Consultancies, institutions and the diffusion of Taylorism in Britain, Germany and France, 1920s to 1950s

Business History

Volumn 39, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 67-83

  Kipping, Matthias ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF READING   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040165685     PISSN: 00076791     EISSN: 17437938     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00076799700000146     Document Type: Review

References (99)

1. See V.-W. Mitchell, 'Problems and Risks in the Purchasing of Consultancy Services', The Service Industries Journal, Vol.14 No.3 (July 1994), pp.315-39; C. Sauviat, 'Le conseil: un marché-réseau singulier', in J. de Bandt and J. Gadrey (eds.), Relations de service, marchés de service (Paris, 1994), pp.241-62; and T. Clark, Managing Consultants: Consultancy as the Management of Impressions (Buckingham, 1995).
2. See V.-W. Mitchell, 'Problems and Risks in the Purchasing of Consultancy Services', The Service Industries Journal, Vol.14 No.3 (July 1994), pp.315-39; C. Sauviat, 'Le conseil: un marché-réseau singulier', in J. de Bandt and J. Gadrey (eds.), Relations de service, marchés de service (Paris, 1994), pp.241-62; and T. Clark, Managing Consultants: Consultancy as the Management of Impressions (Buckingham, 1995).
3. See V.-W. Mitchell, 'Problems and Risks in the Purchasing of Consultancy Services', The Service Industries Journal, Vol.14 No.3 (July 1994), pp.315-39; C. Sauviat, 'Le conseil: un marché-réseau singulier', in J. de Bandt and J. Gadrey (eds.), Relations de service, marchés de service (Paris, 1994), pp.241-62; and T. Clark, Managing Consultants: Consultancy as the Management of Impressions (Buckingham, 1995).
4. R.H. Coase, 'The Nature of the Firm', Economica, new series, Vol.4 (Nov. 1937), pp.386-405; and O. Williamson, The Economic Institutions of Capitalism: Firms, Markets, Relational Contracting (New York, 1985).
5. R.H. Coase, 'The Nature of the Firm', Economica, new series, Vol.4 (Nov. 1937), pp.386-405; and O. Williamson, The Economic Institutions of Capitalism: Firms, Markets, Relational Contracting (New York, 1985).
6. More details and additional references can be found in M. Kipping, 'Management Consultancies in Germany, Britain and France, 1900-60', University of Reading, Discussion Papers in Economics and Management, Series A, Vol.IX (1996/97), No.350.
7. See, for the diffusion of Taylorism in general, J.A. Merkle, Management and Ideology: The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement (Berkeley, CA, 1980) and D. Nelson (ed.), A Mental Revolution: Scientific Management since Taylor (Columbus, OH, 1992). This article will use the terms scientific management and Taylorism interchangeably.
8. See, for the diffusion of Taylorism in general, J.A. Merkle, Management and Ideology: The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement (Berkeley, CA, 1980) and D. Nelson (ed.), A Mental Revolution: Scientific Management since Taylor (Columbus, OH, 1992). This article will use the terms scientific management and Taylorism interchangeably.
9. For an overview, B. Kogut and D. Parkinson, 'The Diffusion of American Organizing Principles to Europe', in B. Kogut (ed.), Country Competitiveness: Technology and the Organizing of Work (Oxford, 1993), pp.179-202, and M.F. Guillén, Models of Management. Work, Authority, and Organization in a Comparative Perspective (Chicago, IL, 1994); for the evolution of British, German and French companies during the twentieth century the contributions of Jones, Wengenroth and Fridenson in A.D. Chandler et al. (eds.), Big Business and the Wealth of Nations (New York, 1997).
10. For an overview, B. Kogut and D. Parkinson, 'The Diffusion of American Organizing Principles to Europe', in B. Kogut (ed.), Country Competitiveness: Technology and the Organizing of Work (Oxford, 1993), pp.179-202, and M.F. Guillén, Models of Management. Work, Authority, and Organization in a Comparative Perspective (Chicago, IL, 1994); for the evolution of British, German and French companies during the twentieth century the contributions of Jones, Wengenroth and Fridenson in A.D. Chandler et al. (eds.), Big Business and the Wealth of Nations (New York, 1997).
11. For an overview, B. Kogut and D. Parkinson, 'The Diffusion of American Organizing Principles to Europe', in B. Kogut (ed.), Country Competitiveness: Technology and the Organizing of Work (Oxford, 1993), pp.179-202, and M.F. Guillén, Models of Management. Work, Authority, and Organization in a Comparative Perspective (Chicago, IL, 1994); for the evolution of British, German and French companies during the twentieth century the contributions of Jones, Wengenroth and Fridenson in A.D. Chandler et al. (eds.), Big Business and the Wealth of Nations (New York, 1997).
12. For the former, S. Kreis, 'The Diffusion of an Idea: A History of Scientific Management in Britain, 1890-1945' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, 1990); for the latter, K. Whitston, 'Scientific Management and Production Management Practice in Britain between the Wars', Historical Studies in Industrial Relations, No. 1 (March 1996), pp.47-75. Earlier, Craig Littler had suggested yet another explanation, according to which Bedaux was important, but the actual implementation of his system hampered by widespread resistance from the shop floor: C.R. Littler, The Development of the Labor Process in Capitalist Societies: A Comparative Study of the Transformation of Work Organization in Britain, Japan and the USA (London, 1982).
13. For the former, S. Kreis, 'The Diffusion of an Idea: A History of Scientific Management in Britain, 1890-1945' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, 1990); for the latter, K. Whitston, 'Scientific Management and Production Management Practice in Britain between the Wars', Historical Studies in Industrial Relations, No. 1 (March 1996), pp.47-75. Earlier, Craig Littler had suggested yet another explanation, according to which Bedaux was important, but the actual implementation of his system hampered by widespread resistance from the shop floor: C.R. Littler, The Development of the Labor Process in Capitalist Societies: A Comparative Study of the Transformation of Work Organization in Britain, Japan and the USA (London, 1982).
14. For the former, S. Kreis, 'The Diffusion of an Idea: A History of Scientific Management in Britain, 1890-1945' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, 1990); for the latter, K. Whitston, 'Scientific Management and Production Management Practice in Britain between the Wars', Historical Studies in Industrial Relations, No. 1 (March 1996), pp.47-75. Earlier, Craig Littler had suggested yet another explanation, according to which Bedaux was important, but the actual implementation of his system hampered by widespread resistance from the shop floor: C.R. Littler, The Development of the Labor Process in Capitalist Societies: A Comparative Study of the Transformation of Work Organization in Britain, Japan and the USA (London, 1982).
15. M. Casson, Information and Organization: A New Perspective on the Theory of the Firm (Oxford, 1997).
16. There are other conduits for the transfer of management know-how, such as graduates, management literature or multinationals; see, for an overview, P. Fridenson, 'La circulation internationale des modes manageriales', in J.-P. Bouilloud and B.-P. Lecuyer (eds.), L'invention de la gestion: Histoire et pratiques (Paris, 1994), pp.81-9. These are, however, not directly comparable with consultancies or intermediary institutions, since they do not require the establishment of a trust-based relationship.
17. See, for Britain and Germany, J. Hammerschmidt, 'Die unabhängige Wirtschaftsberatung in Deutschland. Stand und Ausbaumöglichkeiten unter Berücksichtigung ausländischer Erfahrungen' (doctoral dissertation, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, 1964), pp.49-50, 64 and 87; for France, P. Fridenson, 'Un tournant taylorien de la société française (1904-1918)', Annales ESC, No.5 (Sept.-Oct. 1987), pp. 1031-60, here p. 1040.
18. See, for Britain and Germany, J. Hammerschmidt, 'Die unabhängige Wirtschaftsberatung in Deutschland. Stand und Ausbaumöglichkeiten unter Berücksichtigung ausländischer Erfahrungen' (doctoral dissertation, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, 1964), pp.49-50, 64 and 87; for France, P. Fridenson, 'Un tournant taylorien de la société française (1904-1918)', Annales ESC, No.5 (Sept.-Oct. 1987), pp. 1031-60, here p. 1040.
19. For this and the following in detail ibid. and A. Moutet, 'Les origines du système de Taylor en France. Le point de vue patronal (1907-1914)', Le mouvement social, No.93 (Oct.-Dec. 1975), pp. 15-49.
20. For the developments during the inter-war period, see A. Moutet, Les logiques de l'entreprise. L'effort de rationalisation dans l'industrie française de l'entre-deux-guerres (Paris, 1997).
21. Merkle, Management and Ideology, pp.158-66, and D. Reid, 'Fayol: excès d'honneur ou excès d'indignité?', Revue française de gestion, No.70 (Sept.-Oct. 1988), pp.151-9.
22. Merkle, Management and Ideology, pp.158-66, and D. Reid, 'Fayol: excès d'honneur ou excès d'indignité?', Revue française de gestion, No.70 (Sept.-Oct. 1988), pp.151-9.
23. See for details on these institutions R.R. Locke, The End of the Practical Man: Entrepreneurship and Higher Education in Germany, France and Great Britain, 1880-1940 (London, 1984); O. Henry, 'Le conseil, un espace professionel autonome?', Entreprises et Histoire, No.7 (Dec. 1994), pp.37-58, here pp.41-4; and Moutet, La logique de l'entreprise.
24. See for details on these institutions R.R. Locke, The End of the Practical Man: Entrepreneurship and Higher Education in Germany, France and Great Britain, 1880-1940 (London, 1984); O. Henry, 'Le conseil, un espace professionel autonome?', Entreprises et Histoire, No.7 (Dec. 1994), pp.37-58, here pp.41-4; and Moutet, La logique de l'entreprise.
25. See for details on these institutions R.R. Locke, The End of the Practical Man: Entrepreneurship and Higher Education in Germany, France and Great Britain, 1880-1940 (London, 1984); O. Henry, 'Le conseil, un espace professionel autonome?', Entreprises et Histoire, No.7 (Dec. 1994), pp.37-58, here pp.41-4; and Moutet, La logique de l'entreprise.
26. See, for the diffusion of scientific management in Germany, among others H. Homburg, 'Le taylorisme et la rationalisation de l'organisation du travail en Allemagne (1918-1939)', in M. de Montmollin and O. Pastré (eds.), Le taylorisme (Paris, 1984), pp.99-113; Guillén, Models of Management, pp.100-121; and M. Nolan, Visions of Modernity: American Business and the Modernisation of Germany (New York, 1994).
27. See, for the diffusion of scientific management in Germany, among others H. Homburg, 'Le taylorisme et la rationalisation de l'organisation du travail en Allemagne (1918-1939)', in M. de Montmollin and O. Pastré (eds.), Le taylorisme (Paris, 1984), pp.99-113; Guillén, Models of Management, pp.100-121; and M. Nolan, Visions of Modernity: American Business and the Modernisation of Germany (New York, 1994).
28. See, for the diffusion of scientific management in Germany, among others H. Homburg, 'Le taylorisme et la rationalisation de l'organisation du travail en Allemagne (1918-1939)', in M. de Montmollin and O. Pastré (eds.), Le taylorisme (Paris, 1984), pp.99-113; Guillén, Models of Management, pp.100-121; and M. Nolan, Visions of Modernity: American Business and the Modernisation of Germany (New York, 1994).
29. W. von Schütz, 'Das Treuhandprinzip steht im Vordergrund. Über die Entwicklung der freiberuflichen Wirtschaftsberatung in Deutschland', Junge Wirtschaft, Vol.6 No.7 (July 1958), pp.293-4; Ricke, 'Die freiberufliche Unternehmensberatung 1900 bis 1960: Entstehung und Entwicklung eines Berufs im deutschen Sprachgebiet' (unpublished MA dissertation, University of Munich, 1989), pp.22-4; and Hammerschmidt, 'Die unabhängige Wirtschaftsberatung', pp.50-51.
30. W. von Schütz, 'Das Treuhandprinzip steht im Vordergrund. Über die Entwicklung der freiberuflichen Wirtschaftsberatung in Deutschland', Junge Wirtschaft, Vol.6 No.7 (July 1958), pp.293-4; Ricke, 'Die freiberufliche Unternehmensberatung 1900 bis 1960: Entstehung und Entwicklung eines Berufs im deutschen Sprachgebiet' (unpublished MA dissertation, University of Munich, 1989), pp.22-4; and Hammerschmidt, 'Die unabhängige Wirtschaftsberatung', pp.50-51.
31. W. von Schütz, 'Das Treuhandprinzip steht im Vordergrund. Über die Entwicklung der freiberuflichen Wirtschaftsberatung in Deutschland', Junge Wirtschaft, Vol.6 No.7 (July 1958), pp.293-4; Ricke, 'Die freiberufliche Unternehmensberatung 1900 bis 1960: Entstehung und Entwicklung eines Berufs im deutschen Sprachgebiet' (unpublished MA dissertation, University of Munich, 1989), pp.22-4; and Hammerschmidt, 'Die unabhängige Wirtschaftsberatung', pp.50-51.
32. 50 Jahre AWF 1918-1968 (Freiburg/Br., 1968). In 1923, the AWF became affiliated with the RKW (see below) and after 1950 co-operated closely with the REFA.
33. For the history of the RKW, in addition to the references in note 14 above, see Locke, The End of the Practical Man, pp.273-84; H. W. Büttner, Das Rationalisierungs-Kuratorium der Deutschen Wirtschaft (Düsseldorf, 1973); and M. Pohl, 'Die Geschichte der Rationalisierung. Das RKW 1921-1996', in Rationalisierung sichert Zukunft. 75 Jahre RKW (Eschborn, 1996), pp.85-115.
34. For the history of the RKW, in addition to the references in note 14 above, see Locke, The End of the Practical Man, pp.273-84; H. W. Büttner, Das Rationalisierungs-Kuratorium der Deutschen Wirtschaft (Düsseldorf, 1973); and M. Pohl, 'Die Geschichte der Rationalisierung. Das RKW 1921-1996', in Rationalisierung sichert Zukunft. 75 Jahre RKW (Eschborn, 1996), pp.85-115.
35. For the history of the RKW, in addition to the references in note 14 above, see Locke, The End of the Practical Man, pp.273-84; H. W. Büttner, Das Rationalisierungs-Kuratorium der Deutschen Wirtschaft (Düsseldorf, 1973); and M. Pohl, 'Die Geschichte der Rationalisierung. Das RKW 1921-1996', in Rationalisierung sichert Zukunft. 75 Jahre RKW (Eschborn, 1996), pp.85-115.
36. See the RKW's annual reports for 1929 and 1931, pp.16-18 and 44-65 respectively, RKW Library, Eschborn.
37. For the early history of REFA, see H. BÖhrs et al., Grundlagen und Praxis des Arbeits- und Zeitstudiums (Munich, 1948), Vol.I, pp. 19-28; and '30 Jahre REFA', Refa-Nachrichten, Vol.7 No.4 (Dec. 1954); for later developments and the current structure see REFA, Methodenlehre des Arbeitsstudiums, Teil 1: Grundlagen (München, 1984), pp.28-33.
38. For the early history of REFA, see H. BÖhrs et al., Grundlagen und Praxis des Arbeits- und Zeitstudiums (Munich, 1948), Vol.I, pp. 19-28; and '30 Jahre REFA', Refa-Nachrichten, Vol.7 No.4 (Dec. 1954); for later developments and the current structure see REFA, Methodenlehre des Arbeitsstudiums, Teil 1: Grundlagen (München, 1984), pp.28-33.
39. For the early history of REFA, see H. BÖhrs et al., Grundlagen und Praxis des Arbeits- und Zeitstudiums (Munich, 1948), Vol.I, pp. 19-28; and '30 Jahre REFA', Refa-Nachrichten, Vol.7 No.4 (Dec. 1954); for later developments and the current structure see REFA, Methodenlehre des Arbeitsstudiums, Teil 1: Grundlagen (München, 1984), pp.28-33.
40. Refa-Buch. Einführung in die Arbeitszeitermittlung (Berlin, 1928). A second, revised and extended version was published in 1933.
41. See Guillén, Models of Management, pp.205-53; and Whitston, 'Scientific Management', pp.52-60. For the life and influence of Rowntree, see A. Briggs, Social Thought and Social Action: A Study of the Work of Seebohm Rowntree, 1871-1954 (London, 1961).
42. See Guillén, Models of Management, pp.205-53; and Whitston, 'Scientific Management', pp.52-60. For the life and influence of Rowntree, see A. Briggs, Social Thought and Social Action: A Study of the Work of Seebohm Rowntree, 1871-1954 (London, 1961).
43. See Guillén, Models of Management, pp.205-53; and Whitston, 'Scientific Management', pp.52-60. For the life and influence of Rowntree, see A. Briggs, Social Thought and Social Action: A Study of the Work of Seebohm Rowntree, 1871-1954 (London, 1961).
44. J. Christy, The Price of Power: A Biography of Charles Eugéne Bedaux (Toronto, 1984), which has to be read with caution since it contains a number of inaccuracies; for the development and expansion of his consultancy, see M. Kipping and C. Sauviat, 'Global Management Consultancies: Their Evolution and Structure', University of Reading, Discussion Papers in International Investment & Business Studies, Series B, Vol IX (1996/97), No.221; and S. Kreis, 'The Diffusion of Scientific Management: The Bedaux Company in America and Britain, 1926-1945', in Nelson (ed.), A Mental Revolution, pp. 156-74.
45. J. Christy, The Price of Power: A Biography of Charles Eugéne Bedaux (Toronto, 1984), which has to be read with caution since it contains a number of inaccuracies; for the development and expansion of his consultancy, see M. Kipping and C. Sauviat, 'Global Management Consultancies: Their Evolution and Structure', University of Reading, Discussion Papers in International Investment & Business Studies, Series B, Vol IX (1996/97), No.221; and S. Kreis, 'The Diffusion of Scientific Management: The Bedaux Company in America and Britain, 1926-1945', in Nelson (ed.), A Mental Revolution, pp. 156-74.
46. J. Christy, The Price of Power: A Biography of Charles Eugéne Bedaux (Toronto, 1984), which has to be read with caution since it contains a number of inaccuracies; for the development and expansion of his consultancy, see M. Kipping and C. Sauviat, 'Global Management Consultancies: Their Evolution and Structure', University of Reading, Discussion Papers in International Investment & Business Studies, Series B, Vol IX (1996/97), No.221; and S. Kreis, 'The Diffusion of Scientific Management: The Bedaux Company in America and Britain, 1926-1945', in Nelson (ed.), A Mental Revolution, pp. 156-74.
47. According to Kreis, they would have considered him 'little more than a quack or charlatan', ibid., p. 168.
48. P. Tisdall, Agents of Change: The Development and Practice of Management Consultancy (London, 1982), pp. 16-20. For the early experiments of British companies with Taylorism see also Kreis, 'The Diffusion of an Idea'
49. Meeting reports of 5 Sept. 1929, 8 May 1930 and 21 April 1932 in the MRG papers at the Archives of the British Library of Political & Economic Science in London, Box 12, Slip 474 (W/8/29-34/12).
50. Briggs, Social Thought, pp. 182-3.
51. Some of these assignments were for the same companies, but in different factories or workshops, see Client/Assignment List, 1924-1947, from the private archives of John E. Pleming, who joined the consultancy in 1948 [hereafter: Pleming Papers]. I am very grateful to Mr Pleming for letting me use this material.
52. For example, by Kreis, 'The Diffusion of Scientific Management'.
53. For each task, the 'normal' time of activity and of rest were established and translated into a standard hour which consisted invariably of 60 B. For example, if a specific task required two minutes of activity and one minute of rest, 60 B corresponded to a normal worker carrying out this task 20 times; see in detail P. Laloux, Le système Bedaux de calcul des salaires (Paris, 1950); for a summary, see Littler, The Development of the Labor Process, pp.108-12, and Kreis, 'The Diffusion of Scientific Management', pp.161-5.
54. For each task, the 'normal' time of activity and of rest were established and translated into a standard hour which consisted invariably of 60 B. For example, if a specific task required two minutes of activity and one minute of rest, 60 B corresponded to a normal worker carrying out this task 20 times; see in detail P. Laloux, Le système Bedaux de calcul des salaires (Paris, 1950); for a summary, see Littler, The Development of the Labor Process, pp.108-12, and Kreis, 'The Diffusion of Scientific Management', pp.161-5.
55. For each task, the 'normal' time of activity and of rest were established and translated into a standard hour which consisted invariably of 60 B. For example, if a specific task required two minutes of activity and one minute of rest, 60 B corresponded to a normal worker carrying out this task 20 times; see in detail P. Laloux, Le système Bedaux de calcul des salaires (Paris, 1950); for a summary, see Littler, The Development of the Labor Process, pp.108-12, and Kreis, 'The Diffusion of Scientific Management', pp.161-5.
56. For more details, see Kipping, 'Management Consultancies'.
57. According to information provided by the British Bedaux Consultancy to the Trade Union Congress. See 'The TUC Examines the Bedaux System of Payment by Results', TUC General Council, 1933, p.7, Modern Records Centre, Warwick University, MSS.292/112/2.
58. Christy, The Price of Power, p.93.
59. See for this and the following the Institute's first annual report, Jahrbuch 1936. Hrsg. vom Arbeitswissenschaftlichen Institut der Deutschen Arbeitsfront (Berlin, n.d.), REFA Archives, Darmstadt .
60. Ricke, 'Die freiberufliche Unternehmensberatung', p.27.
61. For details of this visit and Bedaux's association with the former Edward VIII, see Christy, The Price of Power, chapters 11 to 13.
62. Das Bedaux-System (Berlin, [1938]). It can be found in the Staatsbibliothek München.
63. E. Rochau, Das Bedaux-System, seine praktische Anwendung und kritischer Vergleich zwischen Refa- und Bedaux-System (Würzburg, 2nd edn. 1939).
64. See F. Schlund, 'Das Bedaux-System', in Refa und Leistungssteigerung. Vorträge der Refa-Jahrestagung Gotha 1939 (Berlin, 1940), pp.46-67. He characterised the simultaneous use of both systems in Germany as 'unhealthy'.
65. RKW, Gröβere Wirtschaftlichkeit durch geordnetes Rechnungswesen und Betriebsuntersuchungen (Leipzig, 2nd edn. 1942), pp.63-97, especially the table on p.94. This book also covered accounting, another area where the Nazi regime aimed for and achieved more standardisation.
66. Pohl, 'Die Geschichte der Rationalisierung', pp.92-3.
67. To £134,000 in 1939/40; AIC Ltd (and predecessors), Annual Turnover, Pleming Papers.
68. For the strikes against Bedaux, see especially Littler, The Development of the Labor Process, chapter 9; for the only known case where attempts to install the system were completely abolished, see L.L. Downs, 'Industrial Decline, Rationalisation and Equal Pay: The Bedaux Strike at Rover Automobile Company', Social History, Vol.15 No.1 (Jan. 1990), pp.45-73.
69. For the strikes against Bedaux, see especially Littler, The Development of the Labor Process, chapter 9; for the only known case where attempts to install the system were completely abolished, see L.L. Downs, 'Industrial Decline, Rationalisation and Equal Pay: The Bedaux Strike at Rover Automobile Company', Social History, Vol.15 No.1 (Jan. 1990), pp.45-73.
70. Tisdall, Agents of Change, pp.28-35, 55-9.
71. For this and the following, see M. Brownlow, 'A History of Inbucon', unpublished manuscript, chapters 4 and 5, Pleming Papers. In 1943, the holding company was renamed Inbucon.
72. Tisdall, Agents of Change, pp.35-41 . For the important role of Cripps in general, see N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, Industrial Efficiency and State Intervention: Labour 1939-51 (London, 1993).
73. Tisdall, Agents of Change, pp.35-41 . For the important role of Cripps in general, see N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, Industrial Efficiency and State Intervention: Labour 1939-51 (London, 1993).
74. For more details, see Henry, 'Le conseil', pp.44-6; for Coutrot's role see also L. Boltanski, The Making of a Class: Cadres in French Society (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 121-2.
75. For more details, see Henry, 'Le conseil', pp.44-6; for Coutrot's role see also L. Boltanski, The Making of a Class: Cadres in French Society (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 121-2.
76. Laloux, Le système Bedaux, p. 10.
77. From ongoing research of the author, who would like to thank Ludovic Cailluet for his help in identifying some of the relevant sources in the Pechiney Archives at the Institut pour l'histoire de l'aluminium in Paris.
78. For details, see A.B. Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan: The Politics of Productivity and the Marketing of Management Science (Manchester, 1987); R.F. Kuisel, 'The Marshall Plan in Action: Politics, Labor, Industry and the Program of Technical Assistance', in M. Lévy-Leboyer and R. Girault (eds.), Le plan Marshall et le relèvement économique de l'Europe (Paris, 1993), pp.335-58; and J. McGlade, 'The Illusion of Consensus: American Business, Cold War Aid and the Reconstruction of Western Europe 1948-1958' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, George Washington University, 1995).
79. For details, see A.B. Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan: The Politics of Productivity and the Marketing of Management Science (Manchester, 1987); R.F. Kuisel, 'The Marshall Plan in Action: Politics, Labor, Industry and the Program of Technical Assistance', in M. Lévy-Leboyer and R. Girault (eds.), Le plan Marshall et le relèvement économique de l'Europe (Paris, 1993), pp.335-58; and J. McGlade, 'The Illusion of Consensus: American Business, Cold War Aid and the Reconstruction of Western Europe 1948-1958' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, George Washington University, 1995).
80. For details, see A.B. Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan: The Politics of Productivity and the Marketing of Management Science (Manchester, 1987); R.F. Kuisel, 'The Marshall Plan in Action: Politics, Labor, Industry and the Program of Technical Assistance', in M. Lévy-Leboyer and R. Girault (eds.), Le plan Marshall et le relèvement économique de l'Europe (Paris, 1993), pp.335-58; and J. McGlade, 'The Illusion of Consensus: American Business, Cold War Aid and the Reconstruction of Western Europe 1948-1958' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, George Washington University, 1995).
81. Pleming was the first British national who joined the Bedaux Consultancy in 1926. He became Managing Director of AIC in 1939 when the two American Directors, Frank Mead and Colwell Carney, went back to the United States; for his career and his role in the AACP, see Brownlow, 'A History of Inbucon', Pleming Papers.
82. Report on Labour Redeployment in the Musgrave Mill Cardroom, Balton, published by the Labour Department of the Cotton Board, March 1948. Many thanks to Mary Rose for providing me with a copy of this report. See also J. Singleton, Lancashire on the Scrapheap: The Cotton Industry, 1945-1970 (Oxford, 1991), chapter 4.
83. Report on Labour Redeployment in the Musgrave Mill Cardroom, Balton, published by the Labour Department of the Cotton Board, March 1948. Many thanks to Mary Rose for providing me with a copy of this report. See also J. Singleton, Lancashire on the Scrapheap: The Cotton Industry, 1945-1970 (Oxford, 1991), chapter 4.
84. See note 45 above.
85. 'Role of the Business Consultant', The Statist, 28 June 1952, pp.932-3. This register, initially reserved to BIM members, was later made available to the general public as Management Consultancy Services Information Bureau. It was closed in 1980 for budgetary reasons; see Tisdall, Agents of Change, pp.93-4, 107-8.
86. 'Role of the Business Consultant', The Statist, 28 June 1952, pp.932-3. This register, initially reserved to BIM members, was later made available to the general public as Management Consultancy Services Information Bureau. It was closed in 1980 for budgetary reasons; see Tisdall, Agents of Change, pp.93-4, 107-8.
87. The above is based on information in the MCA Archives in London, boxes 6 and 22; see also Tisdall, Agents of Change, pp.9 and 41.
88. Ricke, 'Die freiberufliche Unternehmensberatung', pp.30-37, and Kienbaum und Partner: Geschichte einer Unternehmensberatung 1945-1995 (Gummersbach, 1995).
89. Ricke, 'Die freiberufliche Unternehmensberatung', pp.30-37, and Kienbaum und Partner: Geschichte einer Unternehmensberatung 1945-1995 (Gummersbach, 1995).
90. See the RKW's annual report for 1951/52, especially pp.21-32 , and for the German participation in the productivity missions see Internationaler Erfahrungsaustausch. Zusammenstellung der Studienreisen und deren Teilnehmer im Bereich der gewerblichen Wirtschaft (Berlin, 1957), both available in the RKW Library.
91. See the RKW's annual report for 1951/52, especially pp.21-32 , and for the German participation in the productivity missions see Internationaler Erfahrungsaustausch. Zusammenstellung der Studienreisen und deren Teilnehmer im Bereich der gewerblichen Wirtschaft (Berlin, 1957), both available in the RKW Library.
92. Das Arbeitsstudium in den USA. Bericht einer deutschen Studiengruppe (München, 1955).
93. For example, B. Fischer, 'Grundzüge des Bedaux-Systems', Zeitschrift für Betriebswirtschaft, Vol.20 No. 10 (Oct. 1950), pp.637-46 , and 'Methode der analytischen Arbeitsbewertung zur Bestimmung der Grundlohnskala nach Bedaux', ibid., Vol.21 No.1 (Jan. 1951), pp.35-43. In 1952, a third edition of Rochau's comparison between REFA and Bedaux systems (see note 37 above) was published.
94. For example, B. Fischer, 'Grundzüge des Bedaux-Systems', Zeitschrift für Betriebswirtschaft, Vol.20 No. 10 (Oct. 1950), pp.637-46 , and 'Methode der analytischen Arbeitsbewertung zur Bestimmung der Grundlohnskala nach Bedaux', ibid., Vol.21 No.1 (Jan. 1951), pp.35-43. In 1952, a third edition of Rochau's comparison between REFA and Bedaux systems (see note 37 above) was published.
95. Summarised in Refa-Nachrichten, Vol.9 No.3 (Sept. 1956), pp.91-4.
96. Twelve per cent named no specific system and 13 per cent did not reply. It should be noted that Bedaux obtained its share mainly in the rubber industry where it almost equalled the importance of REFA (46 versus 53 per cent). This is no surprise, since the largest producer, Continental, had adopted the system in 1926, becoming Bedaux's first German client. In line with its origins, the REFA was strongest in the producer goods sector (92 per cent).
97. M. Kipping and J.-P. Nioche, 'Much Ado about Nothing? Productivity Drive and Management Training in France (1945-1960)', in T. Gourvish and N. Tiratsoo (eds.), Missionaries and Managers (Manchester, 1998).
98. Henry, 'Le conseil', pp.48-52.
99. For these developments, see M. Kipping, The U.S. Influence on the Evolution of Management Consultancies in Britain, France, and Germany Since 1945', Business and Economic History, Vol.25 No. 1 (Fall 1996), pp. 112-23.