Bob Dole's age and health in the 1996 election: Did the media let us down?

Political Science Quarterly

Volumn 113, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 471-491

  Abrams, Herbert L ^a   Brody, Richard ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040122293     PISSN: 00323195     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2658077     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. "The Age Boom: A Special Issue," New York Times Magazine, 8 March 1997.
2. Alexandra Bandon, "Longer, Healthier, Better" in ibid., 44-45.
3. Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992); Bert E. Park, The Impact of Illness on World Leaders (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986); Hugh L'Etang, Ailing Leaders in Power: 1914-1994 (London: Royal Society of Medicine Press, 1995); Robert E. Gilbert, The Mortal Presidency (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Robert H. Ferrell, Ill-Advised: Presidential Health and Public Trust (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1992); Kenneth R. Crispell and Carlos F. Gomez, Hidden Illness in the White House (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988); Edward B. MacMahon and Leonard Curry, Medical Cover-Ups in the White House (Washington, DC.: Farragut Publishing, 1988).
4. Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992); Bert E. Park, The Impact of Illness on World Leaders (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986); Hugh L'Etang, Ailing Leaders in Power: 1914-1994 (London: Royal Society of Medicine Press, 1995); Robert E. Gilbert, The Mortal Presidency (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Robert H. Ferrell, Ill-Advised: Presidential Health and Public Trust (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1992); Kenneth R. Crispell and Carlos F. Gomez, Hidden Illness in the White House (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988); Edward B. MacMahon and Leonard Curry, Medical Cover-Ups in the White House (Washington, DC.: Farragut Publishing, 1988).
5. Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992); Bert E. Park, The Impact of Illness on World Leaders (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986); Hugh L'Etang, Ailing Leaders in Power: 1914-1994 (London: Royal Society of Medicine Press, 1995); Robert E. Gilbert, The Mortal Presidency (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Robert H. Ferrell, Ill-Advised: Presidential Health and Public Trust (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1992); Kenneth R. Crispell and Carlos F. Gomez, Hidden Illness in the White House (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988); Edward B. MacMahon and Leonard Curry, Medical Cover-Ups in the White House (Washington, DC.: Farragut Publishing, 1988).
6. Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992); Bert E. Park, The Impact of Illness on World Leaders (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986); Hugh L'Etang, Ailing Leaders in Power: 1914-1994 (London: Royal Society of Medicine Press, 1995); Robert E. Gilbert, The Mortal Presidency (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Robert H. Ferrell, Ill-Advised: Presidential Health and Public Trust (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1992); Kenneth R. Crispell and Carlos F. Gomez, Hidden Illness in the White House (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988); Edward B. MacMahon and Leonard Curry, Medical Cover-Ups in the White House (Washington, DC.: Farragut Publishing, 1988).
7. Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992); Bert E. Park, The Impact of Illness on World Leaders (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986); Hugh L'Etang, Ailing Leaders in Power: 1914-1994 (London: Royal Society of Medicine Press, 1995); Robert E. Gilbert, The Mortal Presidency (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Robert H. Ferrell, Ill-Advised: Presidential Health and Public Trust (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1992); Kenneth R. Crispell and Carlos F. Gomez, Hidden Illness in the White House (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988); Edward B. MacMahon and Leonard Curry, Medical Cover-Ups in the White House (Washington, DC.: Farragut Publishing, 1988).
8. Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992); Bert E. Park, The Impact of Illness on World Leaders (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986); Hugh L'Etang, Ailing Leaders in Power: 1914-1994 (London: Royal Society of Medicine Press, 1995); Robert E. Gilbert, The Mortal Presidency (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Robert H. Ferrell, Ill-Advised: Presidential Health and Public Trust (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1992); Kenneth R. Crispell and Carlos F. Gomez, Hidden Illness in the White House (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988); Edward B. MacMahon and Leonard Curry, Medical Cover-Ups in the White House (Washington, DC.: Farragut Publishing, 1988).
9. Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992); Bert E. Park, The Impact of Illness on World Leaders (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986); Hugh L'Etang, Ailing Leaders in Power: 1914-1994 (London: Royal Society of Medicine Press, 1995); Robert E. Gilbert, The Mortal Presidency (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Robert H. Ferrell, Ill-Advised: Presidential Health and Public Trust (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1992); Kenneth R. Crispell and Carlos F. Gomez, Hidden Illness in the White House (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988); Edward B. MacMahon and Leonard Curry, Medical Cover-Ups in the White House (Washington, DC.: Farragut Publishing, 1988).
10. Herbert L. Abrams, The President Has Been Shot: Confusion, Disability, and the 25th Amendment in the Aftermath of the Attempted Assassination of Ronald Reagan (New York: Norton, 1992), 259-60.
11. These issues are treated in greater detail in Herbert L. Abrams, "Should a Senior Citizen be President?" Atlantic Monthly, in press.
12. Calculated from statistics in Health United States 1994, DHHS Publication No. (PHS) 95-1232 (Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services, National Center for Health Statistics, 1994), 113-116.
13. American Heart Association, Heart and Stroke Facts: 1995, Statistical Supplement (Dallas: American Heart Association, 1995), 11.
14. Charity A. Dorgan, ed., Statistical Record of Health and Medicine (Detroit: Gale Research, 1995), 10-11.
15. Robin A. Cohen and Joan F. Van Nostrand, eds., "Trends in the Health of Older Americans: United States, 1994," National Center for Health Statistics: Vital Health Statistics, 3d ser., no. 3 (1995): 242-244.
16. Brenda S. Gillum, Edmund J. Graves, and Lola J. Kozak, eds., "Trends in Hospital Utilization: United States 1988-1992," National Center for Health Statistics: Vital Health Statistics, 13th ser., no. 124 (1996): 50.
17. S. C. Farrow et al., "Epidemiology in Anesthesia II: Factors Affecting Mortality in the Hospital," British Journal of Anesthesiology 54 (August 1982): 811; Floyd D. Loop et al., "Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery in the Elderly: Indications and Outcome," Cleveland Journal of Medicine 55 (January/February 1988): 23; K. F. Hatton et al., "Morbidity and Mortality Associated With Anesthesia: Preliminary Results" in John Lunn and William Mushin, eds., Mortality Associated with Anesthesia (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospital Trust, 1982), 24.
18. S. C. Farrow et al., "Epidemiology in Anesthesia II: Factors Affecting Mortality in the Hospital," British Journal of Anesthesiology 54 (August 1982): 811; Floyd D. Loop et al., "Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery in the Elderly: Indications and Outcome," Cleveland Journal of Medicine 55 (January/February 1988): 23; K. F. Hatton et al., "Morbidity and Mortality Associated With Anesthesia: Preliminary Results" in John Lunn and William Mushin, eds., Mortality Associated with Anesthesia (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospital Trust, 1982), 24.
19. S. C. Farrow et al., "Epidemiology in Anesthesia II: Factors Affecting Mortality in the Hospital," British Journal of Anesthesiology 54 (August 1982): 811; Floyd D. Loop et al., "Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery in the Elderly: Indications and Outcome," Cleveland Journal of Medicine 55 (January/February 1988): 23; K. F. Hatton et al., "Morbidity and Mortality Associated With Anesthesia: Preliminary Results" in John Lunn and William Mushin, eds., Mortality Associated with Anesthesia (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospital Trust, 1982), 24.
20. G. F. Marx, C. V. Mateo, and L. R. Orkin, "Computer Analysis of Postanesthetic Deaths," Anesthesiology 39 (1973): 54.
21. Dennis A. Evans et al., "Prevalence of Alzheimer's Disease in a Community Population of Older Persons," JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association) 262 (November 1989): 2551-6.
22. E. L. Cay et al., "Psychological Status During Recovery From an Acute Heart Attack," Journal of Psychosomatic Research 16 (October 1972): 425-435; E. L. Cay et al., "Psychologic Reactions to a Coronary Care Unit," ibid., 437-447.
23. E. L. Cay et al., "Psychological Status During Recovery From an Acute Heart Attack," Journal of Psychosomatic Research 16 (October 1972): 425-435; E. L. Cay et al., "Psychologic Reactions to a Coronary Care Unit," ibid., 437-447.
24. Richard M. Nixon, Six Crises (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1963), 154.
25. E. L. Cay et al., "Psychologic Reactions to a Coronary Care Unit," 437-447; Ole F. Leegard, "Diffuse Cerebral Symptoms in Convalescents from Cerebral Infarction and Myocardial Infarction," Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 67 (June 1983): 348-355.
26. E. L. Cay et al., "Psychologic Reactions to a Coronary Care Unit," 437-447; Ole F. Leegard, "Diffuse Cerebral Symptoms in Convalescents from Cerebral Infarction and Myocardial Infarction," Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 67 (June 1983): 348-355.
27. P. B. Storey, "Brain Damage and Personality Change After Subarachnoid Hemorrhage," British Journal of Psychiatry 117 (August 1970): 129-142.
28. M. J. Short, W. P. Wilson, and G. L. Odom, "Psychiatric Sequelae of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage," Southern Medical Journal 61 (January 1968): 87-91.
29. Nancy C. Andreasen, "Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder" in Harold I. Kaplan, Alfred M. Friedman, and Benjamin J. Sadock, eds., Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, vol. 2, 3d ed. (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1980), 1519. James L. Titchener, "Management and Study of Psychological Response to Trauma," Journal of Trauma 10 (November 1970): 974-80.
30. Nancy C. Andreasen, "Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder" in Harold I. Kaplan, Alfred M. Friedman, and Benjamin J. Sadock, eds., Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, vol. 2, 3d ed. (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1980), 1519. James L. Titchener, "Management and Study of Psychological Response to Trauma," Journal of Trauma 10 (November 1970): 974-80.
31. John Pekkanen, "The Saving of the President," Washingtonian, August 1981, 125.
32. Marek-Marsel Mesulam and Norman Geschwind, "Disordered Mental States in the Postoperative Period," Urology Clinics of North America 3 (June 1976): 199-215.
33. Gary A. Roach et al., "Adverse Cerebral Outcomes After Coronary Bypass Surgery," New England Journal of Medicine 325 (19 December 1996): 1857-1863.
34. Jing Hsu, "Depression in Cancer Patients: An Overview," Hawaii Medical Journal 45 (August 1986): 272-290; Peter Maguire, "The Psychological Impact of Cancer," British Journal of Hospital Medicine 34 (August 1985): 100-103; Carol A. Morris, "Self-Concept as Altered by the Diagnosis of Cancer," Nursing Clinics of North America 20 (December 1985): 611-630.
35. Jing Hsu, "Depression in Cancer Patients: An Overview," Hawaii Medical Journal 45 (August 1986): 272-290; Peter Maguire, "The Psychological Impact of Cancer," British Journal of Hospital Medicine 34 (August 1985): 100-103; Carol A. Morris, "Self-Concept as Altered by the Diagnosis of Cancer," Nursing Clinics of North America 20 (December 1985): 611-630.
36. Jing Hsu, "Depression in Cancer Patients: An Overview," Hawaii Medical Journal 45 (August 1986): 272-290; Peter Maguire, "The Psychological Impact of Cancer," British Journal of Hospital Medicine 34 (August 1985): 100-103; Carol A. Morris, "Self-Concept as Altered by the Diagnosis of Cancer," Nursing Clinics of North America 20 (December 1985): 611-630.
37. Leonard R. Derogatis et al., "The Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders Among Cancer Patients," JAMA 249 (11 February 1983): 751-7; T. T. Lloyd, A. C. Parker, and C. A. Ludlam, "Emotional Impact of Diagnosis and Early Treatment of Lymphomas," Journal of Psychosomatic Research 28 (1984): 157-162.
38. Leonard R. Derogatis et al., "The Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders Among Cancer Patients," JAMA 249 (11 February 1983): 751-7; T. T. Lloyd, A. C. Parker, and C. A. Ludlam, "Emotional Impact of Diagnosis and Early Treatment of Lymphomas," Journal of Psychosomatic Research 28 (1984): 157-162.
39. Nathaniel S. Apter, Ward C. Halstead, and Robert Heimburger, "Impaired Cerebral Functions in Essential Hypertension," American Journal of Psychiatry 107 (May 1951): 808-813.
40. John R. Trounce, Clinical Pharmacology for Nurses (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1985), 147; Fred Leavitt, Drugs and Behavior (New York: John Wiley, 1982), 21, 31, 169; Kari Korttila et al., "Recovery and Simulated Driving After Intravenous Anesthesia with Thiopental, Methohexital, Propanidid, or Alphadione," Anesthesiology 43 (September 1975): 291-99.
41. John R. Trounce, Clinical Pharmacology for Nurses (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1985), 147; Fred Leavitt, Drugs and Behavior (New York: John Wiley, 1982), 21, 31, 169; Kari Korttila et al., "Recovery and Simulated Driving After Intravenous Anesthesia with Thiopental, Methohexital, Propanidid, or Alphadione," Anesthesiology 43 (September 1975): 291-99.
42. John R. Trounce, Clinical Pharmacology for Nurses (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1985), 147; Fred Leavitt, Drugs and Behavior (New York: John Wiley, 1982), 21, 31, 169; Kari Korttila et al., "Recovery and Simulated Driving After Intravenous Anesthesia with Thiopental, Methohexital, Propanidid, or Alphadione," Anesthesiology 43 (September 1975): 291-99.
43. Leavitt, Drugs and Behavior, 20, 117; Kari Korttila and M. Linnoila, "Psychomotor Skills Related to Driving After Intramuscular Administration of Diazepam and Meperidine," Anesthesiology 42 (June 1975): 685-91.
44. Leavitt, Drugs and Behavior, 20, 117; Kari Korttila and M. Linnoila, "Psychomotor Skills Related to Driving After Intramuscular Administration of Diazepam and Meperidine," Anesthesiology 42 (June 1975): 685-91.
45. A glaring example of the excessive romanticizing of seniors may be found in an issue of the New York Times Magazine entitled "The Age Boom," 9 March 1997. Nowhere in the series of articles is there a serious effort to depict the health consequences, disability, and cognitive effects associated with aging. An unapologetic reference to "living to 100, with . . . brain functions, especially memory, relatively unimpaired" (p. 14) runs seamlessly into a "new stage of life [that] emerges more clearly every day . . . longer, better, healthier" (pp. 42, 44). "84 Going on 50" is the title of one piece (pp 52, 53). "We are living it up," 81 year old Mary Coleman said (p. 63). To be sure, more old people are more comfortable than in the past. What is buried in "The Age Boom," however, is the vast number of the elderly whose life is marginal because of physical, functional, and cognitive changes that are profoundly incapacitating.
46. John M. Rybash, William Hoyer, and Paul A Roodin, Adult Cognition and Aging (New York: Pergamon Press, 1986), 99.
47. Timothy A. Salthouse, Adult Cognition: An Experimental Psychology of Human Aging (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982), 67; Douglas H. Powell, Profiles in Cognitive Aging (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 202; Timothy A. Salthouse and Kenneth A. Prill, "Inferences About Age Impairments in Inferential Reasoning," Psychology of Aging 2 (March 1987): 43-51; Jack Botwinick, "Intellectual Abilities" in James E. Birren and K. Warner Schaie, eds., Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1977), 580-603; Warren F. Gorman and Cris D. Campbell, "Mental Acuity of the Normal Elderly," Journal of the Oklahoma State Medical Association 88 (March 1995): 119-23; Nancy W. Denney, "Critical Thinking During the Adult Years: Has the Developmental Function Changed Over the Last Four Decades?" Experimental Aging Research 21 (April/June 1995): 191-207.
48. Timothy A. Salthouse, Adult Cognition: An Experimental Psychology of Human Aging (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982), 67; Douglas H. Powell, Profiles in Cognitive Aging (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 202; Timothy A. Salthouse and Kenneth A. Prill, "Inferences About Age Impairments in Inferential Reasoning," Psychology of Aging 2 (March 1987): 43-51; Jack Botwinick, "Intellectual Abilities" in James E. Birren and K. Warner Schaie, eds., Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1977), 580-603; Warren F. Gorman and Cris D. Campbell, "Mental Acuity of the Normal Elderly," Journal of the Oklahoma State Medical Association 88 (March 1995): 119-23; Nancy W. Denney, "Critical Thinking During the Adult Years: Has the Developmental Function Changed Over the Last Four Decades?" Experimental Aging Research 21 (April/June 1995): 191-207.
49. Timothy A. Salthouse, Adult Cognition: An Experimental Psychology of Human Aging (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982), 67; Douglas H. Powell, Profiles in Cognitive Aging (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 202; Timothy A. Salthouse and Kenneth A. Prill, "Inferences About Age Impairments in Inferential Reasoning," Psychology of Aging 2 (March 1987): 43-51; Jack Botwinick, "Intellectual Abilities" in James E. Birren and K. Warner Schaie, eds., Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1977), 580-603; Warren F. Gorman and Cris D. Campbell, "Mental Acuity of the Normal Elderly," Journal of the Oklahoma State Medical Association 88 (March 1995): 119-23; Nancy W. Denney, "Critical Thinking During the Adult Years: Has the Developmental Function Changed Over the Last Four Decades?" Experimental Aging Research 21 (April/June 1995): 191-207.
50. Timothy A. Salthouse, Adult Cognition: An Experimental Psychology of Human Aging (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982), 67; Douglas H. Powell, Profiles in Cognitive Aging (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 202; Timothy A. Salthouse and Kenneth A. Prill, "Inferences About Age Impairments in Inferential Reasoning," Psychology of Aging 2 (March 1987): 43-51; Jack Botwinick, "Intellectual Abilities" in James E. Birren and K. Warner Schaie, eds., Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1977), 580-603; Warren F. Gorman and Cris D. Campbell, "Mental Acuity of the Normal Elderly," Journal of the Oklahoma State Medical Association 88 (March 1995): 119-23; Nancy W. Denney, "Critical Thinking During the Adult Years: Has the Developmental Function Changed Over the Last Four Decades?" Experimental Aging Research 21 (April/June 1995): 191-207.
51. Timothy A. Salthouse, Adult Cognition: An Experimental Psychology of Human Aging (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982), 67; Douglas H. Powell, Profiles in Cognitive Aging (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 202; Timothy A. Salthouse and Kenneth A. Prill, "Inferences About Age Impairments in Inferential Reasoning," Psychology of Aging 2 (March 1987): 43-51; Jack Botwinick, "Intellectual Abilities" in James E. Birren and K. Warner Schaie, eds., Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1977), 580-603; Warren F. Gorman and Cris D. Campbell, "Mental Acuity of the Normal Elderly," Journal of the Oklahoma State Medical Association 88 (March 1995): 119-23; Nancy W. Denney, "Critical Thinking During the Adult Years: Has the Developmental Function Changed Over the Last Four Decades?" Experimental Aging Research 21 (April/June 1995): 191-207.
52. Timothy A. Salthouse, Adult Cognition: An Experimental Psychology of Human Aging (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982), 67; Douglas H. Powell, Profiles in Cognitive Aging (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 202; Timothy A. Salthouse and Kenneth A. Prill, "Inferences About Age Impairments in Inferential Reasoning," Psychology of Aging 2 (March 1987): 43-51; Jack Botwinick, "Intellectual Abilities" in James E. Birren and K. Warner Schaie, eds., Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1977), 580-603; Warren F. Gorman and Cris D. Campbell, "Mental Acuity of the Normal Elderly," Journal of the Oklahoma State Medical Association 88 (March 1995): 119-23; Nancy W. Denney, "Critical Thinking During the Adult Years: Has the Developmental Function Changed Over the Last Four Decades?" Experimental Aging Research 21 (April/June 1995): 191-207.
53. Dennis B. Bromley, "Age and Sex Differences in the Serial Production of Creative Conceptual Responses," Journal of Gerontology 22 (January 1967): 32-42; Patricia K. Alpaugh and James E. Birren, "Variables Affecting Creative Contributions Across the Adult Life Span," Human Development 20 (1977): 240.
54. Dennis B. Bromley, "Age and Sex Differences in the Serial Production of Creative Conceptual Responses," Journal of Gerontology 22 (January 1967): 32-42; Patricia K. Alpaugh and James E. Birren, "Variables Affecting Creative Contributions Across the Adult Life Span," Human Development 20 (1977): 240.
55. Salthouse, Adult Cognition, 83; Asenath La Rue, Aging and Neuropsychological Assessment (New York: Plenum Press, 1992): 76.
56. Salthouse, Adult Cognition, 83; Asenath La Rue, Aging and Neuropsychological Assessment (New York: Plenum Press, 1992): 76.
57. Salthouse, Adult Cognition, 101-2. In contrast to the uniform decrements in cognitive function with aging described by Salthouse and many other workers in developmental psychology, Baltes and his colleagues contend that certain problem-solving abilities are maintained throughout a longer part of the life cycle. See, for example, Paul B. Baltes, "On the Incomplete Architecture of Human Ontology," American Psychologist 52 (April 1997): 366-380. Baltes suggests that while such central cognitive functions as memory and speed of information processing ("cognitive mechanics," in his term) exhibit consistent age losses, so-called wisdom related performance ("cognitive pragmatics") may be maintained "at least up to age 70." Nevertheless, he believes that "when the age range of 70-100 years is reached, all cognitive dimensions exhibit losses."
58. Salthouse, Adult Cognition, 101-2. In contrast to the uniform decrements in cognitive function with aging described by Salthouse and many other workers in developmental psychology, Baltes and his colleagues contend that certain problem-solving abilities are maintained throughout a longer part of the life cycle. See, for example, Paul B. Baltes, "On the Incomplete Architecture of Human Ontology," American Psychologist 52 (April 1997): 366-380. Baltes suggests that while such central cognitive functions as memory and speed of information processing ("cognitive mechanics," in his term) exhibit consistent age losses, so-called wisdom related performance ("cognitive pragmatics") may be maintained "at least up to age 70." Nevertheless, he believes that "when the age range of 70-100 years is reached, all cognitive dimensions exhibit losses."
59. M. Powell Lawton, "Contextual Perspectives: Psychosocial Influences" in Leonard W. Poon, ed., Handbook for the Clinical Memory Assessment of Older Adults (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1992), 35, 36.
60. Jerrold M. Post, "On Aging Leaders: Possible Effects of the Aging Process on the Conduct of Leadership," Journal of Geratric Psychiatry 6 (1979): 109-116; Jerrold M. Post, "The Seasons of a Leader's Life: Influences of the Life Cycle on Political Behavior," Political Psychology (Fall/Winter 1980): 35-49; Bert E. Park, "Presidential Disability: Past Experiences and Future Implications" Politics and the Life Sciences 7 (August 1988): 50-66.
61. Jerrold M. Post, "On Aging Leaders: Possible Effects of the Aging Process on the Conduct of Leadership," Journal of Geratric Psychiatry 6 (1979): 109-116; Jerrold M. Post, "The Seasons of a Leader's Life: Influences of the Life Cycle on Political Behavior," Political Psychology (Fall/Winter 1980): 35-49; Bert E. Park, "Presidential Disability: Past Experiences and Future Implications" Politics and the Life Sciences 7 (August 1988): 50-66.
62. Jerrold M. Post, "On Aging Leaders: Possible Effects of the Aging Process on the Conduct of Leadership," Journal of Geratric Psychiatry 6 (1979): 109-116; Jerrold M. Post, "The Seasons of a Leader's Life: Influences of the Life Cycle on Political Behavior," Political Psychology (Fall/Winter 1980): 35-49; Bert E. Park, "Presidential Disability: Past Experiences and Future Implications" Politics and the Life Sciences 7 (August 1988): 50-66.
63. 1996 medical report on Bob Dole, with the results of physical examination conducted by Dr. John F. Eisold, MD, 21 July 1996. Document obtained through Dole Press Office in Washington, DC. Lawrence K. Altman, "Doctors Call Dole's Health Excellent," New York Times, 21 July 1996.
64. Freeman H Cary, "Health Status of the Candidates: Senator Robert J. Dole," Medical World News, 18 February 1980.
65. Altman, "Doctors Call Dole's Health Excellent."
66. Joellen M. Schildkraut et al., "Coronary Risk Associated With Age and Sex of Parental Heart Disease in the Framingham Study," American Journal of Cardiology 64 (September 1989): 555-559; Kaj Johansen and Thomas Koepsell, "Familial Tendency for Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms," JAMA 256 (10 October 1986): 1934-1936; Linda M. Pottern et al., "Familial Cancers Associated With Subtypes of Leukemia and Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma," Leukemia Research 15 (1991): 305-314.
67. Joellen M. Schildkraut et al., "Coronary Risk Associated With Age and Sex of Parental Heart Disease in the Framingham Study," American Journal of Cardiology 64 (September 1989): 555-559; Kaj Johansen and Thomas Koepsell, "Familial Tendency for Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms," JAMA 256 (10 October 1986): 1934-1936; Linda M. Pottern et al., "Familial Cancers Associated With Subtypes of Leukemia and Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma," Leukemia Research 15 (1991): 305-314.
68. Joellen M. Schildkraut et al., "Coronary Risk Associated With Age and Sex of Parental Heart Disease in the Framingham Study," American Journal of Cardiology 64 (September 1989): 555-559; Kaj Johansen and Thomas Koepsell, "Familial Tendency for Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms," JAMA 256 (10 October 1986): 1934-1936; Linda M. Pottern et al., "Familial Cancers Associated With Subtypes of Leukemia and Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma," Leukemia Research 15 (1991): 305-314.
69. Frank J. Murray, "Selling a Golden Oldie in the Market of Youth: Dole Emphasizes His Health, Not Age," Washington Times, 11 March 1996.
70. There had also been a spike around his birthday in 1995.
71. Christine Gorman, Hannah Bloch, and J. Madeleine Nash, "Medical Verdict: One Very Healthy Septuagenarian," Time, 31 July 1995.
72. Lawrence K. Altman, "Medical Data Show Dole Is Remarkably Fit," New York Times, 22 July 1996; Altman, "Doctors Call Dole's Health Excellent"; Blaine Harden, "Dole's Birthday Renews Age-Old Old-Age Debate," Washington Post, 21 July 1996; Ceci Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?" St. Petersburg Times, 14 July 1996.
73. Lawrence K. Altman, "Medical Data Show Dole Is Remarkably Fit," New York Times, 22 July 1996; Altman, "Doctors Call Dole's Health Excellent"; Blaine Harden, "Dole's Birthday Renews Age-Old Old-Age Debate," Washington Post, 21 July 1996; Ceci Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?" St. Petersburg Times, 14 July 1996.
74. Lawrence K. Altman, "Medical Data Show Dole Is Remarkably Fit," New York Times, 22 July 1996; Altman, "Doctors Call Dole's Health Excellent"; Blaine Harden, "Dole's Birthday Renews Age-Old Old-Age Debate," Washington Post, 21 July 1996; Ceci Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?" St. Petersburg Times, 14 July 1996.
75. Lawrence K. Altman, "Medical Data Show Dole Is Remarkably Fit," New York Times, 22 July 1996; Altman, "Doctors Call Dole's Health Excellent"; Blaine Harden, "Dole's Birthday Renews Age-Old Old-Age Debate," Washington Post, 21 July 1996; Ceci Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?" St. Petersburg Times, 14 July 1996.
76. Altman, "Dole Backs Idea of Independent Health Check," New York Times, 22 July 1996; David Willman, "Prostate Cancer Legislation Poses Dilemma for Dole," Los Angeles Times, 10 December 1995; Jack Nelson, "Dole Has Healthy Respect For Age Issue," Los Angeles Times, 22 July 1996; Don Colburn, "Doctors Deem Dole Fit for 1996 Run," Washington Post, 22 July 1995; Judi Hasson, "Dole Shrugs Off Age Issue," USA Today, 21 July 1995.
77. Altman, "Dole Backs Idea of Independent Health Check," New York Times, 22 July 1996; David Willman, "Prostate Cancer Legislation Poses Dilemma for Dole," Los Angeles Times, 10 December 1995; Jack Nelson, "Dole Has Healthy Respect For Age Issue," Los Angeles Times, 22 July 1996; Don Colburn, "Doctors Deem Dole Fit for 1996 Run," Washington Post, 22 July 1995; Judi Hasson, "Dole Shrugs Off Age Issue," USA Today, 21 July 1995.
78. Altman, "Dole Backs Idea of Independent Health Check," New York Times, 22 July 1996; David Willman, "Prostate Cancer Legislation Poses Dilemma for Dole," Los Angeles Times, 10 December 1995; Jack Nelson, "Dole Has Healthy Respect For Age Issue," Los Angeles Times, 22 July 1996; Don Colburn, "Doctors Deem Dole Fit for 1996 Run," Washington Post, 22 July 1995; Judi Hasson, "Dole Shrugs Off Age Issue," USA Today, 21 July 1995.
79. Altman, "Dole Backs Idea of Independent Health Check," New York Times, 22 July 1996; David Willman, "Prostate Cancer Legislation Poses Dilemma for Dole," Los Angeles Times, 10 December 1995; Jack Nelson, "Dole Has Healthy Respect For Age Issue," Los Angeles Times, 22 July 1996; Don Colburn, "Doctors Deem Dole Fit for 1996 Run," Washington Post, 22 July 1995; Judi Hasson, "Dole Shrugs Off Age Issue," USA Today, 21 July 1995.
80. Altman, "Dole Backs Idea of Independent Health Check," New York Times, 22 July 1996; David Willman, "Prostate Cancer Legislation Poses Dilemma for Dole," Los Angeles Times, 10 December 1995; Jack Nelson, "Dole Has Healthy Respect For Age Issue," Los Angeles Times, 22 July 1996; Don Colburn, "Doctors Deem Dole Fit for 1996 Run," Washington Post, 22 July 1995; Judi Hasson, "Dole Shrugs Off Age Issue," USA Today, 21 July 1995.
81. Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?"; Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Abigail Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired: They Ain't What They Used to Be," Washington Post, 26 March 1996; Sherry Jacobson, "Experts Divided on Impact of Dole's Age on Election," Dallas Morning News, reprinted in "Dole's Time or Past His Prime," Arizona Republic, 7 April 1996; Michael Kranish, "How Old is Too Old? At 72, Dole Feels Fit - But the Presidency is a Crushing Job," Boston Globe, 30 July 1995.
82. Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?"; Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Abigail Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired: They Ain't What They Used to Be," Washington Post, 26 March 1996; Sherry Jacobson, "Experts Divided on Impact of Dole's Age on Election," Dallas Morning News, reprinted in "Dole's Time or Past His Prime," Arizona Republic, 7 April 1996; Michael Kranish, "How Old is Too Old? At 72, Dole Feels Fit - But the Presidency is a Crushing Job," Boston Globe, 30 July 1995.
83. Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?"; Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Abigail Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired: They Ain't What They Used to Be," Washington Post, 26 March 1996; Sherry Jacobson, "Experts Divided on Impact of Dole's Age on Election," Dallas Morning News, reprinted in "Dole's Time or Past His Prime," Arizona Republic, 7 April 1996; Michael Kranish, "How Old is Too Old? At 72, Dole Feels Fit - But the Presidency is a Crushing Job," Boston Globe, 30 July 1995.
84. Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?"; Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Abigail Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired: They Ain't What They Used to Be," Washington Post, 26 March 1996; Sherry Jacobson, "Experts Divided on Impact of Dole's Age on Election," Dallas Morning News, reprinted in "Dole's Time or Past His Prime," Arizona Republic, 7 April 1996; Michael Kranish, "How Old is Too Old? At 72, Dole Feels Fit - But the Presidency is a Crushing Job," Boston Globe, 30 July 1995.
85. Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?"; Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Abigail Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired: They Ain't What They Used to Be," Washington Post, 26 March 1996; Sherry Jacobson, "Experts Divided on Impact of Dole's Age on Election," Dallas Morning News, reprinted in "Dole's Time or Past His Prime," Arizona Republic, 7 April 1996; Michael Kranish, "How Old is Too Old? At 72, Dole Feels Fit - But the Presidency is a Crushing Job," Boston Globe, 30 July 1995.
86. Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?"; Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Abigail Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired: They Ain't What They Used to Be," Washington Post, 26 March 1996; Sherry Jacobson, "Experts Divided on Impact of Dole's Age on Election," Dallas Morning News, reprinted in "Dole's Time or Past His Prime," Arizona Republic, 7 April 1996; Michael Kranish, "How Old is Too Old? At 72, Dole Feels Fit - But the Presidency is a Crushing Job," Boston Globe, 30 July 1995.
87. Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired"; Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?"; Hanson, "Active Dole Says Age Not an Issue," USA Today, 22 July 1996; Maureen West, "When is One Old?" Phoenix Gazette, 26 July 1996, reprinted in "New Take on What Defines Old," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 5 August 1996; Tait Trussell, "Voter Concern Over Dole's Age is Off the Mark," Orlando Sentinel, 11 August 1996.
88. Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired"; Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?"; Hanson, "Active Dole Says Age Not an Issue," USA Today, 22 July 1996; Maureen West, "When is One Old?" Phoenix Gazette, 26 July 1996, reprinted in "New Take on What Defines Old," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 5 August 1996; Tait Trussell, "Voter Concern Over Dole's Age is Off the Mark," Orlando Sentinel, 11 August 1996.
89. Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired"; Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?"; Hanson, "Active Dole Says Age Not an Issue," USA Today, 22 July 1996; Maureen West, "When is One Old?" Phoenix Gazette, 26 July 1996, reprinted in "New Take on What Defines Old," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 5 August 1996; Tait Trussell, "Voter Concern Over Dole's Age is Off the Mark," Orlando Sentinel, 11 August 1996.
90. Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired"; Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?"; Hanson, "Active Dole Says Age Not an Issue," USA Today, 22 July 1996; Maureen West, "When is One Old?" Phoenix Gazette, 26 July 1996, reprinted in "New Take on What Defines Old," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 5 August 1996; Tait Trussell, "Voter Concern Over Dole's Age is Off the Mark," Orlando Sentinel, 11 August 1996.
91. Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired"; Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?"; Hanson, "Active Dole Says Age Not an Issue," USA Today, 22 July 1996; Maureen West, "When is One Old?" Phoenix Gazette, 26 July 1996, reprinted in "New Take on What Defines Old," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 5 August 1996; Tait Trussell, "Voter Concern Over Dole's Age is Off the Mark," Orlando Sentinel, 11 August 1996.
92. Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired"; Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?"; Hanson, "Active Dole Says Age Not an Issue," USA Today, 22 July 1996; Maureen West, "When is One Old?" Phoenix Gazette, 26 July 1996, reprinted in "New Take on What Defines Old," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 5 August 1996; Tait Trussell, "Voter Concern Over Dole's Age is Off the Mark," Orlando Sentinel, 11 August 1996.
93. Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired"; Connolly, "Sturdy Enough?"; Hanson, "Active Dole Says Age Not an Issue," USA Today, 22 July 1996; Maureen West, "When is One Old?" Phoenix Gazette, 26 July 1996, reprinted in "New Take on What Defines Old," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 5 August 1996; Tait Trussell, "Voter Concern Over Dole's Age is Off the Mark," Orlando Sentinel, 11 August 1996.
94. One indication of the prevalence of this negative view is the fact that thirty-six of the forty-one articles that cited public opinion polls interpreted the data to indicate that most people think Dole is too old.
95. Harden, "Dole's Birthday Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired."
96. Harden, "Dole's Birthday Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired."
97. Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired." (Emphasis added.)
98. Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired"; Hanson, "Active Dole Says Age Not an Issue"; Maureen West, "When is One Old?"; Tait Trussell, "Voter Concern Over Dole's Age is Off the Mark."
99. Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired"; Hanson, "Active Dole Says Age Not an Issue"; Maureen West, "When is One Old?"; Tait Trussell, "Voter Concern Over Dole's Age is Off the Mark."
100. Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired"; Hanson, "Active Dole Says Age Not an Issue"; Maureen West, "When is One Old?"; Tait Trussell, "Voter Concern Over Dole's Age is Off the Mark."
101. Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired"; Hanson, "Active Dole Says Age Not an Issue"; Maureen West, "When is One Old?"; Tait Trussell, "Voter Concern Over Dole's Age is Off the Mark."
102. Harden, "Dole Renews Age-Old Debate"; Trafford, "The Old Gray-Haired"; Hanson, "Active Dole Says Age Not an Issue"; Maureen West, "When is One Old?"; Tait Trussell, "Voter Concern Over Dole's Age is Off the Mark."
103. Two in five older Americans believed that because of his age Dole would be less able to handle the rigors of office (Jack Nelson, Los Angeles Times, May 5, 1995). When asked to comment about Dole's age, some said: "I think he's great. I like him a lot. But I'm afraid he won't make it the four years." (B. Dart, Austin American Statesman, 16 March 1996). "I'm 73 years old. . . . Anybody my age, you just can't do it." (W. E. Gibson, Sun-Sentinel [Fort Lauderdale], 6 November 1996).
104. Two in five older Americans believed that because of his age Dole would be less able to handle the rigors of office (Jack Nelson, Los Angeles Times, May 5, 1995). When asked to comment about Dole's age, some said: "I think he's great. I like him a lot. But I'm afraid he won't make it the four years." (B. Dart, Austin American Statesman, 16 March 1996). "I'm 73 years old. . . . Anybody my age, you just can't do it." (W. E. Gibson, Sun-Sentinel [Fort Lauderdale], 6 November 1996).
105. Two in five older Americans believed that because of his age Dole would be less able to handle the rigors of office (Jack Nelson, Los Angeles Times, May 5, 1995). When asked to comment about Dole's age, some said: "I think he's great. I like him a lot. But I'm afraid he won't make it the four years." (B. Dart, Austin American Statesman, 16 March 1996). "I'm 73 years old. . . . Anybody my age, you just can't do it." (W. E. Gibson, Sun-Sentinel [Fort Lauderdale], 6 November 1996).
106. Partisanship is indexed by combining the responses to a two-item sequence. The first item asks if the respondent "generally" thinks of herself as a Republican, a Democrat, or an independent. Independents and those who are unsure are then asked if they are "closer" to one or the other major party; those who are closer are classified as "partisans." The resultant index runs from "Republican" to "Democrat" with "Independent" as the middle category.
107. Ideology is measured by the following item: "How would you describe your views on most political matters? Generally, do you think of yourself as liberal, moderate or conservative?"
108. Clinton approval is measured by the response to the question, "Do you approve or disapprove of the way Bill Clinton is handling his job as president?" Congress approval is the response to a similar item: "Do you approve or disapprove of the way Congress is handling its job?"
109. Attention to the campaign ranges from "a lot" to "none," based on answers to the question: "How much attention have you been able to pay to the 1996 Presidential campaign - a lot, some, not much, or no attention so far?"
110. The CBS/New York Times Poll records the respondent's age as a continuous variable ranging from 18 to 98.
111. The 16-18 August poll did not seek the respondent's opinion on how Congress was ". . . handling its job" and it is set aside in the analyses that follow.
112. Details of the regression analyses may be obtained by writing the authors in care of this journal.
113. Katharine Q. Seelye, "A Grand Old Party Animal Tries Courting Younger Voters," New York Times, 21 January 1996.
114. Katharine Q. Seelye, "State of the Union: The Response: Dole Says President Defends Old Elites Seeking Largesse," New York Times, 24 January 1996.
115. Nancy Gibbs, "What Dole is Doing Wrong," Time, 5 February 1996.
116. Sam Fulwood and Richard A. Serrano, "Dole's Performance Raises Some Doubts," Los Angeles Times, 25 January 1996.
117. R. W. Apple, Jr., "Forbes Gathers Strength as Other Republicans Try to Wait Out Storm," New York Times, 29 January 1996.
118. Ibid.
119. Kevin Sack, "Three Republicans Seek a Boost in Louisiana," New York Times, 28 January 1996.
120. Gibbs, "What Dole is Doing Wrong."
121. Adam Nagourney, "Dole Tilts With Foes, Suggested and Real," New York Times, 31 January 1996.
122. Apple, "Forbes Gathers Strength as Other Republicans Try to Wait Out Storm."
123. Adam Nagourney, "Dole (Yes Dole) Plays the Age Card in Iowa," New York Times, 5 February 1996.
124. Richard L. Berke, "Dole Tops the Field in Iowa Caucuses," New York Times, 13 February 1996.
125. Nancy Gibbs and Michael Duffy, "Battling the Party Crashers," Time, 19 February 1996.
126. R. W. Apple, Jr., "Buchanan a Narrow Victor Over Dole in New Hampshire," New York Times, 21 February 1996.
127. R. W. Apple, Jr., "How 'Front Runner' in GOP Race Had a Flat Tire in New Hampshire," New York Times, 22 February 1996.
128. Ernest Tollerson, "Bowing Out: Forbes Quits and Offers His Support to Dole," New York Times, 15 March 1996.
129. Richard L. Berke, "Dole Continues to Roll Towards GOP Nomination," New York Times, 20 March 1996.
130. Adam Nagourney, "Republicans Wondering Which Dole Will Emerge," New York Times, 16 March 1996.
131. Adam Nagourney, "Dole Appeals to 'Reagan Democrats'," New York Times, 15 March 1996.
132. The "trial-heat" item reads: "If the election were being held today, would you probably vote for Bill Clinton or would you probably vote for the Republican candidate?" Respondents who replied "can't say/other/don't know/no answer" were asked, "Well as of today would you be more likely to vote for Bill Clinton or more likely to vote for the Republican candidate?" Those who named Clinton on either probe are counted as Clinton voters; those who said the Republican on either probe are counted as Republican votes.
133. The CBS-TV/New York Times Poll did not continue to ask about Dole's age after the beginning of September. In order to carry the analysis forward to account for the vote in November, we have created a measure of opinion of Dole's age using responses to the National Election Study's (NES) open-ended candidate likes/dislikes questions. Any respondent who on any of the five recorded mentions cites Dole's age (codes 450 and 451) as a reason for disliking him is scored "1" on the measure, otherwise the respondent is scored "0."
134. The National Election Study is sponsored by the National Science Foundation. It provides the principal academic/scientific instrument for studying voting behavior. Neither the NES nor the InterUniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research, which archives NES data, bears any responsibility for the uses to which the survey data are put.
135. Abrams, "Should a Senior Citizen Be President:" Atlantic Monthly, in press.