Form before function: Democratization in Paraguay

Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 49, 2000, Pages 5-32

  Fournier, Dominique ^a   Burges, Sean W ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040190399     PISSN: 08263663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/08263663.2000.10816790     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. The authors would like to acknowledge the invaluable comments and inspiration offered by Andrew Nickson at the University of Birmingham, Michael Shifter at the Inter-American Dialogue in Washington, DC, Ted Hewitt at the University of Western Ontario and the anonymous reviewers of CJLACS. Special thanks to Larry Birns at the Council on Hemispheric Affairs and the International Forum for Democratic Studies at the National Endowment for Democracy for their support.
2. Paul Sondrol concluded that "the political evolution of Paraguay suggests that its civil-military elites are overseeing a controlled liberalization of society that will lead to a 'dictablanda' (or liberal autocracy) rather than a real democracy." Paul C. Sondrol, "The Emerging New Politics of Liberalizing Paraguay: Sustained Civil-Military Control Without Democracy," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 34, 2 (1992): 150.
3. See Robin Luckham and Gordon White, Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996); Catherine Conaghan, "A Deficit of Democratic Authenticity: Political Linkages and the Public in Andean Politics," Studies in Comparative International Development 31, 3 (Fall 1996): 32-55.
4. See Robin Luckham and Gordon White, Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996); Catherine Conaghan, "A Deficit of Democratic Authenticity: Political Linkages and the Public in Andean Politics," Studies in Comparative International Development 31, 3 (Fall 1996): 32-55.
5. See Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe C. Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991): 279-284; and Gerardo L. Munck and Carol Skalnik Leff, "Modes of Transition and Democratization: South America and Eastern Europe in Comparative Perspective," Comparative Politics 29, 3 (April 1997): 343-362.
6. See Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe C. Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991): 279-284; and Gerardo L. Munck and Carol Skalnik Leff, "Modes of Transition and Democratization: South America and Eastern Europe in Comparative Perspective," Comparative Politics 29, 3 (April 1997): 343-362.
7. Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5, 1 (January 1994): 55-69.
8. See Fareed Zakaria, "The Rise of Illiberal Democracy," Foreign Affairs 76, 6 (1997): 22-43.
9. See Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23, 1 (October 1990): 1-21; Lawrence Whitehead, "The Alternatives to 'Liberal Democracy': A Latin American Perspective," in David Held, ed., Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West (Oxford: Polity Press, 1993); Philippe C. Schmitter, "Dangers and Dilemmas of Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5, 2 (April 1994): 57-74; Larry Diamond, "Is the Third Wave Over?" Journal of Democracy 7, 3 (July 1996): 20-38; and Robert D. Kaplan, "Was Democracy Just a Moment?" The Atlantic Monthly, December 1997, pp. 55-75.
10. See Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23, 1 (October 1990): 1-21; Lawrence Whitehead, "The Alternatives to 'Liberal Democracy': A Latin American Perspective," in David Held, ed., Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West (Oxford: Polity Press, 1993); Philippe C. Schmitter, "Dangers and Dilemmas of Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5, 2 (April 1994): 57-74; Larry Diamond, "Is the Third Wave Over?" Journal of Democracy 7, 3 (July 1996): 20-38; and Robert D. Kaplan, "Was Democracy Just a Moment?" The Atlantic Monthly, December 1997, pp. 55-75.
11. See Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23, 1 (October 1990): 1-21; Lawrence Whitehead, "The Alternatives to 'Liberal Democracy': A Latin American Perspective," in David Held, ed., Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West (Oxford: Polity Press, 1993); Philippe C. Schmitter, "Dangers and Dilemmas of Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5, 2 (April 1994): 57-74; Larry Diamond, "Is the Third Wave Over?" Journal of Democracy 7, 3 (July 1996): 20-38; and Robert D. Kaplan, "Was Democracy Just a Moment?" The Atlantic Monthly, December 1997, pp. 55-75.
12. See Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23, 1 (October 1990): 1-21; Lawrence Whitehead, "The Alternatives to 'Liberal Democracy': A Latin American Perspective," in David Held, ed., Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West (Oxford: Polity Press, 1993); Philippe C. Schmitter, "Dangers and Dilemmas of Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5, 2 (April 1994): 57-74; Larry Diamond, "Is the Third Wave Over?" Journal of Democracy 7, 3 (July 1996): 20-38; and Robert D. Kaplan, "Was Democracy Just a Moment?" The Atlantic Monthly, December 1997, pp. 55-75.
13. See Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23, 1 (October 1990): 1-21; Lawrence Whitehead, "The Alternatives to 'Liberal Democracy': A Latin American Perspective," in David Held, ed., Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West (Oxford: Polity Press, 1993); Philippe C. Schmitter, "Dangers and Dilemmas of Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5, 2 (April 1994): 57-74; Larry Diamond, "Is the Third Wave Over?" Journal of Democracy 7, 3 (July 1996): 20-38; and Robert D. Kaplan, "Was Democracy Just a Moment?" The Atlantic Monthly, December 1997, pp. 55-75.
14. Guillermo O'Donnell, "Horizontal Accountability in New Democracies," Journal of Democracy 9, 3 (July 1998): 112-126.
15. Paraguay has a less-than-democratic political tradition. After being founded by the xenophobic dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia in 1811, the country has been dominated by a succession of highly personalistic dictators. The country's short experience with democracy, roughly between 1904 and 1954, was marked by frequent governmental change, often as a result of armed rebellion. For more on Paraguay's early political history, see Harris Gaylord Warren, Rebirth of the Paraguayan Republic: The First Colorado Era, 1878-1904 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985); and Riordan Roett and Richard Scott Sacks, Paraguay: The Personalist Legacy (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991), chapters 2-3.
16. Paraguay has a less-than-democratic political tradition. After being founded by the xenophobic dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia in 1811, the country has been dominated by a succession of highly personalistic dictators. The country's short experience with democracy, roughly between 1904 and 1954, was marked by frequent governmental change, often as a result of armed rebellion. For more on Paraguay's early political history, see Harris Gaylord Warren, Rebirth of the Paraguayan Republic: The First Colorado Era, 1878-1904 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985); and Riordan Roett and Richard Scott Sacks, Paraguay: The Personalist Legacy (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991), chapters 2-3.
17. For more on how Stroessner consolidated and maintained his hold on power, see Paul H. Lewis, Paraguay Under Stroessner (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), pp. 73-84;
18. Paul Sondrol, "Totalitarian and Authoritarian Dictators: A Comparison of Fidel Castro and Alfredo Stroessner," Journal of Latin American Studies 23,3 (1988): 610-619;
19. R. Andrew Nickson, "Tyranny and Longevity: Stroessner's Paraguay," Third World Quarterly 10,1 (January 1988): 237-259;
20. Carlos R. Miranda, The Stroessner Era: Authoritarian Rule in Paraguay (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990), pp. 52-100;
21. Roett and Sacks, Paraguay,
22. and Peter Lambert, "Mechansims of Control: The Stroessner Regime in Paraguay," in Will Fowler, ed., Authoritarianism in Latin America Since Independence (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996).
23. Ever since Doctor José Gaspar Rodríguez guided Paraguay to independence in 1811, the state has been seen as the means to wealth and personal advancement. The struggle for control of the state that occurred after the War of the Triple Alliance can be reduced to a fight for economic control between the Colorados and the Liberals. For more, see Warren, Rebirth of the Paraguayan Republic.
24. Sondrol, "Totalitarian and Authoritarian Dictators," p. 614.
25. For more on corruption and the Stroessner regime, see Andrew Nickson, "Democratization and Institutionalized Corruption in Paraguay," in Walter Little and Eduardo Posada-Carbó, eds., Political Corruption in Europe and Latin America (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), pp. 238-248.
26. The four members of the Cuatrinomio de Oro were First Vice-President and Interior Minister Sabino A. Montanaro, Second Vice-President and Health Minister Adán Godoy Jiménez, Justice and Labour Minister J. Eugenio Jacquet, and Abdo Benítez.
27. For a more detailed account, see Paul C. Sondrol, "The Paraguayan Military in Transition and the Evolution of Civil-Military Relations," Armed Forces and Society 19,1 (Fall 1992): 110-112.
28. Paul C. Sondrol, "Paraguay and Uruguay: Modernity, Tradition, and Transition," Third World Quarterly 18,1 (1998): 116.
29. For more on the coup, see Miranda, The Stroessner Era, chapter 7;
30. and Sondrol, "The Emerging New Politics of Liberalizing Paraguay," pp. 133-135.
31. A very valuable analysis of policy making and political actors under the Stroessner dictatorship and during the transition towards democracy can be found in Peter Lambert and Andrew Nickson, eds., The Transition to Democracy in Paraguay (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
32. National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, Voting for Greater Pluralism: The May 26, 1991 Municipal Elections in Paraguay (Washington, DC: National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, 1992).
33. See Françoise Barthelemy, "Paraguay, L'espoir des générations à venir," Le monde diplomatique, (January 1998): 12.
34. For an assessment of the Rodríguez Government, see the articles by Dionisio Borda, Lila Moliner, Andrew Nickson, Mabel Causarano, and Fernando Masi in Lambert and Nickson, The Transition to Democracy in Paraguay.
35. Horacio Cánepa, Jorgé Riquelme, and Juan Rial, Paraguay: Elecciones municipales, 17 de novíembre de 1996 - Evaluación post-electoral (Asunción: International Foundation for Electoral Studies, October 1996).
36. Inter-American Development Bank, Latin America after a Decade of Reform: Economic and Social Progress, 1997 Report (Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank, 1997), p. 288, statistical appendix; Latin American Monitor: Southern Cone, January 1998, p. 7.
37. Inter-American Development Bank, Latin America after a Decade of Reform: Economic and Social Progress, 1997 Report (Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank, 1997), p. 288, statistical appendix; Latin American Monitor: Southern Cone, January 1998, p. 7.
38. For a more comprehensive account of General Lino Oviedo's attempted coup as well as the role that international actors played in defeating it, see Arturo Valenzuela, "Paraguay: The Coup that Didn't Happen," Journal of Democracy 8,1 (January 1997): 43-55.
39. "Paraguay's Long Struggle for Democracy," Washington Report on the Hemisphere 18, 2 (1998): 2. Evidence of the unwillingness of some elements of the Colorado Party to undergo this transformation was presented in a 13 March 1998 report in ABC Color; powerful elements within the Colorado Party publicly announced that they felt that the government should be exclusively staffed by members of the Colorado Party.
40. "Paraguay's Long Struggle for Democracy," Washington Report on the Hemisphere 18, 2 (1998): 2. Evidence of the unwillingness of some elements of the Colorado Party to undergo this transformation was presented in a 13 March 1998 report in ABC Color; powerful elements within the Colorado Party publicly announced that they felt that the government should be exclusively staffed by members of the Colorado Party.
41. On the potential impact of the transition from above on the democratization process and policy making see Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990): 1-23; and Munck and Leff, "Modes of Transition and Democratization," pp. 356-357.
42. On the potential impact of the transition from above on the democratization process and policy making see Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990): 1-23; and Munck and Leff, "Modes of Transition and Democratization," pp. 356-357.
43. See Sondrol, "The Emerging New Politics of Liberalizing Paraguay;" and Sondrol, "Paraguay and Uruguay."
44. See Sondrol, "The Emerging New Politics of Liberalizing Paraguay;" and Sondrol, "Paraguay and Uruguay."
45. See Timothy Scully and Scott Mainwaring, eds., Building Democratic Institutions: Party Systems in Latin America (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995).
46. ABC Color, 31 July 1998. Indeed, little has changed since the days of Carlos Antonio López; political power is still held with an iron grip and party loyalty continues to be considered a matter of the gravest importance, political affiliation being handed down from generation to generation. In a country dominated by Colorado Party members, the winner of that party's presidential nomination is considered by many to be an odds-on favorite to win the election, an expectation that has only lately begun to loosen.
47. ABC Color, Noticias, Ultima Hora, 24 December 1997; 3 January 1998; Noticias, 26 December 1997; 11 June 1998.
48. ABC Color, Noticias, Ultima Hora, 24 December 1997; 3 January 1998; Noticias, 26 December 1997; 11 June 1998.
49. ABC Color, 30 October 1997.
50. For more on this, see Nickson, "Democratization and Institutionalized Corruption in Paraguay," pp. 256-258.
51. Noticias, 20 December 1997; 24 December 1997; La Nación (Buenos Aires), 26 December 1997; ABC Color, 27 December 1997; Ultima Hora, 19 January 1998; ABC Color, 26 January 1998. The new law on National Defence was finally adopted by Congress in June 1998, only to be severely criticized by many observers for not addressing several fundamental aspects that would help to insure civilian control over the military. On this see Noticias, 12 June 1998.
52. Noticias, 20 December 1997; 24 December 1997; La Nación (Buenos Aires), 26 December 1997; ABC Color, 27 December 1997; Ultima Hora, 19 January 1998; ABC Color, 26 January 1998. The new law on National Defence was finally adopted by Congress in June 1998, only to be severely criticized by many observers for not addressing several fundamental aspects that would help to insure civilian control over the military. On this see Noticias, 12 June 1998.
53. Noticias, 20 December 1997; 24 December 1997; La Nación (Buenos Aires), 26 December 1997; ABC Color, 27 December 1997; Ultima Hora, 19 January 1998; ABC Color, 26 January 1998. The new law on National Defence was finally adopted by Congress in June 1998, only to be severely criticized by many observers for not addressing several fundamental aspects that would help to insure civilian control over the military. On this see Noticias, 12 June 1998.
54. Noticias, 20 December 1997; 24 December 1997; La Nación (Buenos Aires), 26 December 1997; ABC Color, 27 December 1997; Ultima Hora, 19 January 1998; ABC Color, 26 January 1998. The new law on National Defence was finally adopted by Congress in June 1998, only to be severely criticized by many observers for not addressing several fundamental aspects that would help to insure civilian control over the military. On this see Noticias, 12 June 1998.
55. Noticias, 20 December 1997; 24 December 1997; La Nación (Buenos Aires), 26 December 1997; ABC Color, 27 December 1997; Ultima Hora, 19 January 1998; ABC Color, 26 January 1998. The new law on National Defence was finally adopted by Congress in June 1998, only to be severely criticized by many observers for not addressing several fundamental aspects that would help to insure civilian control over the military. On this see Noticias, 12 June 1998.
56. Noticias, 20 December 1997; 24 December 1997; La Nación (Buenos Aires), 26 December 1997; ABC Color, 27 December 1997; Ultima Hora, 19 January 1998; ABC Color, 26 January 1998. The new law on National Defence was finally adopted by Congress in June 1998, only to be severely criticized by many observers for not addressing several fundamental aspects that would help to insure civilian control over the military. On this see Noticias, 12 June 1998.
57. The national police commander, Commissioner Mario Agustin Sapriza, was fired after a press investigation revealed that 70% of the cars on Paraguay's roads were stolen, with more than a little police help. See "Police Chief Sacked over Hot Car Racket," Latin America Regional Reports: Southern Cone, RS-97-05, 24 June 1997, p. 7.
58. Such public expressions of concern by the military came through two public statements made by General Evaristo González Maldonado (who was appointed by Wasmosy as army chief in November 1997) and 50 ranking retired officers. They clearly warned of the risks of the military being forced once again to become active in politics, particularly if motivated by the influence or direction of a president and Colorado Party leader like retired General Lino Oviedo. On this see ABC Color, 22 August 1997; 24 September 1997; and 28 December 1997.
59. ABC Color, 29 December 1997.
60. Problems ranged from accusations that Oviedo's organization had helped thousands of oviedistas in Buenos Aires to vote illegally in the Colorado leadership balloting, providing the retired general with the critical votes to beat Argaña, to allegations that the PLRA leadership election was marred by organized gangs involved in ballot box-stuffing and the falsification of polling results. On this see Noticias, 11 November 1997.
61. ABC Color, 21 December 1997.
62. ABC Color, La Nacion, and Ultima Hora, 6 March 1998.
63. Gerardo Le Chevalier (National Democratic Institute Program Officer, Asunción), telephone interview, 4 March 1998. See also, ABC Color, 3 March 1998 and 7 March 1998.
64. ABC Color, 6 November 1997. Discussing the judicial system under Stroessner, Paul H. Lewis pointed out that even though there was a formal separation of powers between the courts and the executive, judges were appointed for only five years (renewal depending on presidential favour) and their salaries were set at the discretion of the president. Thus, it was not difficult for Stroessner to turn the courts into an instrument to advance his and the Colorado Party's agenda. For more, see Lewis, Paraguay under Stroessner, pp. 110-111.
65. ABC Color, 6 November 1997. Discussing the judicial system under Stroessner, Paul H. Lewis pointed out that even though there was a formal separation of powers between the courts and the executive, judges were appointed for only five years (renewal depending on presidential favour) and their salaries were set at the discretion of the president. Thus, it was not difficult for Stroessner to turn the courts into an instrument to advance his and the Colorado Party's agenda. For more, see Lewis, Paraguay under Stroessner, pp. 110-111.
66. ABC Color, Noticias, Ultima Hora, 11 July 1998; 13 July 1998; 17 July 1998; 19 July 1998; 23 July 1998; and 25 July 1998. The Paraguayan press points out that the reform of the penal and procedural codes failed to close loopholes and address many issues.
67. ABC Color, 20 December 1997.
68. Among other initiatives, the Wasmosy Administration ratified the Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance in November 1996.
69. ABC Color, Noticias, 10 May 1997; 30 December 1997; 23 June 1998.
70. ABC Color, Noticias, 21 May 1998 and 6 June 1998; "Colorado Factions Jostle for Influence in Wake of Unexpected Election Victory," Latin America Regional Reports: Southern Cone, RS 98-04, 26 May 1998, p. 1.
71. ABC Color, Noticias, 21 May 1998 and 6 June 1998; "Colorado Factions Jostle for Influence in Wake of Unexpected Election Victory," Latin America Regional Reports: Southern Cone, RS 98-04, 26 May 1998, p. 1.
72. A persistent theme in Warren's Rebirth of the Paraguayan Republic is the political use of land. For more on the Stroessner policies designed to assuage peasant demands and the prevent the growth of rural unrest, see Ramón Fogel, "The Peasantry," in Nickson and Lambert, The Transition to Democracy in Paraguay.
73. ABC Color, Noticias, 11 November 1997 and 12 November 1997.
74. ABC Color, 18 January 1998.
75. Amnesty International Report 1997, p. 246; ABC Color, 12 May 1997.
76. Amnesty International Report 1997, p. 246; ABC Color, 12 May 1997.
77. See Nickson, "Democratization and Institutionalized Corruption in Paraguay."
78. ABC Color, 17 December 1997; 6 January 1998.
79. On 15 January 1998 the US Trade Representative's office announced that it would conduct an "out-of-cycle" review of Paraguay's protection of intellectual property rights, stating that "In the absence of effective enforcement actions by the Government, piracy and counterfeiting have reached alarming levels in Paraguay." Office of the United States Trade Representative, "USTR Barshefsky Announces Results of Special 301 'Out-Of-Cycle' Reviews," Press Release 98-03, 15 January 1998. The seriousness of the problem being investigated by the USTR was captured by President Wasmosy's public admission that he could not do anything against corruption during his mandate; see ABC Color, 22 June 1998.
80. On 15 January 1998 the US Trade Representative's office announced that it would conduct an "out-of-cycle" review of Paraguay's protection of intellectual property rights, stating that "In the absence of effective enforcement actions by the Government, piracy and counterfeiting have reached alarming levels in Paraguay." Office of the United States Trade Representative, "USTR Barshefsky Announces Results of Special 301 'Out-Of-Cycle' Reviews," Press Release 98-03, 15 January 1998. The seriousness of the problem being investigated by the USTR was captured by President Wasmosy's public admission that he could not do anything against corruption during his mandate; see ABC Color, 22 June 1998.
81. Two forms of payroll embezzlement proved particularly popular: fantasmas involved senior officials collecting the salaries of imaginary employees; and planilleros involved senior officials receiving a share of the salary paid to a non-attending employee. For more on this, see Andrew Nickson, "Corruption and the Transition," in The Transition to Democracy in Paraguay, p. 29.
82. Noticias, December 20, 1997; Latin American Monitor: Southern Cone 15,1 (January 1998): 7.
83. Noticias, December 20, 1997; Latin American Monitor: Southern Cone 15,1 (January 1998): 7.
84. Ricardo Caballero Aquino, "A Most Unholy City in the East," Hemisfile 8,6 (November-December 1997): 6; La Nación (Buenos Aires), 26 December 1997. International pressures to restore order in Ciudad del Este also came from a US Government threat to decertify and cut financial assistance to Paraguay if concrete steps were not taken to stop illicit economic activities supporting international terrorist activities and halt the flow of nearly 1,500 kg/month of cocaine through the country. In 1998, Paraguay had its decertification in the drug-war "waived" by the White House on national security grounds. On this, see Larry Birns and Amy Bracken, "Decertifying the Uncertifiable," Council on Hemispheric Affairs Press Release, 98.07.
85. Ricardo Caballero Aquino, "A Most Unholy City in the East," Hemisfile 8,6 (November-December 1997): 6; La Nación (Buenos Aires), 26 December 1997. International pressures to restore order in Ciudad del Este also came from a US Government threat to decertify and cut financial assistance to Paraguay if concrete steps were not taken to stop illicit economic activities supporting international terrorist activities and halt the flow of nearly 1,500 kg/month of cocaine through the country. In 1998, Paraguay had its decertification in the drug-war "waived" by the White House on national security grounds. On this, see Larry Birns and Amy Bracken, "Decertifying the Uncertifiable," Council on Hemispheric Affairs Press Release, 98.07.
86. Ricardo Caballero Aquino, "A Most Unholy City in the East," Hemisfile 8,6 (November-December 1997): 6; La Nación (Buenos Aires), 26 December 1997. International pressures to restore order in Ciudad del Este also came from a US Government threat to decertify and cut financial assistance to Paraguay if concrete steps were not taken to stop illicit economic activities supporting international terrorist activities and halt the flow of nearly 1,500 kg/month of cocaine through the country. In 1998, Paraguay had its decertification in the drug-war "waived" by the White House on national security grounds. On this, see Larry Birns and Amy Bracken, "Decertifying the Uncertifiable," Council on Hemispheric Affairs Press Release, 98.07.
87. As The Economist noted in its obituary for General Rodriguez: "Only the ungrateful questioned how a farmer's son, whose top salary in the army was US$500 a month, managed to become one of the richest men in Paraguay, building a home that was modeled on a French château." See, "Andres Rodriguez," The Economist, 3 May 1997, p. 79.
88. "Wasmosy Fights Corruption Charges," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-96-10, 14 March 1996, p. 117.
89. ABC Color, 31 October 1997.
90. "Crisis Threatens the Wasmosy Cabinet," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-97-25, 24 June 1997, p. 290. An amusing, yet particularly disturbing anecdote was carried in ABC Color on 21 February 1998; it appears that people in the Chaco who wish to eat chicken must buy frozen meat from Asunción. People are no longer willing to operate small hen-houses because of rampant petty theft.
91. "Crisis Threatens the Wasmosy Cabinet," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-97-25, 24 June 1997, p. 290. An amusing, yet particularly disturbing anecdote was carried in ABC Color on 21 February 1998; it appears that people in the Chaco who wish to eat chicken must buy frozen meat from Asunción. People are no longer willing to operate small hen-houses because of rampant petty theft.
92. Inflation increases to 10.7% from May 1997 to May 1998, the highest level in four years; see ABC Color, 2 June 1998.
93. Latin America after A Decade of Reforms.
94. While the Colorados were heatedly arguing the future of Oviedo's candidacy, on 6 March 1998 the government was forced to intervene in the financial sector once again, liquidating the Union and the BIPSA banks, see ABC Color, 7 March 1998.
95. ́Wasmosy under Fire over Bank Crisis,́ Latin America Regional Reports: Southern Cone, RS-97-06, 29 July 1997, p. 7; International Monetary Fund. ́IMF Concludes Article IV Consultation with Paraguay,́ Press information notice, No. 97/ 29, 22 October 1997.
96. ́Wasmosy under Fire over Bank Crisis,́ Latin America Regional Reports: Southern Cone, RS-97-06, 29 July 1997, p. 7; International Monetary Fund. ́IMF Concludes Article IV Consultation with Paraguay,́ Press information notice, No. 97/ 29, 22 October 1997.
97. ABC Color, 28 December 1997.
98. "IMF Concludes Article IV Consultation with Paraguay." The IMF's 1997 annual Article IV Consultation report shows that GDP per capita fell by 1.3% in 1996 and is expected to rise only to a meagre 0.7% in 1997.
99. La Nación (Asunción), 16 March 1998. The 1997 IMF Press information notice warned about the country's increasing level of indebtedness. For more, see "IMF Concludes Article FV Consultation with Paraguay."
100. La Nación (Asunción), 16 March 1998. The 1997 IMF Press information notice warned about the country's increasing level of indebtedness. For more, see "IMF Concludes Article FV Consultation with Paraguay."
101. ABC Color, 9 June 1998; 14 June 1998; and 28 June 1998.
102. Dionisio Borda and Fernando Masi, Los limites de la transición (Asunción: Universidad Católica, 1998), p. 25, cited in Noticias, 11 August 1998.
103. Dionisio Borda and Fernando Masi, Los limites de la transición (Asunción: Universidad Católica, 1998), p. 25, cited in Noticias, 11 August 1998.
104. "Authoritarian Threat from Argaña," Latin America Weekly Report, 1 November 1996, p. 514.
105. An excerpt from a speech that Oviedo delivered from hiding via telephone captures much of the tone of his campaign and the socioeconomic stratification of Paraguay: "Because they live in air-conditioned quarters and are surrounded by secretaries wearing mini-skirts, officials of this administration cannot possibly be aware of the needs of the peasants." ABC Color, 5 December 1997.
106. While the Colorado Party did regain control of both houses of Congress, power was divided between the three main factions: in the Senate the oviedista faction won 9 seats, the argañistas 9 and the wasmosistas 6, leaving the balance of power with the PLRA and the PEN (14 and 7 seats respectively). For more, see "Red Tide Sweeps Paraguay: Colorado Party Dominates," Washington Report on the Hemisphere, May 1998.
107. ABC Color, 24 January 1999.
108. "Paraguay back to the brink as President defies supreme court ultimatum," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-99-06, 9 February 1999, p. 61; "Cubas Defies Supreme Court," Latin America Regional Report: Southern Cone, RS-98-10, 22 December 1998, p. 6; "Still Hovering on the Brink," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-98-49, 15 December 1998, p. 585; and "Oviedo Ruling Takes Country to the Brink," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-98-48, 8 December 1998, p. 566.
109. "Paraguay back to the brink as President defies supreme court ultimatum," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-99-06, 9 February 1999, p. 61; "Cubas Defies Supreme Court," Latin America Regional Report: Southern Cone, RS-98-10, 22 December 1998, p. 6; "Still Hovering on the Brink," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-98-49, 15 December 1998, p. 585; and "Oviedo Ruling Takes Country to the Brink," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-98-48, 8 December 1998, p. 566.
110. "Paraguay back to the brink as President defies supreme court ultimatum," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-99-06, 9 February 1999, p. 61; "Cubas Defies Supreme Court," Latin America Regional Report: Southern Cone, RS-98-10, 22 December 1998, p. 6; "Still Hovering on the Brink," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-98-49, 15 December 1998, p. 585; and "Oviedo Ruling Takes Country to the Brink," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-98-48, 8 December 1998, p. 566.
111. "Paraguay back to the brink as President defies supreme court ultimatum," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-99-06, 9 February 1999, p. 61; "Cubas Defies Supreme Court," Latin America Regional Report: Southern Cone, RS-98-10, 22 December 1998, p. 6; "Still Hovering on the Brink," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-98-49, 15 December 1998, p. 585; and "Oviedo Ruling Takes Country to the Brink," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-98-48, 8 December 1998, p. 566.
112. "New President Will Serve until 2003," Latin American Weekly Report, WR-99-17, 4 May 1999, p. 197.
113. Ultima Hora, 29 May 1998.
114. For more on this, see Lambert, "Mechanisms of Control;" and Brian Turner, Community Politics and Peasant-State Relations in Paraguay (Lanham, Maryland: University of America Press, 1993).
115. For more on this, see Lambert, "Mechanisms of Control;" and Brian Turner, Community Politics and Peasant-State Relations in Paraguay (Lanham, Maryland: University of America Press, 1993).
116. As the impeachment proceedings were being discussed by Congress, the Cubas Government was pursuing charges against several ranking military officers. For more, see "Legal Ruling: Impeach Cubas," Latin America Weekly Report, WR-99-08, 23 February 1999, p. 86.
117. Phillipe C. Schmitter, "Democracy's Future: More Liberal, Preliberal, or Postliberal?" Journal of Democracy 6 (January 1995): 17.
118. Roderic Camp, "Battling for the Voter: Elections, Parties, and Democracy in Mexico," in Kurt Von Mettenheim and James Malloy, eds., Deepening Democracy in Latin America (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1998), pp. 21-37.
119. Ibid., p. 37.