Masters of the earth: Gender and destalinisation in Soviet reformist painting of the Khrushchev Thaw

Gender and History

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 276-312

  Reid, Susan E ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0040034449     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1468-0424.00143     Document Type: Article

References (214)

1. Martin McCauley (ed.), Khrushchev and Khrushchevism (Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1987); F. Burlatsky, Khrushchev and the First Russian Spring (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1991); Stephen F. Cohen, 'The Friends and Foes of Change: Reformism and Conservatism in the Soviet Union', in The Soviet Union Since Stalin, ed. S. F. Cohen, A. Rabinowitch and R. Sharlet (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1980), pp. 11-12; Peter Hauslohner, 'Politics before Gorbachev: De-Stalinization and the Roots of Reform', in The Soviet System in Crisis: A Reader of Western and Soviet Views, ed. A. Dallin and C. W. Lapidus (Westview Press, Boulder, 1991), pp. 37-63; and Alexander Werth, Russia: Hopes and Fears (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1969), pp. 150-74.
2. Martin McCauley (ed.), Khrushchev and Khrushchevism (Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1987); F. Burlatsky, Khrushchev and the First Russian Spring (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1991); Stephen F. Cohen, 'The Friends and Foes of Change: Reformism and Conservatism in the Soviet Union', in The Soviet Union Since Stalin, ed. S. F. Cohen, A. Rabinowitch and R. Sharlet (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1980), pp. 11-12; Peter Hauslohner, 'Politics before Gorbachev: De-Stalinization and the Roots of Reform', in The Soviet System in Crisis: A Reader of Western and Soviet Views, ed. A. Dallin and C. W. Lapidus (Westview Press, Boulder, 1991), pp. 37-63; and Alexander Werth, Russia: Hopes and Fears (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1969), pp. 150-74.
3. Martin McCauley (ed.), Khrushchev and Khrushchevism (Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1987); F. Burlatsky, Khrushchev and the First Russian Spring (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1991); Stephen F. Cohen, 'The Friends and Foes of Change: Reformism and Conservatism in the Soviet Union', in The Soviet Union Since Stalin, ed. S. F. Cohen, A. Rabinowitch and R. Sharlet (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1980), pp. 11-12; Peter Hauslohner, 'Politics before Gorbachev: De-Stalinization and the Roots of Reform', in The Soviet System in Crisis: A Reader of Western and Soviet Views, ed. A. Dallin and C. W. Lapidus (Westview Press, Boulder, 1991), pp. 37-63; and Alexander Werth, Russia: Hopes and Fears (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1969), pp. 150-74.
4. Martin McCauley (ed.), Khrushchev and Khrushchevism (Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1987); F. Burlatsky, Khrushchev and the First Russian Spring (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1991); Stephen F. Cohen, 'The Friends and Foes of Change: Reformism and Conservatism in the Soviet Union', in The Soviet Union Since Stalin, ed. S. F. Cohen, A. Rabinowitch and R. Sharlet (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1980), pp. 11-12; Peter Hauslohner, 'Politics before Gorbachev: De-Stalinization and the Roots of Reform', in The Soviet System in Crisis: A Reader of Western and Soviet Views, ed. A. Dallin and C. W. Lapidus (Westview Press, Boulder, 1991), pp. 37-63; and Alexander Werth, Russia: Hopes and Fears (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1969), pp. 150-74.
5. Martin McCauley (ed.), Khrushchev and Khrushchevism (Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1987); F. Burlatsky, Khrushchev and the First Russian Spring (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1991); Stephen F. Cohen, 'The Friends and Foes of Change: Reformism and Conservatism in the Soviet Union', in The Soviet Union Since Stalin, ed. S. F. Cohen, A. Rabinowitch and R. Sharlet (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1980), pp. 11-12; Peter Hauslohner, 'Politics before Gorbachev: De-Stalinization and the Roots of Reform', in The Soviet System in Crisis: A Reader of Western and Soviet Views, ed. A. Dallin and C. W. Lapidus (Westview Press, Boulder, 1991), pp. 37-63; and Alexander Werth, Russia: Hopes and Fears (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1969), pp. 150-74.
6. Parts of this research were presented at the conference 'Sex and Gender in Russian Civilization', University of Surrey, 1996; and appeared in Fenomen pola v kul'ture (Sex and Gender in Culture), ed. G. Tkachenko (RGGU, Moscow, 1998), pp. 93-106.
7. Parts of this research were presented at the conference 'Sex and Gender in Russian Civilization', University of Surrey, 1996; and appeared in Fenomen pola v kul'ture (Sex and Gender in Culture), ed. G. Tkachenko (RGGU, Moscow, 1998), pp. 93-106.
8. Nina Dmitrieva, 'K voprosu o sovremennom stile v zhivopisi', Tvorchestvo, 6 (1958), pp. 9-12; Russian State Archive of Literature and Art (henceforth RGALI), f. 2943, op. 1, ed. khr. 2979 (discussion on 'Problems of formation of the contemporary style in Soviet fine art', 27 May 1959); and RGALI, f. 2465, op. 1, ed. khr. 75 (open party discussion of contemporary style, 21 April 1960). For further details see Susan E. Reid, 'Destalinization and the Re-modernization of Soviet Art' (unpub. PhD, University of Pennsylvania, 1996).
9. Nina Dmitrieva, 'K voprosu o sovremennom stile v zhivopisi', Tvorchestvo, 6 (1958), pp. 9-12; Russian State Archive of Literature and Art (henceforth RGALI), f. 2943, op. 1, ed. khr. 2979 (discussion on 'Problems of formation of the contemporary style in Soviet fine art', 27 May 1959); and RGALI, f. 2465, op. 1, ed. khr. 75 (open party discussion of contemporary style, 21 April 1960). For further details see Susan E. Reid, 'Destalinization and the Re-modernization of Soviet Art' (unpub. PhD, University of Pennsylvania, 1996).
10. Nina Dmitrieva, 'K voprosu o sovremennom stile v zhivopisi', Tvorchestvo, 6 (1958), pp. 9-12; Russian State Archive of Literature and Art (henceforth RGALI), f. 2943, op. 1, ed. khr. 2979 (discussion on 'Problems of formation of the contemporary style in Soviet fine art', 27 May 1959); and RGALI, f. 2465, op. 1, ed. khr. 75 (open party discussion of contemporary style, 21 April 1960). For further details see Susan E. Reid, 'Destalinization and the Re-modernization of Soviet Art' (unpub. PhD, University of Pennsylvania, 1996).
11. See Lynne Attwood, The New Soviet Man and Woman: Sex-Role Socialization in the USSR (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1990).
12. Elizabeth Waters, 'The Female Form in Soviet Political Iconography, 1917-32', in Russia's Women: Accommodation, Resistance, Transformation, ed. B. E. Clements, B. A. Engel and C. D. Worobec (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1991), pp. 225-42.
13. Victoria E. Bonnell, 'The Representation of Women in Early Soviet Political Art', Russian Review, 50 (1991), pp. 267-88; Alison Hilton, 'Feminism and Gender Values in Soviet Art', Slavica Tamperensia, 1993, pp. 99-116; Barbara Evans Clements, 'The Birth of the New Soviet Woman', in Bolshevik Culture, ed. A. Gleason, P. Kenez and R. Stites (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1985), pp. 220-37.
14. Victoria E. Bonnell, 'The Representation of Women in Early Soviet Political Art', Russian Review, 50 (1991), pp. 267-88; Alison Hilton, 'Feminism and Gender Values in Soviet Art', Slavica Tamperensia, 1993, pp. 99-116; Barbara Evans Clements, 'The Birth of the New Soviet Woman', in Bolshevik Culture, ed. A. Gleason, P. Kenez and R. Stites (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1985), pp. 220-37.
15. Victoria E. Bonnell, 'The Representation of Women in Early Soviet Political Art', Russian Review, 50 (1991), pp. 267-88; Alison Hilton, 'Feminism and Gender Values in Soviet Art', Slavica Tamperensia, 1993, pp. 99-116; Barbara Evans Clements, 'The Birth of the New Soviet Woman', in Bolshevik Culture, ed. A. Gleason, P. Kenez and R. Stites (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1985), pp. 220-37.
16. Barbara Evans Clements, 'The Utopianism of the Zhenotdel', Slavic Review, 51 (1992), pp. 485-96.
17. Gail Warshofsky Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society: Equality, Development, and Social Change (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1979); D. Atkinson, A. Dallin, G. W. Lapidus (eds), Women in Russia (Harvester Press, Hassocks, 1978); Barbara Holland (ed.), Soviet Sisterhood: British Feminists on Women in the USSR (Fourth Estate, London, 1985); Mary Buckley, Women and Ideology in the Soviet Union (Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York, 1989).
18. Gail Warshofsky Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society: Equality, Development, and Social Change (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1979); D. Atkinson, A. Dallin, G. W. Lapidus (eds), Women in Russia (Harvester Press, Hassocks, 1978); Barbara Holland (ed.), Soviet Sisterhood: British Feminists on Women in the USSR (Fourth Estate, London, 1985); Mary Buckley, Women and Ideology in the Soviet Union (Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York, 1989).
19. Gail Warshofsky Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society: Equality, Development, and Social Change (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1979); D. Atkinson, A. Dallin, G. W. Lapidus (eds), Women in Russia (Harvester Press, Hassocks, 1978); Barbara Holland (ed.), Soviet Sisterhood: British Feminists on Women in the USSR (Fourth Estate, London, 1985); Mary Buckley, Women and Ideology in the Soviet Union (Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York, 1989).
20. Gail Warshofsky Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society: Equality, Development, and Social Change (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1979); D. Atkinson, A. Dallin, G. W. Lapidus (eds), Women in Russia (Harvester Press, Hassocks, 1978); Barbara Holland (ed.), Soviet Sisterhood: British Feminists on Women in the USSR (Fourth Estate, London, 1985); Mary Buckley, Women and Ideology in the Soviet Union (Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York, 1989).
21. Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society, p. 103 (my emphasis).
22. Margarita Tupitsyn, After Perestroika: Kitchenmaids or Stateswomen (exh. cat., New York, 1993), p. 11.
23. Susan E. Reid, 'All Stalin's Women: Gender and Power in Soviet Art of the 1930s', Slavic Review, 57 (1998), pp. 133-73.
24. Jørn Guldberg, 'Socialist Realism as Institutional Practice', in The Culture of the Stalin Period, ed. Hans Günther (Macmillan, London, 1990), p. 170; and see Svetlana Boym, Common Places: Mythologies of Everyday Life in Russia (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1994):
25. Jørn Guldberg, 'Socialist Realism as Institutional Practice', in The Culture of the Stalin Period, ed. Hans Günther (Macmillan, London, 1990), p. 170; and see Svetlana Boym, Common Places: Mythologies of Everyday Life in Russia (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1994):
26. This contradicts the conventional power relations of looking under capitalism as formulated by John Berger, Ways of Seeing (BBC and Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1972) and by Laura Mulvey, 'Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema', Screen, 16 (1975), pp. 6-18.
27. This contradicts the conventional power relations of looking under capitalism as formulated by John Berger, Ways of Seeing (BBC and Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1972) and by Laura Mulvey, 'Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema', Screen, 16 (1975), pp. 6-18.
28. I. Borisova, 'Pravda zhizni na kholste', in Podruga, ed. R. Saltanova and N. Kolchinskaia (Molodaia gvardiia, Moscow, 1959), pp. 196-7.
29. Hilton, 'Feminism', p. 103.
30. Editorial, Pravda, 22 November 1954; B. loganson, 'Vsesoiuznaia khudozhestvennaia vystavka 1954 goda', Iskusstvo, 2 (1955), p. 19.
31. Editorial, Pravda, 22 November 1954; B. loganson, 'Vsesoiuznaia khudozhestvennaia vystavka 1954 goda', Iskusstvo, 2 (1955), p. 19.
32. Anne E. Gorsuch, '"A Woman is not a Man": The Culture of Gender in Russia, 1921-1928', Slavic Review, 55 (1996), p. 638.
33. Waters, 'Female Form', p. 228.
34. Ludmilla Alexeyeva and Paul Goldberg, The Thaw Generation: Coming of Age in the Post-Stalin Era (Little, Brown and Co., Boston, 1990), pp. 29-30; Norton Dodge, discussion of Mark G. Field, 'Workers (and Mothers): Soviet Women Today', in The Role and Status of Women in the Soviet Union, ed. Donald R. Brown (Teacher's College Press, Columbia University, New York, 1968), pp. 52-3.
35. Ludmilla Alexeyeva and Paul Goldberg, The Thaw Generation: Coming of Age in the Post-Stalin Era (Little, Brown and Co., Boston, 1990), pp. 29-30; Norton Dodge, discussion of Mark G. Field, 'Workers (and Mothers): Soviet Women Today', in The Role and Status of Women in the Soviet Union, ed. Donald R. Brown (Teacher's College Press, Columbia University, New York, 1968), pp. 52-3.
36. Editorial, 'Aktual'nye voprosy estetiki v svete novoi Programmy KPSS', Voprosy filosofii, 9 (1962), p. 11.
37. John Dunstan, 'Soviet Boarding Education: its Rise and Progress', in Home, School and Leisure in the Soviet Union, ed. J. Brine, M. Perrie and A. Sutton (George Allen and Unwin, London, 1980), p. 116; E. lu. Zubkova, Obshchestvo i reformy 1945-1964 (Rossiia molodaia, Moscow, 1993), pp. 154-5; Katerina Clark, The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual, 2nd edn (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985), pp. 227-30.
38. John Dunstan, 'Soviet Boarding Education: its Rise and Progress', in Home, School and Leisure in the Soviet Union, ed. J. Brine, M. Perrie and A. Sutton (George Allen and Unwin, London, 1980), p. 116; E. lu. Zubkova, Obshchestvo i reformy 1945-1964 (Rossiia molodaia, Moscow, 1993), pp. 154-5; Katerina Clark, The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual, 2nd edn (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985), pp. 227-30.
39. John Dunstan, 'Soviet Boarding Education: its Rise and Progress', in Home, School and Leisure in the Soviet Union, ed. J. Brine, M. Perrie and A. Sutton (George Allen and Unwin, London, 1980), p. 116; E. lu. Zubkova, Obshchestvo i reformy 1945-1964 (Rossiia molodaia, Moscow, 1993), pp. 154-5; Katerina Clark, The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual, 2nd edn (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985), pp. 227-30.
40. Vera Bil'shai, 'Kto prav: VI. Nemtsov ili E. Nilova?', Literaturnaia gazeta, 10 January 1959.
41. Wendy Goldman, 'Women, Abortion, and the State, 1917-36', in Clements, Russia's Women, pp. 243-66;
42. Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 128-36.
43. Barbara Holland, 'A Woman's Right to Choose in the Soviet Union', in Brine, Home, 60.
44. Jerry F. Hough, 'Women and Women's Issues in Soviet Policy Debates', in Atkinson, Women in Russia, p. 366; Urie Bronfenbrenner, The Changing Soviet Family', in Brown, Role and Status, p. 107; Buckley, Women and Ideology, p. 156.
45. Jerry F. Hough, 'Women and Women's Issues in Soviet Policy Debates', in Atkinson, Women in Russia, p. 366; Urie Bronfenbrenner, The Changing Soviet Family', in Brown, Role and Status, p. 107; Buckley, Women and Ideology, p. 156.
46. Jerry F. Hough, 'Women and Women's Issues in Soviet Policy Debates', in Atkinson, Women in Russia, p. 366; Urie Bronfenbrenner, The Changing Soviet Family', in Brown, Role and Status, p. 107; Buckley, Women and Ideology, p. 156.
47. V. Pomerantsev, 'Ob iskrennosti v literature', Novyi mir, 12 (1953), pp. 218-45.
48. B. loganson, 'Vsesoiuznaia khudozhestvennaia vystavka 1954 goda', Iskusstvo, 2 (1955), p. 8.
49. 'VS.', '"Nadia v shubke", ili kratkaia entsiklopediia sovetskogo "niu"', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 11-12 (22 March 1995).
50. M. Cullerne Bown, Art under Stalin (Phaidon, Oxford, 1991), p. 113; M. Cullerne Bown, Socialist Realist Painting (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1998), p. 176 and fig. 230.
51. M. Cullerne Bown, Art under Stalin (Phaidon, Oxford, 1991), p. 113; M. Cullerne Bown, Socialist Realist Painting (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1998), p. 176 and fig. 230.
52. A. Kamenskii, 'Tema i obraz', Iskusstvo, 2 (1955), p. 16; Sergei Antonov, 'Razmyshleniia na vystavke', Literaturnaia gazeta, 26 March 1955.
53. A. Kamenskii, 'Tema i obraz', Iskusstvo, 2 (1955), p. 16; Sergei Antonov, 'Razmyshleniia na vystavke', Literaturnaia gazeta, 26 March 1955.
54. Kamenskii, Tema i obraz', p. 16.
55. Under glasnost the return of the nude and of outright pornography was also widely welcomed as an index of progress towards democracy. See Martha Rosler, 'Some Observations on Women as Subjects in Russia', in Tupitsyn, After Perestroika, pp. 23-8.
56. Kamenskii, Tema i obraz', p. 16.
57. Yuri Annenkov, 'Soviet Art and Socialist Realism', Studies in the Soviet Union, 7(1967), p. 154.
58. Literaturnaia gazeta, 21 February 1957; E. Kornetchuk, 'Soviet Art and the State', in The Quest for Self-Expression: Painting in Moscow and Leningrad 1965-1990, ed. Norma Roberts (Columbus Museum of Art, Columbus, Ohio, 1990), p. 22.
59. Literaturnaia gazeta, 21 February 1957; E. Kornetchuk, 'Soviet Art and the State', in The Quest for Self-Expression: Painting in Moscow and Leningrad 1965-1990, ed. Norma Roberts (Columbus Museum of Art, Columbus, Ohio, 1990), p. 22.
60. V. Kostin, 'Khudozhnik sovremennosti', Tvorchestvo, 7 (1957), pp. 4-5.
61. A. Adzhubei, Te desiat' let (Sovetskaia Rossiia, Moscow, 1989), p. 109.
62. For example, work from the 1960s by Vladimir lankilevskii, Tönis Vint and Leonhard Lapin. See Alla Rosenfeld and Norton Dodge (eds), Nonconformist Art: The Soviet Experience, 1956-7986 (Thames and Hudson, London and New York, 1995).
63. Alison Hilton, 'Domestic Crafts and Creative Freedom: Russian Women's Art', in Russia. Women. Culture, ed. H. Goscilo and B. Holmgren (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1996), p. 368.
64. Anne E. Gorsuch, 'Flappers and Foxtrotters: Soviet Youth in the "Roaring Twenties"', Carl Beck Papers, no. 1102 (University of Pittsburgh, 1994); Gorsuch, '"A Woman is not a Man"', p. 658. See also N. Azhgikhina and H. Goscilo, 'Getting Under Their Skin: The Beauty Salon in Russian Women's Lives', in Goscilo and Holmgren, Russia. Women. Culture, pp. 94-121.
65. Anne E. Gorsuch, 'Flappers and Foxtrotters: Soviet Youth in the "Roaring Twenties"', Carl Beck Papers, no. 1102 (University of Pittsburgh, 1994); Gorsuch, '"A Woman is not a Man"', p. 658. See also N. Azhgikhina and H. Goscilo, 'Getting Under Their Skin: The Beauty Salon in Russian Women's Lives', in Goscilo and Holmgren, Russia. Women. Culture, pp. 94-121.
66. Anne E. Gorsuch, 'Flappers and Foxtrotters: Soviet Youth in the "Roaring Twenties"', Carl Beck Papers, no. 1102 (University of Pittsburgh, 1994); Gorsuch, '"A Woman is not a Man"', p. 658. See also N. Azhgikhina and H. Goscilo, 'Getting Under Their Skin: The Beauty Salon in Russian Women's Lives', in Goscilo and Holmgren, Russia. Women. Culture, pp. 94-121.
67. Sheila Fitzpatrick, 'Becoming Cultured: Socialist Realism and the Representation of Privilege and Taste', in Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Cultural Front: Power and Culture in Revolutionary Russia (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1992), pp. 216-37.
68. I. L. Belakhov, 'Kul'tura tela i gigiena', Rabotnitsa, 2 (January 1937).
69. Reid, 'All Stalin's Women', pp. 149-52 and n. 58.
70. Cullerne Bown, Art under Stalin, p. 216.
71. Vera Dunham, The Changing Image of Women in Soviet Literature', in Brown, Role and Status, pp. 86-7 ; and Vera S. Dunham, In Stalin's Time: Middle-Class Values in Soviet Fiction (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1976).
72. Vera Dunham, The Changing Image of Women in Soviet Literature', in Brown, Role and Status, pp. 86-7 ; and Vera S. Dunham, In Stalin's Time: Middle-Class Values in Soviet Fiction (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1976).
73. Barbara Evans Clements, 'Later Developments', in Clements, Russia's Women, p. 273 (my emphasis).
74. Maurice Hindus, House Without a Roof: Russia after Forty-three Years of Revolution (Gollancz, London, 1962); and see About Town, 2 (1961), pp. 37, 28.
75. Maurice Hindus, House Without a Roof: Russia after Forty-three Years of Revolution (Gollancz, London, 1962); and see About Town, 2 (1961), pp. 37, 28.
76. N. Kolchinskaia, 'Kul'tura povedeniia devushki', Podruga, pp. 152 and 134-5; N. Kolchinskaia, 'Odevaisia prosto i krasivo', Podruga, pp. 335-51. Excessive slavery to Western notions of glamour was censured: M. Orlova, 'O skromnosti i devich'ei gordosti', Uchitel'skaia gazeta, 16 June 1959. 'Cultured behaviour' demanded that a boy help a girl on with her coat and she accept this graciously. L. Davidovich, E. Kuznetsova, 'Uroki kul'tury povedeniia', Uchitel'skaia gazeta, 17 May 1958.
77. N. Kolchinskaia, 'Kul'tura povedeniia devushki', Podruga, pp. 152 and 134-5; N. Kolchinskaia, 'Odevaisia prosto i krasivo', Podruga, pp. 335-51. Excessive slavery to Western notions of glamour was censured: M. Orlova, 'O skromnosti i devich'ei gordosti', Uchitel'skaia gazeta, 16 June 1959. 'Cultured behaviour' demanded that a boy help a girl on with her coat and she accept this graciously. L. Davidovich, E. Kuznetsova, 'Uroki kul'tury povedeniia', Uchitel'skaia gazeta, 17 May 1958.
78. N. Kolchinskaia, 'Kul'tura povedeniia devushki', Podruga, pp. 152 and 134-5; N. Kolchinskaia, 'Odevaisia prosto i krasivo', Podruga, pp. 335-51. Excessive slavery to Western notions of glamour was censured: M. Orlova, 'O skromnosti i devich'ei gordosti', Uchitel'skaia gazeta, 16 June 1959. 'Cultured behaviour' demanded that a boy help a girl on with her coat and she accept this graciously. L. Davidovich, E. Kuznetsova, 'Uroki kul'tury povedeniia', Uchitel'skaia gazeta, 17 May 1958.
79. N. Kolchinskaia, 'Kul'tura povedeniia devushki', Podruga, pp. 152 and 134-5; N. Kolchinskaia, 'Odevaisia prosto i krasivo', Podruga, pp. 335-51. Excessive slavery to Western notions of glamour was censured: M. Orlova, 'O skromnosti i devich'ei gordosti', Uchitel'skaia gazeta, 16 June 1959. 'Cultured behaviour' demanded that a boy help a girl on with her coat and she accept this graciously. L. Davidovich, E. Kuznetsova, 'Uroki kul'tury povedeniia', Uchitel'skaia gazeta, 17 May 1958.
80. M. Mertsalova, 'Glupets tot, kto v mode vidit tol'ko modu ...', Dekorativnoe iskusstvo SSSR, 5 (1968), pp. 9-17. 'Whatever nuances this or that epoch might attribute to [femininity]', the author asserted, 'always softness, submissiveness, tenderness, even defencelessness were inalienable qualities, so antithetical to coarse physical strength. This antithesis reveals the hidden strength of femininity.'
81. Dunham, 'Changing Image', p. 86.
82. A. luferova, 'Raboty Edgara Iltnera', Iskusstvo, 1 (1961), p. 14; B. loganson, 'Novaia kartina G. Korzheva', Khudozhnik, 8 (1959), p. 41.
83. A. luferova, 'Raboty Edgara Iltnera', Iskusstvo, 1 (1961), p. 14; B. loganson, 'Novaia kartina G. Korzheva', Khudozhnik, 8 (1959), p. 41.
84. Compare N. A. Davydova, 'Zhenskie obrazy v sovetskom iskusstve (kontseptsiia lichnosti)', in Trudy Akademii khudozhestv SSSR, 5, ed. V. V. Vanslov and S. M. Chervonnaia (Izobrazitel'noe iskusstvo, Moscow, 1988), p. 64.
85. Sergei Davydov, 'V poslednem avtobuse', Neva, 1957; trans. Dunham, 'Changing Image', pp. 86-7.
86. Nina Dmitrieva, 'Sorok let nazad (O sovetskom iskusstve 40-50-kh gg. Iz vospominanii)', Tvorchestvo, 11 (1987), pp. 22-3.
87. A. Morozov, Pokolenie molodykh (Sovetskii khudozhnik, Moscow, 1989), p. 32.
88. RGALI, f. 2943, op. 1, ed. khr. 1039, I. 14. The painting resonated with recent films about the war. D. Bezrukova, 'Uroki odnoi vystavki', Iskusstvo, 8 (1959), p. 32; and Iu. Sbitnev, 'Tribuna zritelia. V dolgu pered chelovekom', Khudozhnik, 8 (1959), p. 44.
89. RGALI, f. 2943, op. 1, ed. khr. 1039, I. 14. The painting resonated with recent films about the war. D. Bezrukova, 'Uroki odnoi vystavki', Iskusstvo, 8 (1959), p. 32; and Iu. Sbitnev, 'Tribuna zritelia. V dolgu pered chelovekom', Khudozhnik, 8 (1959), p. 44.
90. Bezrukova, 'Uroki', p. 32.
91. P. Sokolov-Skalia, 'Raskryvat' bol'shoi mir chelovecheskikh chuvstv i myslei', Khudozhnik, 8 (1959), p. 43.
92. loganson, 'Novaia kartina', p. 41.
93. 'Rech' tovarishcha N. S. Khrushcheva', Pravda, 15 March 1958, and Uchitel'skaia gazeta, 15 March 1958; and see VI. Nemtsov, 'Eshche raz ob uvazhenii k zhenshchine', Literaturnaia gazeta, 12 April 1958.
94. 'Rech' tovarishcha N. S. Khrushcheva', Pravda, 15 March 1958, and Uchitel'skaia gazeta, 15 March 1958; and see VI. Nemtsov, 'Eshche raz ob uvazhenii k zhenshchine', Literaturnaia gazeta, 12 April 1958.
95. 'Rech' tovarishcha N. S. Khrushcheva', Pravda, 15 March 1958, and Uchitel'skaia gazeta, 15 March 1958; and see VI. Nemtsov, 'Eshche raz ob uvazhenii k zhenshchine', Literaturnaia gazeta, 12 April 1958.
96. See Hindus, House, pp. 25, 276-80.
97. Hindus, House, p. 279; Susanne Conze, 'Female Industrial Workers in the Soviet Union during the 1940s', in Tkachenko, Sex and Gender, p. 60; and Melanie Ilič, 'Women Workers in the Soviet Mining Industry: A Case-Study of Labour Protection', Europe-Asia Studies, 48 (1996), pp. 1387-401.
98. Hindus, House, p. 279; Susanne Conze, 'Female Industrial Workers in the Soviet Union during the 1940s', in Tkachenko, Sex and Gender, p. 60; and Melanie Ilič, 'Women Workers in the Soviet Mining Industry: A Case-Study of Labour Protection', Europe-Asia Studies, 48 (1996), pp. 1387-401.
99. Hindus, House, p. 279; Susanne Conze, 'Female Industrial Workers in the Soviet Union during the 1940s', in Tkachenko, Sex and Gender, p. 60; and Melanie Ilič, 'Women Workers in the Soviet Mining Industry: A Case-Study of Labour Protection', Europe-Asia Studies, 48 (1996), pp. 1387-401.
100. Vera Bil'shai, 'Kto prav: VI. Nemtsov ili E. Nilova?', Literaturnaia gazeta, 10 January 1959; Hindus, House, pp. 279, 282.
101. Vera Bil'shai, 'Kto prav: VI. Nemtsov ili E. Nilova?', Literaturnaia gazeta, 10 January 1959; Hindus, House, pp. 279, 282.
102. Nemtsov, 'Eshche raz'; Bil'shai, 'Kto prav?'
103. Nemtsov, 'Eshche raz'; Bil'shai, 'Kto prav?'
104. Nemtsov, 'Eshche raz'; Field, 'Workers', p. 23.
105. Nemtsov, 'Eshche raz'; Field, 'Workers', p. 23.
106. See Reid, 'All Stalin's Women', pp. 138-41.
107. Reid, 'Destalinization', p. 563.
108. I. P. Abramskii, Smekh sil'nykh: O karikaturistakh 'Krokodila' (Iskusstvo, Moscow, 1977), fig. 119.
109. See Conze, 'Female Industrial Workers', p. 61; and Dunham, In Stalin's Time, ch. 13.
110. See Conze, 'Female Industrial Workers', p. 61; and Dunham, In Stalin's Time, ch. 13.
111. Nemtsov, 'Eshche raz'; Field, 'Workers', p. 21 ; and Donald Filtzer, Soviet Workers and De-Stalinization (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992), p. 178 and passim.
112. Nemtsov, 'Eshche raz'; Field, 'Workers', p. 21 ; and Donald Filtzer, Soviet Workers and De-Stalinization (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992), p. 178 and passim.
113. Nemtsov, 'Eshche raz'; Field, 'Workers', p. 21 ; and Donald Filtzer, Soviet Workers and De-Stalinization (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992), p. 178 and passim.
114. Nemtsov, 'Eshche raz'.
115. E. Nilova, as cited by Bil'shai, 'Kto prav?' (my emphasis); Field, 'Workers', p. 18.
116. E. Nilova, as cited by Bil'shai, 'Kto prav?' (my emphasis); Field, 'Workers', p. 18.
117. Lynne Attwood, Creating the New Soviet Woman: Women's Magazines as Engineers of Female Identity, 1922-53 (Macmillan, Basingstoke, forthcoming). I am indebted to Lynne Attwood for letting me read the manuscript. See also Filtzer, Soviet Workers.
118. Lynne Attwood, Creating the New Soviet Woman: Women's Magazines as Engineers of Female Identity, 1922-53 (Macmillan, Basingstoke, forthcoming). I am indebted to Lynne Attwood for letting me read the manuscript. See also Filtzer, Soviet Workers.
119. Dunstan, 'Soviet Boarding Education', pp. 116-18; Bronfenbrenner, 'The Changing Soviet Family', pp. 107-9.
120. Dunstan, 'Soviet Boarding Education', pp. 116-18; Bronfenbrenner, 'The Changing Soviet Family', pp. 107-9.
121. 'Rech' tovarishcha N. S. Khrushcheva'; Field, 'Workers', p. 8.
122. N. Aleksandrova, 'O zhenskoi gordosti', Ogonek, 34 (1959), pp. 20-21.
123. William J. Tompson, Khrushchev: A Political Life (Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1995), p. 201; and compare the CPSU Central Committee's address to women, 'Rabotnitsam i kolkhoznitsam, deiateliam nauki, tekhniki, prosveshcheniia, literatury, iskusstva, zdravookhraneniia, vsem sovetskim zhenshchinam!' (To women workers and kolkhoz farmers, workers in science, technology, education, literature, art, healthcare, to all Soviet women!), Uchitel'skaia gazeta, 8 March 1958.
124. William J. Tompson, Khrushchev: A Political Life (Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1995), p. 201; and compare the CPSU Central Committee's address to women, 'Rabotnitsam i kolkhoznitsam, deiateliam nauki, tekhniki, prosveshcheniia, literatury, iskusstva, zdravookhraneniia, vsem sovetskim zhenshchinam!' (To women workers and kolkhoz farmers, workers in science, technology, education, literature, art, healthcare, to all Soviet women!), Uchitel'skaia gazeta, 8 March 1958.
125. Materialy XXII s'ezda KPSS (Moscow, 1962), p. 390; cited by G. D. Andrusz, 'Housing Ideals, Structural Constraints and the Emancipation of Women', in Brine, Home, pp. 21-2; Susan E. Reid, 'Design, Stalin and the Thaw: Introduction', Journal of Design History, 10 (1997), pp. 112-13.
126. Materialy XXII s'ezda KPSS (Moscow, 1962), p. 390; cited by G. D. Andrusz, 'Housing Ideals, Structural Constraints and the Emancipation of Women', in Brine, Home, pp. 21-2; Susan E. Reid, 'Design, Stalin and the Thaw: Introduction', Journal of Design History, 10 (1997), pp. 112-13.
127. Materialy XXII s'ezda KPSS (Moscow, 1962), p. 390; cited by G. D. Andrusz, 'Housing Ideals, Structural Constraints and the Emancipation of Women', in Brine, Home, pp. 21-2; Susan E. Reid, 'Design, Stalin and the Thaw: Introduction', Journal of Design History, 10 (1997), pp. 112-13.
128. Bronfenbrenner, The Changing Soviet Family', pp. 107-9. A rare attempt to revive 1920s housing experiments in collective living was attacked on the grounds that few families could afford to pay for the communal services provided. la. Zhuchok, E. Zuikova, 'Dom s privilegiami', Literaturnaia gazeta, 8 January 1969.
129. Bronfenbrenner, The Changing Soviet Family', pp. 107-9. A rare attempt to revive 1920s housing experiments in collective living was attacked on the grounds that few families could afford to pay for the communal services provided. La. Zhuchok, E. Zuikova, 'Dom s privilegiami', Literaturnaia gazeta, 8 January 1969.
130. Karen Kettering, '"Ever more Cosy and Comfortable": Stalinism and the Soviet Domestic Interior, 1928-1938', Journal of Design History, 10 (1997), pp. 119-36; and Dunham, In Stalin's Time.
131. Karen Kettering, '"Ever more Cosy and Comfortable": Stalinism and the Soviet Domestic Interior, 1928-1938', Journal of Design History, 10 (1997), pp. 119-36; and Dunham, In Stalin's Time.
132. 'Tribuna chitatelei. O vospitanii vkusa', Novyi mir, 2 (1955), p. 247. Hindus, House, p. 282
133. 'Tribuna chitatelei. O vospitanii vkusa', Novyi mir, 2 (1955), p. 247. Hindus, House, p. 282
134. , cites an exception, a letter from four working women complaining about their husbands' refusal to help in the home, published in Sovetskaia Rossiia, 16 March 1960.
135. O. G. Baiar and R. N. Blashkevich, Kvartira i ee ubranstvo (Moscow, 1962).
136. N. Svetlova, 'Tvoi dom', Ogonek, 3 (1959), p. 15; I. Gil'ter, 'Ugolok rebenka', Ogonek, 24 (1960).
137. N. Svetlova, 'Tvoi dom', Ogonek, 3 (1959), p. 15; I. Gil'ter, 'Ugolok rebenka', Ogonek, 24 (1960).
138. 'Zhenshchiny, eto dlia vas!' Ogonek, 24 (1960).
139. Saltanova and Kolchinskaia, Podruga.
140. 'Oblegchaet trud, sberegaet vremia', Ogonek, 27 (1960).
141. In practice, ownership of a refrigerator or washing machine remained a status symbol, unavailable to the majority until at least the 1970s: Alix Holt, 'Domestic Labour and Soviet Society', in Brine, Home, pp. 29-31.
142. Kratkaia entsiklopediia domashnego khoziastva, vol. 2 (Moscow, 1959), plates facing pp. 508-9. (I am indebted to Victor Buchli for bringing this publication to my notice.) Richard Hamilton, 'An Exposition of $he', Architectural Design, October 1962. Compare Jane Graves, 'The Washing Machine: "Mother's not herself today"', in The Gendered Object, ed. Pat Kirkham (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1996).
143. Kratkaia entsiklopediia domashnego khoziastva, vol. 2 (Moscow, 1959), plates facing pp. 508-9. (I am indebted to Victor Buchli for bringing this publication to my notice.) Richard Hamilton, 'An Exposition of $he', Architectural Design, October 1962. Compare Jane Graves, 'The Washing Machine: "Mother's not herself today"', in The Gendered Object, ed. Pat Kirkham (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1996).
144. Kratkaia entsiklopediia domashnego khoziastva, vol. 2 (Moscow, 1959), plates facing pp. 508-9. (I am indebted to Victor Buchli for bringing this publication to my notice.) Richard Hamilton, 'An Exposition of $he', Architectural Design, October 1962. Compare Jane Graves, 'The Washing Machine: "Mother's not herself today"', in The Gendered Object, ed. Pat Kirkham (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1996).
145. Compare Katherine Pence, 'Labours of Consumption: Gendered Consumers in Postwar East and West German Reconstruction', in Gender Relations in German History, ed. L. Abrams and E. Harvey (University College London, 1996), p. 232.
146. K. A. Marling, As Seen on TV: The Visual Culture of Everyday Life in the 1950s (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1994), pp. 274-5; and W. L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945-1961 (Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1997), pp. 176-80.
147. K. A. Marling, As Seen on TV: The Visual Culture of Everyday Life in the 1950s (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1994), pp. 274-5; and W. L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945-1961 (Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1997), pp. 176-80.
148. Darra Goldstein, 'Domestic Porkbarreling in Nineteenth-Century Russia', in Gosciloand Holmgren, Russia. Women. Culture, pp. 146-7.
149. Marling, As Seen on TV, p. 280. Krokodil published a cartoon by N. Lissogorskii in 1963 in which Soviet men raise 'a toast to the ladies' while their wives scurry around serving their meal. Reproduced in Abramskii, Smekh, p. 237, fig. 117.
150. Marling, As Seen on TV, p. 280. Krokodil published a cartoon by N. Lissogorskii in 1963 in which Soviet men raise 'a toast to the ladies' while their wives scurry around serving their meal. Reproduced in Abramskii, Smekh, p. 237, fig. 117.
151. Marta Dodd, 'Pod pozolochennym kupolom', Ogonek, 32 (1959), p. 5.
152. Hixson, Parting the Curtain, pp. 189, 203.
153. Philip Hanson, Advertising and Socialism (Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1974), pp. 7-8, 72.
154. Victor Buchli, 'Khrushchev, Modernism, and the Fight against Petit-bourgeois Consciousness in the Soviet Home', Journal of Design History, 10 (1997), p. 162.
155. Larisa Vasil'eva, Kremlevskie zheny (Vagrius, Moscow, 1993), p. 417.
156. Field, 'Workers', p. 15; Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 139-60; Genia Browning, 'Soviet Politics - Where are the Women?', in Holland, Soviet Sisterhood, p. 212. Khrushchev complained at a meeting of cadres that he needed binoculars to see any women delegates. Alec Nove, Stalinism and After (George Allen and Unwin, London, 1981), p. 130.
157. Field, 'Workers', p. 15; Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 139-60; Genia Browning, 'Soviet Politics - Where are the Women?', in Holland, Soviet Sisterhood, p. 212. Khrushchev complained at a meeting of cadres that he needed binoculars to see any women delegates. Alec Nove, Stalinism and After (George Allen and Unwin, London, 1981), p. 130.
158. Field, 'Workers', p. 15; Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 139-60; Genia Browning, 'Soviet Politics - Where are the Women?', in Holland, Soviet Sisterhood, p. 212. Khrushchev complained at a meeting of cadres that he needed binoculars to see any women delegates. Alec Nove, Stalinism and After (George Allen and Unwin, London, 1981), p. 130.
159. Field, 'Workers', p. 15; Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 139-60; Genia Browning, 'Soviet Politics - Where are the Women?', in Holland, Soviet Sisterhood, p. 212. Khrushchev complained at a meeting of cadres that he needed binoculars to see any women delegates. Alec Nove, Stalinism and After (George Allen and Unwin, London, 1981), p. 130.
160. A viewer at a major 1961 exhibition complained of the 'revolting, saccharine' paintings of Khrushchev. RGALI f. 2329, op. 4, ed. khr. 1375, II. 12-13 (Visitors' book, All-Union Art Exhibition, 1961).
161. RGALI f. 2943, op. 1, ed. khr. 75, I. 22. (Letter from 'wives' of Moscow artists to secretary of Moscow Committee of VKP(b) N. S. Khrushchev, 1936.)
162. Dmitrii Bal'termants, photographs, 'N. S. Khrushchev among Congress Delegates', in Ogonek, 7 (1959), p. 2; and Ogonek, 11 (1959), inside front cover (issue for International Women's Day).
163. Dmitrii Bal'termants, photographs, 'N. S. Khrushchev among Congress Delegates', in Ogonek, 7 (1959), p. 2; and Ogonek, 11 (1959), inside front cover (issue for International Women's Day).
164. Field, 'Workers', p. 15; G. Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society, p. 210, table 24 and p. 217; Hough, 'Women and Women's Issues', pp. 355-73.
165. Field, 'Workers', p. 15; G. Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society, p. 210, table 24 and p. 217; Hough, 'Women and Women's Issues', pp. 355-73.
166. Field, 'Workers', p. 15; G. Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society, p. 210, table 24 and p. 217; Hough, 'Women and Women's Issues', pp. 355-73.
167. Field, 'Workers', pp. 15-16; cf. Hough, 'Women and Women's Issues', pp. 357-79.
168. Field, 'Workers', pp. 15-16; cf. Hough, 'Women and Women's Issues', pp. 357-79.
169. Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society, p. 227. Few women appeared on the party's nomenklatura lists (lists of approved names that could be considered for top jobs). Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 154-5; and Browning, 'Soviet Politics', p. 210.
170. Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society, p. 227. Few women appeared on the party's nomenklatura lists (lists of approved names that could be considered for top jobs). Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 154-5; and Browning, 'Soviet Politics', p. 210.
171. Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society, p. 227. Few women appeared on the party's nomenklatura lists (lists of approved names that could be considered for top jobs). Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 154-5; and Browning, 'Soviet Politics', p. 210.
172. They were also regarded as cultural rather than political, being more often addressed in the cultural press such as Literaturnaia gazeta or Sovetskaia kul'tura (Soviet culture) than in the core political papers of party and state, Pravda and Izvestiia (Hough, 'Women and Women's Issues', pp. 363-6). On earlier periods, compare Elizabeth A. Wood, The Baba and the Comrade: Gender and Politics in Revolutionary Russia (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1997); Sarah Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin's Russia (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997); and Gorsuch, '"A Woman is not a Man"'.
173. They were also regarded as cultural rather than political, being more often addressed in the cultural press such as Literaturnaia gazeta or Sovetskaia kul'tura (Soviet culture) than in the core political papers of party and state, Pravda and Izvestiia (Hough, 'Women and Women's Issues', pp. 363-6). On earlier periods, compare Elizabeth A. Wood, The Baba and the Comrade: Gender and Politics in Revolutionary Russia (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1997); Sarah Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin's Russia (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997); and Gorsuch, '"A Woman is not a Man"'.
174. They were also regarded as cultural rather than political, being more often addressed in the cultural press such as Literaturnaia gazeta or Sovetskaia kul'tura (Soviet culture) than in the core political papers of party and state, Pravda and Izvestiia (Hough, 'Women and Women's Issues', pp. 363-6). On earlier periods, compare Elizabeth A. Wood, The Baba and the Comrade: Gender and Politics in Revolutionary Russia (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1997); Sarah Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin's Russia (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997); and Gorsuch, '"A Woman is not a Man"'.
175. They were also regarded as cultural rather than political, being more often addressed in the cultural press such as Literaturnaia gazeta or Sovetskaia kul'tura (Soviet culture) than in the core political papers of party and state, Pravda and Izvestiia (Hough, 'Women and Women's Issues', pp. 363-6). On earlier periods, compare Elizabeth A. Wood, The Baba and the Comrade: Gender and Politics in Revolutionary Russia (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1997); Sarah Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin's Russia (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997); and Gorsuch, '"A Woman is not a Man"'.
176. Browning, 'Soviet politics', p. 232.
177. S. Gerasimov, 'S dumami o budushchem', Iskusstvo, 2 (1962), p. 2.
178. Editorial, 'Istoricheskii s'ezd stroitelei kommunizma', Iskusstvo, 11 (1961), pp. 2-8; Grey Hodnett (ed.), Resolutions and Decisions of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, vol. 4, The Khrushchev Years 1953-1964 (University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1974), pp. 167-264; T. L. Thompson, Ideology and Politics (Westview Press, Boulder, 1989), p. 5; Ronald Hill, 'State and Ideology', in McCauley, Khrushchev and Khrushchevism, pp. 46-60.
179. Editorial, 'Istoricheskii s'ezd stroitelei kommunizma', Iskusstvo, 11 (1961), pp. 2-8; Grey Hodnett (ed.), Resolutions and Decisions of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, vol. 4, The Khrushchev Years 1953-1964 (University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1974), pp. 167-264; T. L. Thompson, Ideology and Politics (Westview Press, Boulder, 1989), p. 5; Ronald Hill, 'State and Ideology', in McCauley, Khrushchev and Khrushchevism, pp. 46-60.
180. Editorial, 'Istoricheskii s'ezd stroitelei kommunizma', Iskusstvo, 11 (1961), pp. 2-8; Grey Hodnett (ed.), Resolutions and Decisions of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, vol. 4, The Khrushchev Years 1953-1964 (University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1974), pp. 167-264; T. L. Thompson, Ideology and Politics (Westview Press, Boulder, 1989), p. 5; Ronald Hill, 'State and Ideology', in McCauley, Khrushchev and Khrushchevism, pp. 46-60.
181. Editorial, 'Istoricheskii s'ezd stroitelei kommunizma', Iskusstvo, 11 (1961), pp. 2-8; Grey Hodnett (ed.), Resolutions and Decisions of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, vol. 4, The Khrushchev Years 1953-1964 (University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1974), pp. 167-264; T. L. Thompson, Ideology and Politics (Westview Press, Boulder, 1989), p. 5; Ronald Hill, 'State and Ideology', in McCauley, Khrushchev and Khrushchevism, pp. 46-60.
182. Hauslohner, 'Politics', p. 45; and Editorial, 'Kommunizm i iskusstvo', Kommunist, 8 (1961), p. 5.
183. Hauslohner, 'Politics', p. 45; and Editorial, 'Kommunizm i iskusstvo', Kommunist, 8 (1961), p. 5.
184. Hodnett (ed.), Resolutions and Decisions, p. 248.
185. Hodnett (ed.), Resolutions and Decisions, p. 248; Editorial, 'Istoricheskii s"ezd stroitelei kommunizma', Iskusstvo, 11 (1961), pp. 2-8; and Editorial, 'Aktual'nye voprosy estetiki v svete novoi Programmy KPSS', Voprosy filosofii, 9 (1962), pp. 3-14.
186. Hodnett (ed.), Resolutions and Decisions, p. 248; Editorial, 'Istoricheskii s"ezd stroitelei kommunizma', Iskusstvo, 11 (1961), pp. 2-8; and Editorial, 'Aktual'nye voprosy estetiki v svete novoi Programmy KPSS', Voprosy filosofii, 9 (1962), pp. 3-14.
187. Hodnett (ed.), Resolutions and Decisions, p. 248; Editorial, 'Istoricheskii s"ezd stroitelei kommunizma', Iskusstvo, 11 (1961), pp. 2-8; and Editorial, 'Aktual'nye voprosy estetiki v svete novoi Programmy KPSS', Voprosy filosofii, 9 (1962), pp. 3-14.
188. V. Zimenko, 'Chelovek, kharakter, obraz', Iskusstvo, 1 (1962), pp. 5-12.
189. For a historical parallel, compare Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture and Class in the French Revolution (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1984), pp. 94-117; Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (Columbia University Press, New York, 1988), p. 24.
190. For a historical parallel, compare Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture and Class in the French Revolution (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1984), pp. 94-117; Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (Columbia University Press, New York, 1988), p. 24.
191. V. Zimenko, Trudnosti rosta', Iskusstvo, 9 (1961), p. 23.
192. Zimenko, 'Chelovek', pp. 5-12; and V. Turbin, Tovarishch vremia i tovarishch iskusstvo (Iskusstvo, Moscow, 1961), p. 30.
193. Zimenko, 'Chelovek', pp. 5-12; and V. Turbin, Tovarishch vremia i tovarishch iskusstvo (Iskusstvo, Moscow, 1961), p. 30.
194. Zimenko, 'Trudnosti rosta', p. 23.
195. Zimenko, 'Chelovek', p. 6.
196. RGALI f. 2943, op. 2, ed. khr. 14, I. 17 (Mikhail Alpatov at discussion of group exhibition, 9 June 1961); N. Volkov, 'Lakonizm i iazyk zhivopisi', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 20-21 (1960); V. Kostin, 'V poiskakh puti', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 4 (1962).
197. RGALI f. 2943, op. 2, ed. khr. 14, I. 17 (Mikhail Alpatov at discussion of group exhibition, 9 June 1961); N. Volkov, 'Lakonizm i iazyk zhivopisi', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 20-21 (1960); V. Kostin, 'V poiskakh puti', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 4 (1962).
198. RGALI f. 2329, op. 4, ed. khr. 1375, I. 30.
199. Zimenko, 'Trudnosti rosta', p. 23.
200. A. Kamenskii, 'Poiski i sversheniia', lunost', 7 (1961), p. 81; compare G. Koniakhin, 'Put' molodykh zhivopistsev', Iskusstvo, 7 (1965), p. 34.
201. A. Kamenskii, 'Poiski i sversheniia', lunost', 7 (1961), p. 81; compare G. Koniakhin, 'Put' molodykh zhivopistsev', Iskusstvo, 7 (1965), p. 34.
202. G. Nedoshivin, 'Iskusstvo dolzhno byt' strastnym', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 1 (1962); A. Kamenskii, 'O novykh rabotakh molodykh zhivopistsev', Tvorchestvo, 8 (1959), pp. 12-13; A. Gastev, 'Grafika Pribaltiki', Tvorchestvo, 6 (1958), p. 20; B. Vipper, 'Neskol'ko tezisov k probleme stilia', Tvorchestvo, 9 (1962), pp. 11-12; and see I. E. Svetlov, 'Chelovek i priroda v sovetskoi zhivopisi 60-80-kh godov', in Sovetskoe iskusstvo 60-80-kh godov (Nauka, Moscow, 1988), pp. 144-5.
203. G. Nedoshivin, 'Iskusstvo dolzhno byt' strastnym', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 1 (1962); A. Kamenskii, 'O novykh rabotakh molodykh zhivopistsev', Tvorchestvo, 8 (1959), pp. 12-13; A. Gastev, 'Grafika Pribaltiki', Tvorchestvo, 6 (1958), p. 20; B. Vipper, 'Neskol'ko tezisov k probleme stilia', Tvorchestvo, 9 (1962), pp. 11-12; and see I. E. Svetlov, 'Chelovek i priroda v sovetskoi zhivopisi 60-80-kh godov', in Sovetskoe iskusstvo 60-80-kh godov (Nauka, Moscow, 1988), pp. 144-5.
204. G. Nedoshivin, 'Iskusstvo dolzhno byt' strastnym', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 1 (1962); A. Kamenskii, 'O novykh rabotakh molodykh zhivopistsev', Tvorchestvo, 8 (1959), pp. 12-13; A. Gastev, 'Grafika Pribaltiki', Tvorchestvo, 6 (1958), p. 20; B. Vipper, 'Neskol'ko tezisov k probleme stilia', Tvorchestvo, 9 (1962), pp. 11-12; and see I. E. Svetlov, 'Chelovek i priroda v sovetskoi zhivopisi 60-80-kh godov', in Sovetskoe iskusstvo 60-80-kh godov (Nauka, Moscow, 1988), pp. 144-5.
205. G. Nedoshivin, 'Iskusstvo dolzhno byt' strastnym', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 1 (1962); A. Kamenskii, 'O novykh rabotakh molodykh zhivopistsev', Tvorchestvo, 8 (1959), pp. 12-13; A. Gastev, 'Grafika Pribaltiki', Tvorchestvo, 6 (1958), p. 20; B. Vipper, 'Neskol'ko tezisov k probleme stilia', Tvorchestvo, 9 (1962), pp. 11-12; and see I. E. Svetlov, 'Chelovek i priroda v sovetskoi zhivopisi 60-80-kh godov', in Sovetskoe iskusstvo 60-80-kh godov (Nauka, Moscow, 1988), pp. 144-5.
206. G. Nedoshivin, 'Iskusstvo dolzhno byt' strastnym', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 1 (1962); A. Kamenskii, 'O novykh rabotakh molodykh zhivopistsev', Tvorchestvo, 8 (1959), pp. 12-13; A. Gastev, 'Grafika Pribaltiki', Tvorchestvo, 6 (1958), p. 20; B. Vipper, 'Neskol'ko tezisov k probleme stilia', Tvorchestvo, 9 (1962), pp. 11-12; and see I. E. Svetlov, 'Chelovek i priroda v sovetskoi zhivopisi 60-80-kh godov', in Sovetskoe iskusstvo 60-80-kh godov (Nauka, Moscow, 1988), pp. 144-5.
207. For the historical identification of form with the masculine, and matter with the feminine, see David Summers, 'Form and Gender', in Visual Culture, ed. N. Bryson et al. (London, University Press of New England, 1994), pp. 384-411. Jacques Derrida noted the cultural identification of male sexuality with style: Lynda Nead, 'Seductive Canvases: Visual Mythologies of the Artist and Artistic Creativity', Oxford Art Journal, 18 (1995), pp. 62-3.
208. For the historical identification of form with the masculine, and matter with the feminine, see David Summers, 'Form and Gender', in Visual Culture, ed. N. Bryson et al. (London, University Press of New England, 1994), pp. 384-411. Jacques Derrida noted the cultural identification of male sexuality with style: Lynda Nead, 'Seductive Canvases: Visual Mythologies of the Artist and Artistic Creativity', Oxford Art Journal, 18 (1995), pp. 62-3.
209. S. Levin, 'O spetsifike izobrazitel'nogo tvorchestva rebenka', Iskusstvo, 12 (1962), p. 48.
210. Reid, 'All Stalin's Women', pp. 167-71; V. Moskvinov, 'Zhenskaia, prazdnichnaia', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 31 March 1967; and E. C. Zernova, Vospominaniia monumentalista (Sovetskii khudozhnik, Moscow, 1985).
211. Reid, 'All Stalin's Women', pp. 167-71; V. Moskvinov, 'Zhenskaia, prazdnichnaia', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 31 March 1967; and E. C. Zernova, Vospominaniia monumentalista (Sovetskii khudozhnik, Moscow, 1985).
212. Reid, 'All Stalin's Women', pp. 167-71; V. Moskvinov, 'Zhenskaia, prazdnichnaia', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 31 March 1967; and E. C. Zernova, Vospominaniia monumentalista (Sovetskii khudozhnik, Moscow, 1985).
213. RGALI f. 2329, op. 4, ed. khr. 980 (All-Union Exhibition dedicated to Soviet women); RGALI f. 2329, op. 4, ed. khr. 988 (Plans for All-Union Exhibition dedicated to Soviet women, October 1959-January 1960); and 'O vystavke rabot moskovskikh zhenshchin khudozhnikov', Moskovskii khudozhnik, 10-11 (1960).
214. Carol Nechemias, The Prospects for a Soviet Women's Movement: Opportunities and Obstacles', in Perestroika from Below, ed. Judith B. Sedaitis and Jim Butterfield (Westview Press, Boulder, 1991), pp. 73-96.