Representation in local politics: A reconsideration and some new evidence

Political Studies

Volumn 46, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 19-35

  Rao, Nirmala ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040086376     PISSN: 00323217     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-9248.00127     Document Type: Article

References (63)

1. H. Eulau, 'Changing Views of Representation' in H. Eulau and J. C. Whalke, eds, The Politics of Representation: Continuities in Theory and Research (Beverly Hills, Sage, 1978) p. 36.
2. H. Eulau, J. C. Whalke, W. Buchanan and L. C. Ferguson, 'The role of the representative: some empirical observations on the theory of Edmund Burke', American Political Science Review, 53(3) (1959), 742.
3. H. Pitkin, The Concept of Representation (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1968). See also the same author's 'Representation' in T. Ball, J. Farr, and R. Hanson, eds, Political Innovation and Conceptual Change (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 133-54.
4. H. Pitkin, The Concept of Representation (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1968). See also the same author's 'Representation' in T. Ball, J. Farr, and R. Hanson, eds, Political Innovation and Conceptual Change (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 133-54.
5. A. de Grazia, 'Representation: Theory', in International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (New York, Macmillan, 1968), p. 461. See also M. Sobolewski, 'Electors and Representatives: A Contribution to the Theory of Representation', in R. Pennock and J. W. Chapman, eds, Representation: Nomos X (New York, Atherton, 1968), pp. 95-107.
6. A. de Grazia, 'Representation: Theory', in International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (New York, Macmillan, 1968), p. 461. See also M. Sobolewski, 'Electors and Representatives: A Contribution to the Theory of Representation', in R. Pennock and J. W. Chapman, eds, Representation: Nomos X (New York, Atherton, 1968), pp. 95-107.
7. G. Sartori, 'Representational Systems', in International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (New York, Macmillan, 1968), p. 465. The discussion which follows largely reflects Sartori's distinctions between types of representation.
8. Other writers assign other meanings to representation besides the three mentioned here, but the differences appear to be largely semantic. These remain the most important basic distinctions in terms of the frequency of their appearance in writings on representation. See, for example, A. H. Birch, Representative and Responsible Government (London, Faber, 1964); and the same author's Representation (London, Macmillan, 1971). Birch distinguishes between three main usages of the term 'representative': Delegated representative - to denote an agent who acts on behalf of his principal; representative in the microcosmic sense - to indicate that a person shares some of the characteristics of a class of persons; and representation in the symbolic sense - to indicate that a person symbolizes the identity or qualities of a class of persons. The terms are different, but his usages correspond broadly with Sartori's categories.
9. Other writers assign other meanings to representation besides the three mentioned here, but the differences appear to be largely semantic. These remain the most important basic distinctions in terms of the frequency of their appearance in writings on representation. See, for example, A. H. Birch, Representative and Responsible Government (London, Faber, 1964); and the same author's Representation (London, Macmillan, 1971). Birch distinguishes between three main usages of the term 'representative': Delegated representative - to denote an agent who acts on behalf of his principal; representative in the microcosmic sense - to indicate that a person shares some of the characteristics of a class of persons; and representation in the symbolic sense - to indicate that a person symbolizes the identity or qualities of a class of persons. The terms are different, but his usages correspond broadly with Sartori's categories.
10. R. Jowell and C. Airey, eds, British Social Attitudes: the 1984 Report (Aldershot, Gower, 1984), p. 20.
11. For a full review of the debate see N. Rao, The Making and Unmaking of Local Self-Government (Aldershot, Dartmouth, 1994), ch. 5 'In Search of Calibre', pp. 74-98.
12. Committee on the Management of Local Government, Report of the Committee, Volume 1 (London, HMSO, 1967), para. 5.
13. N. Rao, 'Continuity and Change: Responses to Pressures for Institutional Reform', in Olivier Borraz et al., Local Leadership and Decision-Making: a Study of France, Germany, United States and Britain (York, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 1994), pp. 81-92.
14. Committee on the Management of Local Government, The Local Government Councillor, Volume 2 (London HMSO, 1967), cited below as Maud vol. 2; Committee on the Management of Local Government, The Local Government Elector, Volume 3 (London, HMSO, 1967), cited below as Maud vol. 3.
15. Committee on the Management of Local Government, The Local Government Councillor, Volume 2 (London HMSO, 1967), cited below as Maud vol. 2; Committee on the Management of Local Government, The Local Government Elector, Volume 3 (London, HMSO, 1967), cited below as Maud vol. 3.
16. Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business, Research Volume II, The Local Government Councillor (London, HMSO, 1986); Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business, Research Volume III: The Local Government Elector (London, HMSO, 1986).
17. Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business, Research Volume II, The Local Government Councillor (London, HMSO, 1986); Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business, Research Volume III: The Local Government Elector (London, HMSO, 1986).
18. K. Young and N. Rao, Coming to Terms with Change? The Local Government Councillor in 1993 (York, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 1994), cited below as JRF, 1993; K. Young and N. Rao, 'Faith in Local Democracy', in British Social Attitudes, the Twelfth Report (Aldershot, Gower, 1995), pp. 91-118, cited below as BSA, 1994.
19. K. Young and N. Rao, Coming to Terms with Change? The Local Government Councillor in 1993 (York, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 1994), cited below as JRF, 1993; K. Young and N. Rao, 'Faith in Local Democracy', in British Social Attitudes, the Twelfth Report (Aldershot, Gower, 1995), pp. 91-118, cited below as BSA, 1994.
20. See Committee on the Management of Local Government, The Local Government Councillor, Volume 2 (London, HMSO, 1967); Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business, Research Volume II, The Local Government Councillor (London, HMSO, 1986). See also L. J. Sharpe 'Elected representatives in local government', British Journal of Sociology, 13 (1962), 189-208 and Dame Evelyn Sharp 'The future of local government', Public Administration, 40, Winter (1962), 375-86.
21. See Committee on the Management of Local Government, The Local Government Councillor, Volume 2 (London, HMSO, 1967); Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business, Research Volume II, The Local Government Councillor (London, HMSO, 1986). See also L. J. Sharpe 'Elected representatives in local government', British Journal of Sociology, 13 (1962), 189-208 and Dame Evelyn Sharp 'The future of local government', Public Administration, 40, Winter (1962), 375-86.
22. See Committee on the Management of Local Government, The Local Government Councillor, Volume 2 (London, HMSO, 1967); Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business, Research Volume II, The Local Government Councillor (London, HMSO, 1986). See also L. J. Sharpe 'Elected representatives in local government', British Journal of Sociology, 13 (1962), 189-208 and Dame Evelyn Sharp 'The future of local government', Public Administration, 40, Winter (1962), 375-86.
23. See Committee on the Management of Local Government, The Local Government Councillor, Volume 2 (London, HMSO, 1967); Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business, Research Volume II, The Local Government Councillor (London, HMSO, 1986). See also L. J. Sharpe 'Elected representatives in local government', British Journal of Sociology, 13 (1962), 189-208 and Dame Evelyn Sharp 'The future of local government', Public Administration, 40, Winter (1962), 375-86.
24. Young and Rao, Coming to Terms With Change?, pp. 5-6.
25. T. Crane, 'Representation', in T. Honderich, ed., The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 769.
26. For the most substantial of the British studies, see W. Hampton, Democracy and Community: A Study of Politics in Sheffield (London, Oxford University Press, 1970); and G. W. Jones, Borough Politics: a Study of the Wolverhampton Town Council, 1888-1964 (London, Macmillan, 1969).
27. For the most substantial of the British studies, see W. Hampton, Democracy and Community: A Study of Politics in Sheffield (London, Oxford University Press, 1970); and G. W. Jones, Borough Politics: a Study of the Wolverhampton Town Council, 1888-1964 (London, Macmillan, 1969).
28. N. Rao, Managing Change: Councillors and the New Local Government (York, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 1993).
29. Young and Rao, Coming to Terms with Change? pp. 21-7.
30. Previous studies have shown the choice of role orientations made by councillors to be associated with several factors such as age, sex, class, seniority, and length of service, party political affiliation and the social and economic characteristics of the councillor's ward. These orientations, argues Gyford, are 'linked one with another, forming as it were "clusters" which provide differing emphases to the varying aspects of the councillor's role'. J. Gyford, Local Politics in Britain (London, Croom Helm, 2nd edition, 1984), p. 17. See also K. Newton, 'Role orientations and their sources among elected representatives in English local politics', Journal of Politics, 36 (1974), 615-36; I. Budge, J. Brand, M. Margolis and A. L. M. Smith, Political Stratification and Democracy (London, Macmillan, 1972); H. Heclo, 'The councillor's job', Public Administration, 47(2), Summer (1969), 185-202.
31. Previous studies have shown the choice of role orientations made by councillors to be associated with several factors such as age, sex, class, seniority, and length of service, party political affiliation and the social and economic characteristics of the councillor's ward. These orientations, argues Gyford, are 'linked one with another, forming as it were "clusters" which provide differing emphases to the varying aspects of the councillor's role'. J. Gyford, Local Politics in Britain (London, Croom Helm, 2nd edition, 1984), p. 17. See also K. Newton, 'Role orientations and their sources among elected representatives in English local politics', Journal of Politics, 36 (1974), 615-36; I. Budge, J. Brand, M. Margolis and A. L. M. Smith, Political Stratification and Democracy (London, Macmillan, 1972); H. Heclo, 'The councillor's job', Public Administration, 47(2), Summer (1969), 185-202.
32. Previous studies have shown the choice of role orientations made by councillors to be associated with several factors such as age, sex, class, seniority, and length of service, party political affiliation and the social and economic characteristics of the councillor's ward. These orientations, argues Gyford, are 'linked one with another, forming as it were "clusters" which provide differing emphases to the varying aspects of the councillor's role'. J. Gyford, Local Politics in Britain (London, Croom Helm, 2nd edition, 1984), p. 17. See also K. Newton, 'Role orientations and their sources among elected representatives in English local politics', Journal of Politics, 36 (1974), 615-36; I. Budge, J. Brand, M. Margolis and A. L. M. Smith, Political Stratification and Democracy (London, Macmillan, 1972); H. Heclo, 'The councillor's job', Public Administration, 47(2), Summer (1969), 185-202.
33. Previous studies have shown the choice of role orientations made by councillors to be associated with several factors such as age, sex, class, seniority, and length of service, party political affiliation and the social and economic characteristics of the councillor's ward. These orientations, argues Gyford, are 'linked one with another, forming as it were "clusters" which provide differing emphases to the varying aspects of the councillor's role'. J. Gyford, Local Politics in Britain (London, Croom Helm, 2nd edition, 1984), p. 17. See also K. Newton, 'Role orientations and their sources among elected representatives in English local politics', Journal of Politics, 36 (1974), 615-36; I. Budge, J. Brand, M. Margolis and A. L. M. Smith, Political Stratification and Democracy (London, Macmillan, 1972); H. Heclo, 'The councillor's job', Public Administration, 47(2), Summer (1969), 185-202.
34. Committee on the Management of Local Government, Vol. I, Report, (London, HMSO, 1967).
35. See Gyford, Local Politics in Britain, pp. 17-21; see also K. Newton, Second City Politics: Democratic Processes and Decision-Making in Birmingham (London, Oxford University Press, 1976); J. Dearlove, The Politics of Policy in Local Government: The Making and Maintenance of Public Policy in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea (London, Cambridge University Press, 1973); J. Blondel and R. Hall, 'Conflict, decision-making and the perceptions of local councillors', Political Studies, 15 (1967), 322-350; W. Grant, Independent Local Politics in England and Wales (Farnborough, Saxon House, 1977).
36. See Gyford, Local Politics in Britain, pp. 17-21; see also K. Newton, Second City Politics: Democratic Processes and Decision-Making in Birmingham (London, Oxford University Press, 1976); J. Dearlove, The Politics of Policy in Local Government: The Making and Maintenance of Public Policy in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea (London, Cambridge University Press, 1973); J. Blondel and R. Hall, 'Conflict, decision-making and the perceptions of local councillors', Political Studies, 15 (1967), 322-350; W. Grant, Independent Local Politics in England and Wales (Farnborough, Saxon House, 1977).
37. See Gyford, Local Politics in Britain, pp. 17-21; see also K. Newton, Second City Politics: Democratic Processes and Decision-Making in Birmingham (London, Oxford University Press, 1976); J. Dearlove, The Politics of Policy in Local Government: The Making and Maintenance of Public Policy in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea (London, Cambridge University Press, 1973); J. Blondel and R. Hall, 'Conflict, decision-making and the perceptions of local councillors', Political Studies, 15 (1967), 322-350; W. Grant, Independent Local Politics in England and Wales (Farnborough, Saxon House, 1977).
38. See Gyford, Local Politics in Britain, pp. 17-21; see also K. Newton, Second City Politics: Democratic Processes and Decision-Making in Birmingham (London, Oxford University Press, 1976); J. Dearlove, The Politics of Policy in Local Government: The Making and Maintenance of Public Policy in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea (London, Cambridge University Press, 1973); J. Blondel and R. Hall, 'Conflict, decision-making and the perceptions of local councillors', Political Studies, 15 (1967), 322-350; W. Grant, Independent Local Politics in England and Wales (Farnborough, Saxon House, 1977).
39. See Gyford, Local Politics in Britain, pp. 17-21; see also K. Newton, Second City Politics: Democratic Processes and Decision-Making in Birmingham (London, Oxford University Press, 1976); J. Dearlove, The Politics of Policy in Local Government: The Making and Maintenance of Public Policy in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea (London, Cambridge University Press, 1973); J. Blondel and R. Hall, 'Conflict, decision-making and the perceptions of local councillors', Political Studies, 15 (1967), 322-350; W. Grant, Independent Local Politics in England and Wales (Farnborough, Saxon House, 1977).
40. D. A. Gross, 'Representative styles and legislative behaviour', Western Political Quarterly, 31, September (1978), 359-71.
41. K. Prewitt, 'Political ambitions, volunteerism and electoral accountability', American Political Science Review, 64, March (1970), 5-17. See H. Eulau and P. D. Karps on 'The Puzzle of Representation: Specifying Components of Responsiveness', in Eulau and Whalke, The Politics of Representation, pp. 55-71; also K. Janda on 'Representational Behaviour', in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, pp. 474-9. Much of the literature focuses on the relationship between representatives' votes, constituency opinion, representatives' personal opinions, and representatives' perceptions of their constituency's opinion. See fo example J. H. Kuklinski, 'Representativeness and elections: a policy analysis', American Political Science Review, 72 (1978), 165-77.
42. K. Prewitt, 'Political ambitions, volunteerism and electoral accountability', American Political Science Review, 64, March (1970), 5-17. See H. Eulau and P. D. Karps on 'The Puzzle of Representation: Specifying Components of Responsiveness', in Eulau and Whalke, The Politics of Representation, pp. 55-71; also K. Janda on 'Representational Behaviour', in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, pp. 474-9. Much of the literature focuses on the relationship between representatives' votes, constituency opinion, representatives' personal opinions, and representatives' perceptions of their constituency's opinion. See fo example J. H. Kuklinski, 'Representativeness and elections: a policy analysis', American Political Science Review, 72 (1978), 165-77.
43. K. Prewitt, 'Political ambitions, volunteerism and electoral accountability', American Political Science Review, 64, March (1970), 5-17. See H. Eulau and P. D. Karps on 'The Puzzle of Representation: Specifying Components of Responsiveness', in Eulau and Whalke, The Politics of Representation, pp. 55-71; also K. Janda on 'Representational Behaviour', in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, pp. 474-9. Much of the literature focuses on the relationship between representatives' votes, constituency opinion, representatives' personal opinions, and representatives' perceptions of their constituency's opinion. See fo example J. H. Kuklinski, 'Representativeness and elections: a policy analysis', American Political Science Review, 72 (1978), 165-77.
44. K. Prewitt, 'Political ambitions, volunteerism and electoral accountability', American Political Science Review, 64, March (1970), 5-17. See H. Eulau and P. D. Karps on 'The Puzzle of Representation: Specifying Components of Responsiveness', in Eulau and Whalke, The Politics of Representation, pp. 55-71; also K. Janda on 'Representational Behaviour', in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, pp. 474-9. Much of the literature focuses on the relationship between representatives' votes, constituency opinion, representatives' personal opinions, and representatives' perceptions of their constituency's opinion. See fo example J. H. Kuklinski, 'Representativeness and elections: a policy analysis', American Political Science Review, 72 (1978), 165-77.
45. See P. D. Karps and H. Eulau, 'Policy Representation as an Emergent', in Eulau and Whalke, The Politics of Representation, pp. 207-11.
46. Eulau and Karps identified four components of representative responsiveness: policy responsiveness; service responsiveness; allocation responsiveness; and symbolic responsiveness. See Eulau and Karps, 'The Puzzle of Representation'.
47. J. C. Whalke, 'Contemporary perspectives on legislatures', in Eulau and Whalke, The Politics of Representation, pp. 327-52.
48. Burke told the electors of Bristol that 'their wishes ought to have great weight with [their representative]; their opinion high respect; their business unremitting attention', The Works of the Right Honorable Edmund Burke, The World's Classics, Vol.81 (London and New York, Oxford University Press, 1906), Vol. II, p. 164
49. cited in J. R. Pennock, 'Political Representation: An Overview', in Pennock and Chapman, Representation, pp. 15-16.
50. For a full discussion of Burke's theory of representation see J. Conniff, 'Burke, Bristol and the concept of representation', Western Political Quarterly, 30, September (1997), 329-41.
51. J. C. Whalke, H. Eulau, W. Buchanan and L. C. Ferguson, The Legislative System (New York, Wiley, 1962).
52. In a different study on the delegate theory of representation, McCrone and Kuklinski show that this form of representation takes place only when two conditions are fulfilled simultaneously. First, the representative must feel obliged to respond to constituents' preferences; secondly, constituencies must instruct their representatives in a clear fashion so that the representative can act in accordance with constituency opinion. D. J. McCrone and J. H. Kuklinski, 'The delegate theory of representation', American Journal of Political Science, 23(2), May (1979), 278-300.
53. See Pennock, 'Political Representation', in Pennock and Chapman, Representation, pp. 3-27. See also P. D. Schumaker, 'Citizen Preferences and Policy Responsiveness in Urban Policy Analysis', in T. N. Clark, Urban Policy Analysis: Directions for Future Research (Beverly Hills, Sage Publications, 1981), pp. 227-43.
54. See Pennock, 'Political Representation', in Pennock and Chapman, Representation, pp. 3-27. See also P. D. Schumaker, 'Citizen Preferences and Policy Responsiveness in Urban Policy Analysis', in T. N. Clark, Urban Policy Analysis: Directions for Future Research (Beverly Hills, Sage Publications, 1981), pp. 227-43.
55. J. G. Bulpitt, Party Politics in English Local Government (London, Longman, 1967); For an account of development of party politics, see K. Young, 'Party Politics in Local Government: An Historical Perspective' in Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business, Research Volume IV: Aspects of Local Democracy (London, HMSO 1986), pp. 83-105.
56. J. G. Bulpitt, Party Politics in English Local Government (London, Longman, 1967); For an account of development of party politics, see K. Young, 'Party Politics in Local Government: An Historical Perspective' in Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business, Research Volume IV: Aspects of Local Democracy (London, HMSO 1986), pp. 83-105.
57. Gyford distinguishes five stages in the process of the politicization of local government: diversity (1835-1865); crystallization (to the 1890s); realignment (with the rise of the Labour party to 1945); nationalization (1945-73); and finally, the current period of re-appraisal. J. Gyford, 'The Politicization of Local Government', in M. Loughlin, M. D. Gelfand and K. Young, eds, Half a Century of Municipal Decline, 1835-1985 (London, Allen and Unwin, 1985), pp. 77-97.
58. While the standing orders of the several political parties require councillors to organize into a group, there has, since the Local Government and Housing Act, 1989, been an incentive for them to do so in order to gain rights to proportionate representation on council committees. See generally Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business, Research Volume I: The Political Organisation of Local Authorities (London, HMSO, 1986), pp. 83-98; J. Gyford, S. Leach and C. Game, The Changing Politics of Local Government (London, Unwin Hyman, 1989), pp. 161-76.
59. While the standing orders of the several political parties require councillors to organize into a group, there has, since the Local Government and Housing Act, 1989, been an incentive for them to do so in order to gain rights to proportionate representation on council committees. See generally Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business, Research Volume I: The Political Organisation of Local Authorities (London, HMSO, 1986), pp. 83-98; J. Gyford, S. Leach and C. Game, The Changing Politics of Local Government (London, Unwin Hyman, 1989), pp. 161-76.
60. W. L. Miller, 'Local Electoral Behaviour', in Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business, Research Volume III: The Local Government Elector (London, HMSO, 1986), pp. 105-72.
61. N. Rao, K. Young, P. Lynn, and P. Hurrell, 'Place, personal characteristics and councillors' roles: a multi-variate analysis of survey data', Policy and Politics, 22(1), January (1994), 31-41.
62. L. Bruno, Freedom and the Law, Princeton, N.J., 1961,
63. cited in Sartori 'Representative Systems', p. 470.