized structure enabled them to prosper. See Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-1989 and Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Directory, 1961, Dar es Salaam, 114; Abdul Sheriff's research notes on "The Federation of the Jamaats," "Dar es Salaam," "Educational Activities," and the "Ithna Asheri Investment Company"; Maqbool Rahim, "The Role of the Federation in the Next Twenty-Five Years" (manuscript obtained through the courtesy of Abdul Sheriff).
46. The federation brought under its fold all the Jamaats in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Zaire, Rwanda, Burundi, Somalia, Madagascar, Reunion, and Mauritius Islands. The federation was established because the community leaders felt that the lack of formal links among local Jamaats negatively affected the material and social well-being of the Ithna Asheris, especially compared with their rival Asian group, Ismailis, whose centrally organized structure enabled them to prosper. See Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-1989 and Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Directory, 1961, Dar es Salaam, 114; Abdul Sheriff's research notes on "The Federation of the Jamaats," "Dar es Salaam," "Educational Activities," and the "Ithna Asheri Investment Company"; Maqbool Rahim, "The Role of the Federation in the Next Twenty-Five Years" (manuscript obtained through the courtesy of Abdul Sheriff).
47. The United Republic of Tanzania, The Law of Marriage Act, Tanzania Statutes, 1971 (1971, No. 5) clause 102 (2); Khoja Shia Tthna-Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-1989, Dar es Salaam. In 1967, the Jamaat leaders laid down rules that a woman's share of inheritance was one-half of the man's because it was the man who was responsible for maintaining the family; that polygamy was allowed among the Shia and that Islam denied the woman the right to divorce her husband (Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Supreme Council's Circular no. 786/110, dated 24 Aug. 1967).
48. The United Republic of Tanzania, The Law of Marriage Act, Tanzania Statutes, 1971 (1971, No. 5) clause 102 (2); Khoja Shia Tthna-Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-1989, Dar es Salaam. In 1967, the Jamaat leaders laid down rules that a woman's share of inheritance was one-half of the man's because it was the man who was responsible for maintaining the family; that polygamy was allowed among the Shia and that Islam denied the woman the right to divorce her husband (Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Supreme Council's Circular no. 786/110, dated 24 Aug. 1967).
49. The Standard, 15 Dec. 1964; Tanganyika Standard, 21 Nov. 1964; Muhsin Alidina, interview by author, 15 Jan. 1993; Abdul Sheriff, interview by author, Zanzibar, 23 Sept. 1992. Proselytizing was also encouraged by an Iranian religious leader who visited Dar es Salaam in the early sixties. By 1993, there were approximately 1,200 African converts in Dar es Salaam.
50. The Standard, 15 Dec. 1964; Tanganyika Standard, 21 Nov. 1964; Muhsin Alidina, interview by author, 15 Jan. 1993; Abdul Sheriff, interview by author, Zanzibar, 23 Sept. 1992. Proselytizing was also encouraged by an Iranian religious leader who visited Dar es Salaam in the early sixties. By 1993, there were approximately 1,200 African converts in Dar es Salaam.
51. Jamila Jaffer (an alias), interview by author, 30 July 1993.
52. IULC [Ithna Asheri Union Ladies Section] Newsletter, November 1992; Razia JanMohamed, interview by author, 18 Dec. 1992 and 21 July 1993; and Razia Tejani, interview by author, 25 Sept. 1992.
53. Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-89; Ali Raza Rajani (Jamaat president), interview by author, 18 Nov. 1992. With continuing emigration to the West, community leaders felt the need for a thorough religious training for the youngsters so that they could grow "a stable religious foundation" before being "exposed to Western influences that might tempt them to go astray" (Razia JanMohamed, interview, 21 July 1993).
54. Speech by Habib J. Mulji, federation chair, at the World Federation Conference, Stanmore, U.K., 11-14 Oct. 1991.
55. Razia JanMohamed, interview by author, 21 July 1993.
56. Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-1989, 6, 12. Ali Raza Rajani pointed out that the presence in Dar es Salaam of a dynamic Iranian ambassador from 1983 to 1991 played a significant role in this religious mobilization. The Ithna Asheris in Dar es Salaam started receiving pamphlets from Iran and the community began publishing new religious periodicals, Knowledge and Pillar.
57. Kulsum Virjee, interview by author, 11 Nov. 1992; Fatim Dewji, interview; Razia JanMohamed, interview, 21 July 1993.
58. Razia JanMohamed, interview by author, 18 Dec. 1992; and Amina Dharsi, interview by author, 20 Oct. 1992.
59. Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-89, 22; Federation Samachar, September 1989, January 1990, and March 1992; Shia International, summer 1992 and autumn 1992. The community publications include Knowledge; Pillar; Jamaat reports; the federation's newsletter, Federation Samachar; and a new journal called Shia International (published in Canada).
60. Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-89, 22; Federation Samachar, September 1989, January 1990, and March 1992; Shia International, summer 1992 and autumn 1992. The community publications include Knowledge; Pillar; Jamaat reports; the federation's newsletter, Federation Samachar; and a new journal called Shia International (published in Canada).
61. Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-89, 22; Federation Samachar, September 1989, January 1990, and March 1992; Shia International, summer 1992 and autumn 1992. The community publications include Knowledge; Pillar; Jamaat reports; the federation's newsletter, Federation Samachar; and a new journal called Shia International (published in Canada).
62. Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-89, 22; Federation Samachar, September 1989, January 1990, and March 1992; Shia International, summer 1992 and autumn 1992. The community publications include Knowledge; Pillar; Jamaat reports; the federation's newsletter, Federation Samachar; and a new journal called Shia International (published in Canada).
63. Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-89, 22; Federation Samachar, September 1989, January 1990, and March 1992; Shia International, summer 1992 and autumn 1992. The community publications include Knowledge; Pillar; Jamaat reports; the federation's newsletter, Federation Samachar; and a new journal called Shia International (published in Canada).
64. Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-89, 22; Federation Samachar, September 1989, January 1990, and March 1992; Shia International, summer 1992 and autumn 1992. The community publications include Knowledge; Pillar; Jamaat reports; the federation's newsletter, Federation Samachar; and a new journal called Shia International (published in Canada).
65. Jamila Jaffer, interview by author, 1 Aug. 1993.
66. Rukhsana Banu (an alias), interview by author, 29 Nov. 1992.
67. Knowledge (September 1990): 12, and (July 1991): 17; Shia International 1 (summer 1992) and (autumn 1992); Federation Samachar (September 1989): 28, (March 1991): 2. (July 1991): 3, and (March 1992): back cover.
68. Knowledge (September 1990): 12, and (July 1991): 17; Shia International 1 (summer 1992) and (autumn 1992); Federation Samachar (September 1989): 28, (March 1991): 2. (July 1991): 3, and (March 1992): back cover.
69. Knowledge (September 1990): 12, and (July 1991): 17; Shia International 1 (summer 1992) and (autumn 1992); Federation Samachar (September 1989): 28, (March 1991): 2. (July 1991): 3, and (March 1992): back cover.
70. Knowledge (September 1990): 12, and (July 1991): 17; Shia International 1 (summer 1992) and (autumn 1992); Federation Samachar (September 1989): 28, (March 1991): 2. (July 1991): 3, and (March 1992): back cover.
71. Knowledge (September 1990): 12, and (July 1991): 17; Shia International 1 (summer 1992) and (autumn 1992); Federation Samachar (September 1989): 28, (March 1991): 2. (July 1991): 3, and (March 1992): back cover.
72. Knowledge (September 1990): 12, and (July 1991): 17; Shia International 1 (summer 1992) and (autumn 1992); Federation Samachar (September 1989): 28, (March 1991): 2. (July 1991): 3, and (March 1992): back cover.
73. Knowledge (September 1990): 12, and (July 1991): 17; Shia International 1 (summer 1992) and (autumn 1992); Federation Samachar (September 1989): 28, (March 1991): 2. (July 1991): 3, and (March 1992): back cover.
74. Knowledge (September 1990): 12, and (July 1991): 17; Shia International 1 (summer 1992) and (autumn 1992); Federation Samachar (September 1989): 28, (March 1991): 2. (July 1991): 3, and (March 1992): back cover.
75. Tahira Abbas (an alias), interview by author, 21 July 1993.
76. For example, the Jamaat's Matrimonial Reconciliation Board often heaped the blame for marital problems on a wife's "defiant replies, laziness and sloppiness" (Report of the Marriage Reconciliatory Board, in Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-89, 28). This committee also recommended to the Jamaat that the husband should pay alimony to his divorced wife only if he divorces his wife and not if the wife seeks divorce or "causes" the breakup (ibid., 30).
77. Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaat, Biennial Report, 1988-89, 40.
78. Maryam Tejani, "Preface," Ithna Asheri Union Ladies Section, Dar es Salaam, Ladies Seminar, 19 June 1993.
79. Tahira Abbas and Fatim Dewji, interviews.
80. This is an excerpt of the paper presented in Gujarati by Abbas at the ILU Seminar.
81. Haeri, 7.
82. Jamila Jaffer, interview by author, 31 July 1993.
83. Banu, interview.
84. Farhat Bai (an alias), interview by author, 7 Feb. 1993. Similar views were echoed by Lalji and Abbas, interviewed on 31 and 21 July 1993, respectively.
85. Abbas, interview.
86. Lalji, interview.
87. Abbas, interview.
88. Raza, interview.
89. Nargis Alam (an alias), interview by author, 31 July 1993.
90. Farida Jaffer, interview by author, 26 Jan. 1993.
91. Alam, interview.
92. Farida Jaffer, interview.
93. Tabassum Sultana (an alias), interview by author, 19 July 1993.
94. Shahnaz Dewji (an alias), interview by author, 7 Feb. 1993.
95. Abbas, interview.
96. Alam, interview.
97. Raza, interview.
98. Ali, interview.
99. Lalji, interview.
100. Farida Jaffer, interview by author, 22 Oct. 1992.
101. Haeri, 147-50, 50, 149.
102. Raza, interview.
103. Laura Pulido, "Community, Place, and Identity," in Thresholds in Feminist Geography, ed. J.P Jones, H.J. Nast, and S.M. Roberts (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997), 11-12; Gillian Rose, Feminism and Geography (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), 12; Maxine Baca Zinn and Bonnie Thornton Dill, "Theorizing Difference from Multicultural Feminism," Feminist Studies 22 (summer 1996): 321-31.
104. Laura Pulido, "Community, Place, and Identity," in Thresholds in Feminist Geography, ed. J.P Jones, H.J. Nast, and S.M. Roberts (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997), 11-12; Gillian Rose, Feminism and Geography (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), 12; Maxine Baca Zinn and Bonnie Thornton Dill, "Theorizing Difference from Multicultural Feminism," Feminist Studies 22 (summer 1996): 321-31.
105. Laura Pulido, "Community, Place, and Identity," in Thresholds in Feminist Geography, ed. J.P Jones, H.J. Nast, and S.M. Roberts (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997), 11-12; Gillian Rose, Feminism and Geography (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), 12; Maxine Baca Zinn and Bonnie Thornton Dill, "Theorizing Difference from Multicultural Feminism," Feminist Studies 22 (summer 1996): 321-31.
106. Baca Zinn and Dill, 323.
107. Ibid., 329-30.
108. Doreen Massey, "A Place Called Home," New Formations 17 (summer 1992): 7, 12.
109. Ella Shohat, "Notes on the 'Post-Colonial,' " Contemporary Postcolonial Theory: A Reader, ed. Padmini Mongia (New York: Arnold, 1996), 321.
110. Shohat, 321-34; Ruth Frankenberg and Lata Mani, "Crosscurrents, Crosstalk: Race, 'Postcoloniality,' and the Politics of Location," in Contemporary Postcolonial Theory, 347-64.
111. Shohat, 321-34; Ruth Frankenberg and Lata Mani, "Crosscurrents, Crosstalk: Race, 'Postcoloniality,' and the Politics of Location," in Contemporary Postcolonial Theory, 347-64.
112. Shohat, 326.