No more quandaries: A look at virtue through the eyes of Robert Solomon: A review essay of ethics and excellence: Cooperation and integrity in business

American Business Law Journal

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 117-132

  Beck Dudley, Caryn L ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040007833     PISSN: 00027766     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-1714.1996.tb00962.x     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. See Charles M. Horvath, MacIntyre's Critique of Business, 5 BUS. ETHICS Q. 499, 500-05 (1995).
2. James E. Macdonald & Caryn L. Beck-Dudley, Are Deontology and Teleology Mutually Exclusive?, 13 J. BUS. ETHICS 615 (1994).
3. EDMUND L. PINCOFFS, QUANDARIES AND VIRTUES AGAINST REDUCTIVISM IN ETHICS (1986).
4. Andrew Stark, What's the Matter with Business Ethics?, 71 HARV. BUS. REV. 38 (May-June 1993).
5. ALASDAIR MCINTYRE, AFTER VIRTUE (2d ed. 1984).
6. ROBERT C. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE: COOPERATION AND INTEGRITY IN BUSINESS (1992) [hereinafter ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE].
7. THE DIALOGUES OF PLATO, MENO (Jowette et al. trans., 1952).
8. ARISTOTLE, NICOMACHEAN ETHICS (Jonathan Barnes ed., Bollingen Series 1991).
9. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS, SUMMA THEOLOGICA, pt. I-II, qq. 55-67; pt. II-II, qq. 1-148 (Fathers of the English Dominican trans., 1948).
10. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS, SUMMA THEOLOGICA, pt. I-II, qq. 55-67; pt. II-II, qq. 1-148 (Fathers of the English Dominican trans., 1948).
11. See Robert B. Louden, Kant's Virtue Ethics, 61 PHILO. 473 (1986).
12. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 94.
13. Gregory Trianosky, What is Virtue Ethics All About?, 27 AM. PHIL. Q. 335 (1990). See also Christina Hoff Sommers, Teaching the Virtues: A Blueprint for Moral Education, CHI. TRIB. MAG. 1 (Sept. 12, 1993).
14. Gregory Trianosky, What is Virtue Ethics All About?, 27 AM. PHIL. Q. 335 (1990). See also Christina Hoff Sommers, Teaching the Virtues: A Blueprint for Moral Education, CHI. TRIB. MAG. 1 (Sept. 12, 1993).
15. See Robert C. Solomon, Corporate Roles, Personal Virtues: An Aristotelian Approach to Business Ethics, 2 BUS. ETHICS Q. 317 (1992) [hereinafter Corporate Roles].
16. For example, Arthur Andersen's well-attended business ethics training sessions have focused exclusively on deontology, utilitarianism, and justice theories. See ARTHUR ANDERSEN & Co., BUSINESS ETHICS PROGRAM MATERIALS (1992).
17. G.E.M. Anscombe, Modern Moral Philosophy, 33 PHIL. 1 (1958).
18. Most often cited are N.J.H DENT, THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF THE VIRTUES (1984); PHILIPA FOOT, VIRTUES AND VICES AND OTHER ESSAYS IN MORAL PHILOSOPHY (1978); MACINTYRE, AFTER VIRTUE, supra note 5. PINCOFFS, QUANDARIES AND VIRTUES, supra note 3; THE VIRTUES: CONTEMPORARY ESSAYS IN MORAL CHARACTER (Robert B. Kruschwitz & Robert C. Roberts eds., 1987); Lawrence C. Becker, The Neglect of Virtue, 85 ETHICS 110 (1975); Richard B. Brandt, Traits of Character: A Conceptual Analysis, 7 AM. PHIL. Q. 23 (1970); W.K. Frankena, Pritchard and the Ethics of Virtue, 54 MONIST 1 (1970); Edmund Pincoffs, Quandary Ethics, 80 MIND 552 (1971); J.O. Urmson, Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean, 10 AM. PHIL. Q. 223 (1973).
19. Most often cited are N.J.H DENT, THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF THE VIRTUES (1984); PHILIPA FOOT, VIRTUES AND VICES AND OTHER ESSAYS IN MORAL PHILOSOPHY (1978); MACINTYRE, AFTER VIRTUE, supra note 5. PINCOFFS, QUANDARIES AND VIRTUES, supra note 3; THE VIRTUES: CONTEMPORARY ESSAYS IN MORAL CHARACTER (Robert B. Kruschwitz & Robert C. Roberts eds., 1987); Lawrence C. Becker, The Neglect of Virtue, 85 ETHICS 110 (1975); Richard B. Brandt, Traits of Character: A Conceptual Analysis, 7 AM. PHIL. Q. 23 (1970); W.K. Frankena, Pritchard and the Ethics of Virtue, 54 MONIST 1 (1970); Edmund Pincoffs, Quandary Ethics, 80 MIND 552 (1971); J.O. Urmson, Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean, 10 AM. PHIL. Q. 223 (1973).
20. Most often cited are N.J.H DENT, THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF THE VIRTUES (1984); PHILIPA FOOT, VIRTUES AND VICES AND OTHER ESSAYS IN MORAL PHILOSOPHY (1978); MACINTYRE, AFTER VIRTUE, supra note 5. PINCOFFS, QUANDARIES AND VIRTUES, supra note 3; THE VIRTUES: CONTEMPORARY ESSAYS IN MORAL CHARACTER (Robert B. Kruschwitz & Robert C. Roberts eds., 1987); Lawrence C. Becker, The Neglect of Virtue, 85 ETHICS 110 (1975); Richard B. Brandt, Traits of Character: A Conceptual Analysis, 7 AM. PHIL. Q. 23 (1970); W.K. Frankena, Pritchard and the Ethics of Virtue, 54 MONIST 1 (1970); Edmund Pincoffs, Quandary Ethics, 80 MIND 552 (1971); J.O. Urmson, Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean, 10 AM. PHIL. Q. 223 (1973).
21. Most often cited are N.J.H DENT, THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF THE VIRTUES (1984); PHILIPA FOOT, VIRTUES AND VICES AND OTHER ESSAYS IN MORAL PHILOSOPHY (1978); MACINTYRE, AFTER VIRTUE, supra note 5. PINCOFFS, QUANDARIES AND VIRTUES, supra note 3; THE VIRTUES: CONTEMPORARY ESSAYS IN MORAL CHARACTER (Robert B. Kruschwitz & Robert C. Roberts eds., 1987); Lawrence C. Becker, The Neglect of Virtue, 85 ETHICS 110 (1975); Richard B. Brandt, Traits of Character: A Conceptual Analysis, 7 AM. PHIL. Q. 23 (1970); W.K. Frankena, Pritchard and the Ethics of Virtue, 54 MONIST 1 (1970); Edmund Pincoffs, Quandary Ethics, 80 MIND 552 (1971); J.O. Urmson, Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean, 10 AM. PHIL. Q. 223 (1973).
22. Most often cited are N.J.H DENT, THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF THE VIRTUES (1984); PHILIPA FOOT, VIRTUES AND VICES AND OTHER ESSAYS IN MORAL PHILOSOPHY (1978); MACINTYRE, AFTER VIRTUE, supra note 5. PINCOFFS, QUANDARIES AND VIRTUES, supra note 3; THE VIRTUES: CONTEMPORARY ESSAYS IN MORAL CHARACTER (Robert B. Kruschwitz & Robert C. Roberts eds., 1987); Lawrence C. Becker, The Neglect of Virtue, 85 ETHICS 110 (1975); Richard B. Brandt, Traits of Character: A Conceptual Analysis, 7 AM. PHIL. Q. 23 (1970); W.K. Frankena, Pritchard and the Ethics of Virtue, 54 MONIST 1 (1970); Edmund Pincoffs, Quandary Ethics, 80 MIND 552 (1971); J.O. Urmson, Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean, 10 AM. PHIL. Q. 223 (1973).
23. Most often cited are N.J.H DENT, THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF THE VIRTUES (1984); PHILIPA FOOT, VIRTUES AND VICES AND OTHER ESSAYS IN MORAL PHILOSOPHY (1978); MACINTYRE, AFTER VIRTUE, supra note 5. PINCOFFS, QUANDARIES AND VIRTUES, supra note 3; THE VIRTUES: CONTEMPORARY ESSAYS IN MORAL CHARACTER (Robert B. Kruschwitz & Robert C. Roberts eds., 1987); Lawrence C. Becker, The Neglect of Virtue, 85 ETHICS 110 (1975); Richard B. Brandt, Traits of Character: A Conceptual Analysis, 7 AM. PHIL. Q. 23 (1970); W.K. Frankena, Pritchard and the Ethics of Virtue, 54 MONIST 1 (1970); Edmund Pincoffs, Quandary Ethics, 80 MIND 552 (1971); J.O. Urmson, Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean, 10 AM. PHIL. Q. 223 (1973).
24. Most often cited are N.J.H DENT, THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF THE VIRTUES (1984); PHILIPA FOOT, VIRTUES AND VICES AND OTHER ESSAYS IN MORAL PHILOSOPHY (1978); MACINTYRE, AFTER VIRTUE, supra note 5. PINCOFFS, QUANDARIES AND VIRTUES, supra note 3; THE VIRTUES: CONTEMPORARY ESSAYS IN MORAL CHARACTER (Robert B. Kruschwitz & Robert C. Roberts eds., 1987); Lawrence C. Becker, The Neglect of Virtue, 85 ETHICS 110 (1975); Richard B. Brandt, Traits of Character: A Conceptual Analysis, 7 AM. PHIL. Q. 23 (1970); W.K. Frankena, Pritchard and the Ethics of Virtue, 54 MONIST 1 (1970); Edmund Pincoffs, Quandary Ethics, 80 MIND 552 (1971); J.O. Urmson, Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean, 10 AM. PHIL. Q. 223 (1973).
25. Most often cited are N.J.H DENT, THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF THE VIRTUES (1984); PHILIPA FOOT, VIRTUES AND VICES AND OTHER ESSAYS IN MORAL PHILOSOPHY (1978); MACINTYRE, AFTER VIRTUE, supra note 5. PINCOFFS, QUANDARIES AND VIRTUES, supra note 3; THE VIRTUES: CONTEMPORARY ESSAYS IN MORAL CHARACTER (Robert B. Kruschwitz & Robert C. Roberts eds., 1987); Lawrence C. Becker, The Neglect of Virtue, 85 ETHICS 110 (1975); Richard B. Brandt, Traits of Character: A Conceptual Analysis, 7 AM. PHIL. Q. 23 (1970); W.K. Frankena, Pritchard and the Ethics of Virtue, 54 MONIST 1 (1970); Edmund Pincoffs, Quandary Ethics, 80 MIND 552 (1971); J.O. Urmson, Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean, 10 AM. PHIL. Q. 223 (1973).
26. Most often cited are N.J.H DENT, THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF THE VIRTUES (1984); PHILIPA FOOT, VIRTUES AND VICES AND OTHER ESSAYS IN MORAL PHILOSOPHY (1978); MACINTYRE, AFTER VIRTUE, supra note 5. PINCOFFS, QUANDARIES AND VIRTUES, supra note 3; THE VIRTUES: CONTEMPORARY ESSAYS IN MORAL CHARACTER (Robert B. Kruschwitz & Robert C. Roberts eds., 1987); Lawrence C. Becker, The Neglect of Virtue, 85 ETHICS 110 (1975); Richard B. Brandt, Traits of Character: A Conceptual Analysis, 7 AM. PHIL. Q. 23 (1970); W.K. Frankena, Pritchard and the Ethics of Virtue, 54 MONIST 1 (1970); Edmund Pincoffs, Quandary Ethics, 80 MIND 552 (1971); J.O. Urmson, Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean, 10 AM. PHIL. Q. 223 (1973).
27. Most often cited are N.J.H DENT, THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF THE VIRTUES (1984); PHILIPA FOOT, VIRTUES AND VICES AND OTHER ESSAYS IN MORAL PHILOSOPHY (1978); MACINTYRE, AFTER VIRTUE, supra note 5. PINCOFFS, QUANDARIES AND VIRTUES, supra note 3; THE VIRTUES: CONTEMPORARY ESSAYS IN MORAL CHARACTER (Robert B. Kruschwitz & Robert C. Roberts eds., 1987); Lawrence C. Becker, The Neglect of Virtue, 85 ETHICS 110 (1975); Richard B. Brandt, Traits of Character: A Conceptual Analysis, 7 AM. PHIL. Q. 23 (1970); W.K. Frankena, Pritchard and the Ethics of Virtue, 54 MONIST 1 (1970); Edmund Pincoffs, Quandary Ethics, 80 MIND 552 (1971); J.O. Urmson, Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean, 10 AM. PHIL. Q. 223 (1973).
28. See Becker, supra note 17, at 113-14; Ruth Anna Putnam, Reciprocity and Virtue Ethics, 98 ETHICS 379 (1988).
29. See Becker, supra note 17, at 113-14; Ruth Anna Putnam, Reciprocity and Virtue Ethics, 98 ETHICS 379 (1988).
30. Putnam, supra note 18, at 379.
31. Taken from SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 200.
32. AQUINAS, supra note 10, at pt. II-II, qq. 1-27.
33. AQUINAS, supra note 10, at pt. I-II, qq. 56-62.
34. Aristotle states, "And herein of necessity lies the difference between good fortune and happiness; for external goods come of themselves, and chance is the author of them, but no one is just or temperate by or through chance." ARISTOTLE, POLITICS 1323(b25) (Jonathan Barnes ed., Bollingen Series 1991).
35. See MACINTYRE, supra note 5, at 146-52.
36. HOWARD MARGOLIS, PARADIGMS AND BARRIERS 17 (1993).
37. Id. at 199.
38. Id. at 198.
39. ARISTOTLE, POLITICS, supra note 23, at 1323(a15).
40. Onora O'Neill, Justice and the Virtues, 1989 AM. J. JURIS. 1, 2. O'Neill names John Rawls and Richard Dworkin.
41. See Louden, supra note 11 for a discussion on how Kant's theory encompasses the virtues.
42. See O'Neill, supra note 29 for a discussion on why justice and virtue are not incompatible.
43. These tenets are not universally accepted by all contemporary writers. Trianosky, supra note 13.
44. Trianosky, supra note 13, at 335 (citations omitted).
45. Another way to categorize various virtue ethics commentators is on the basis of what types of differences would exist among six "virtuous persons." For example, a "virtuous person is motivated by desires to help others, to divide things, evenly, etc. He has no moral concepts in the abstract: no concept of rightness, goodness, virtue, justice, benevolence, or the negative correlates." Marcia Bacon, Varieties of Ethics of Virtue, 22 AM. PHIL. Q. 47 (1985). Second, a "virtuous person is motivated by the desires mentioned above and has certain moral concepts in the abstract: justice, equity, charity, benevolence, etc., but not rightness, goodness, virtue, obligation." Id. Third, "the virtuous person not only has a conception of the first-order virtues; he also has a regard for them and is sometimes motivated by a wish to act justly, honestly, etc." Id. at 48. Fourth, "[t]he virtuous person has conceptions of first-order virtues and of higher-order virtues but is motivated by thoughts about first-order virtues only." Id. Fifth, "the virtuous person has conceptions of all orders of virtue and wants to be virtuous (do what is right) as well as to act V-ly [virtuously]. But does not have any beliefs to the effect that he ought to be virtuous." Id. Sixth, "[t]he virtuous person is just like the one in (5) except that she wants to continue to be V (act V-ly) or to do what is right." Id.
46. See JOHN FINNIS, NATURAL LAW AND NATURAL RIGHTS 23 (1980) for a discussion of human flourishing.
47. John R. Boatright, Aristotle Meets Wall Street: The Case for Virtue Ethics in Business, 5 BUS. ETHICS Q. 353, 355 (1995).
48. See SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 196.
49. THE VIRTUES: CONTEMPORARY ESSAYS ON MORAL CHARACTER, supra note 17, at 17.
50. THE VIRTUES: CONTEMPORARY ESSAYS ON MORAL CHARACTER, supra note 17, at 16.
51. LAWRENCE KOHLBERG, THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODES OF MORAL THINKING AND CHOICE IN THE YEARS 10 TO 16 (1958) (published Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago).
52. For a review of Kohlberg's work see LAWRENCE KOHLBERG, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Vol. II (1984). See also JAMES R. REST, MORAL DEVELOPMENT ADVANCES IN RESEARCH AND THEORY (1986).
53. For a review of Kohlberg's work see LAWRENCE KOHLBERG, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Vol. II (1984). See also JAMES R. REST, MORAL DEVELOPMENT ADVANCES IN RESEARCH AND THEORY (1986).
54. Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and of Morality, in STAGE THEORIES OF COGNITIVE AND MORAL DEVELOPMENTS: CRITICISMS AND APPLICATION 52 (1978).
55. MARY FIELD BELENKY ET. AL., WOMEN'S WAY OF KNOWING (1986).
56. ROBERT L. SELMAN, THE GROWTH OF INTERPERSONAL UNDERSTANDING (1980).
57. It has been argued that Aristotle can be used in feminist philosophy because he actually looked at the human condition. "Aristotelian 'tough-mindedness' on the varieties of the human condition, coupled with the unifying classical vision of citizenship, breaks the liberal frame and provides a model of a good life unavailable in other moral traditions, a model from which answers to the puzzles of modern feminism may be drawn." Linda R. Hirshman, The Book of A, 70 TEX. L. REV. 971, 972 (1992).
58. Denis Collins, Aristotle and Business, 6 J. BUS. ETHICS 567, 571 (1987)
59. (citing ARISTOTLE, POLITICS, supra note 23, at 1280(a30).
60. Solomon, Corporate Roles, supra note 14, at 322.
61. For two quite different reviews of Solomon's book see Boatright, supra note 36 and Jeffrey Nesteruk, Law and the Virtues, 5 BUS. ETHICS Q. 361 (1995) .
62. See Solomon, Corporate Roles, supra note 14, at 318; Sommers, supra note 13; Art Wolfe, Reflections on Business Ethics: What Is It? What Causes It and, What Should a Course in Business Ethics Include?, 1 BUS. ETHICS Q. 409 (1991).
63. See Solomon, Corporate Roles, supra note 14, at 318; Sommers, supra note 13; Art Wolfe, Reflections on Business Ethics: What Is It? What Causes It and, What Should a Course in Business Ethics Include?, 1 BUS. ETHICS Q. 409 (1991).
64. See Solomon, Corporate Roles, supra note 14, at 318; Sommers, supra note 13; Art Wolfe, Reflections on Business Ethics: What Is It? What Causes It and, What Should a Course in Business Ethics Include?, 1 BUS. ETHICS Q. 409 (1991).
65. According to Pincoffs, persons in this complex social environment need not only be rule abiding but rule responsible because "rules, which might be distinguished from others by being called 'obligations,' rest on tacit or explicit commitment to do or refrain and require constant interpretation, since the implications of our commitments in future contingencies are often far from clear at the time when we make them (e.g., 'Love, honor, and obey ... help you get started')." PINCOFFS, supra note 3, at 29.
66. Daryl Koehn, A Role for Virtue Ethics in the Analysis of Business Practice, 5 BUS. ETHICS. Q. 533, 536-37 (1995).
67. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7.
68. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 103.
69. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 103-04.
70. While a footnote is really not necessary here since all readers will have experience with the popular metaphors, the impact of the metaphors on our view of business may not be as recognizable. See SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 22-100 for an enlightening discussion on the use of amoral or immoral metaphors in business and its resulting impact.
71. See MARK JOHNSON, MORAL IMAGINATION 31, 35, 238 (1993).
72. Solomon cites MICHAEL LEWIS, LIAR'S POKER (1989). JAMES STEWART, DEN OF THIEVES (1990) also reflects a similar theme.
73. Solomon cites MICHAEL LEWIS, LIAR'S POKER (1989). JAMES STEWART, DEN OF THIEVES (1990) also reflects a similar theme.
74. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 19.
75. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 106.
76. Solomon argues "[t]he very structure of our society, its ample leisure and personality, are created by business, by the way business spurs and makes productivity possible and the way it distributes the goods throughout society." Id. at 123.
77. This is recognized in the "stakeholder" approach used by many business ethicists.
78. As opposed to a game or a contract.
79. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 122.
80. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 146.
81. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 152.
82. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 153-90.
83. See QUALITY, PRODUCTIVITY AND INNOVATION: STRATEGIES FOR GAINING COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE (Y.K. Shetty & Vernon M. Buehler eds., 1987).
84. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 192.
85. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 210.
86. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 209.
87. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 213
88. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 215.
89. A most important virtue for Aristotle was friendship. Aristotle distinguishes, however, between "utility" friendship and "social" friendship, with a much stronger duty toward to the latter. See ARISTOTLE, NICOMACHEAN ETHICS, supra note 9, at book VIII.
90. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 220.
91. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 221-22.
92. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 223.
93. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 226.
94. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 228.
95. ROBERT C. SOLOMON, A PASSION FOR JUSTICE 232-33 (1990).
96. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 230 (citing Lawrence A. Blum, Compassion, in EXPLAINING EMOTIONS (Amelie Rorty ed., 1980)).
97. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 230 (citing Lawrence A. Blum, Compassion, in EXPLAINING EMOTIONS (Amelie Rorty ed., 1980)).
98. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 233-34.
99. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 238-39.
100. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 240-41.
101. Solomon also discusses the vices of envy and resentment and the importance of saints, rogues and clowns." SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 246-51.
102. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 196.
103. SOLOMON, ETHICS AND EXCELLENCE, supra note 7, at 206.