Nongovernmental organizations, micro-credit, and empowerment of women

Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

Volumn 554, Issue , 1997, Pages 150-165

  Fernando, Jude L ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040007405     PISSN: 00027162     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0002716297554001010     Document Type: Article

References (69)

1. Amartya Sen and Jean Dreze, India Economic Development and Social Opportunity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 178. See also Naila Kabeer, Reversed Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought (London: Verso, 1994).
2. Amartya Sen and Jean Dreze, India Economic Development and Social Opportunity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 178. See also Naila Kabeer, Reversed Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought (London: Verso, 1994).
3. Kamaladevi Chattophadhya, Indian Women Battle for Freedom (Delhi: Abhinav, 1983), p. 98; J. Liddle and Ramma Joshi, Daughters of Independence: Class, Caste, Gender in India (London: Zed Books, 1986); K. Jayawardana, Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World (London: Zed Books, 1988).
4. Kamaladevi Chattophadhya, Indian Women Battle for Freedom (Delhi: Abhinav, 1983), p. 98; J. Liddle and Ramma Joshi, Daughters of Independence: Class, Caste, Gender in India (London: Zed Books, 1986); K. Jayawardana, Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World (London: Zed Books, 1988).
5. Kamaladevi Chattophadhya, Indian Women Battle for Freedom (Delhi: Abhinav, 1983), p. 98; J. Liddle and Ramma Joshi, Daughters of Independence: Class, Caste, Gender in India (London: Zed Books, 1986); K. Jayawardana, Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World (London: Zed Books, 1988).
6. R. W. Connell, "The State, Gender and Sexual Politics: Theory and Appraisal," Theory and Society, 19(9):506-45 (1990).
7. For debate on WID, see Ester Boserup, Women's Role in Economic Development (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1976); I. Tinker and M. Bramsen, eds., Women and World Development (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1976).
8. For debate on WID, see Ester Boserup, Women's Role in Economic Development (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1976); I. Tinker and M. Bramsen, eds., Women and World Development (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1976).
9. B. Rogers, The Domestication of Women: Discrimination in Developing Societies (London: Kogan Press, 1980), cited in Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 25.
10. B. Rogers, The Domestication of Women: Discrimination in Developing Societies (London: Kogan Press, 1980), cited in Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 25.
11. Ibid.
12. G. S. Backer, A Treatise on the Family (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); Louise Fresco, "Food Security and Women: Implications for Agricultural Research" (Paper delivered at the International Conference on Women's Role in Food Sufficiency and Food Strategies, Paris, 14-19 Jan. 1985).
13. G. S. Backer, A Treatise on the Family (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); Louise Fresco, "Food Security and Women: Implications for Agricultural Research" (Paper delivered at the International Conference on Women's Role in Food Sufficiency and Food Strategies, Paris, 14-19 Jan. 1985).
14. E. P. Faqhunda, "The Nuclear Household Model in Nigerian Public and Private Policy: Colonial Legacy and Socio-Political Implications," Development and Change, 18:281-95; N. Folber, "Household Production in the Philippines: A Non-Neoclassical Approach," Economic Development and Cultural Change, 32:303-430 .
15. E. P. Faqhunda, "The Nuclear Household Model in Nigerian Public and Private Policy: Colonial Legacy and Socio-Political Implications," Development and Change, 18:281-95; N. Folber, "Household Production in the Philippines: A Non-Neoclassical Approach," Economic Development and Cultural Change, 32:303-430 .
16. J. Tendler, "What Happened to Poverty Alleviation?" (Paper delivered at the World Conference on Micro-Enterprises, Washington, DC, 6 June 1988).
17. Kabeer, Reversed Realities; J. S. Jauqette, "Women and Modernization Theory: A Decade of Feminist Criticism," World Politics, 34(1):14-26; A. Bandarage, "Women in Development: Liberalism, Marxism and Marxist-Feminism," Development and Change, 15(3):495-515 (1984).
18. Kabeer, Reversed Realities; J. S. Jauqette, "Women and Modernization Theory: A Decade of Feminist Criticism," World Politics, 34(1):14-26; A. Bandarage, "Women in Development: Liberalism, Marxism and Marxist-Feminism," Development and Change, 15(3):495-515 (1984).
19. Kabeer, Reversed Realities; J. S. Jauqette, "Women and Modernization Theory: A Decade of Feminist Criticism," World Politics, 34(1):14-26; A. Bandarage, "Women in Development: Liberalism, Marxism and Marxist-Feminism," Development and Change, 15(3):495-515 (1984).
20. A. Jagger, Politics and Human Nature (Brighton: Harvester, 1983); Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 28.
21. A. Jagger, Politics and Human Nature (Brighton: Harvester, 1983); Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 28.
22. L. Benaria and G. Sen, "Class and Gender Inequalities and Women's Role in Economic Development: Theoretical and Practical Implications," Feminist Studies, 8(1):157-76 (1992); Kabeer, Reversed Realities.
23. L. Benaria and G. Sen, "Class and Gender Inequalities and Women's Role in Economic Development: Theoretical and Practical Implications," Feminist Studies, 8(1):157-76 (1992); Kabeer, Reversed Realities.
24. Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 84.
25. Other approaches seeking to accommodate these criticisms are the gender role framework, the triple role framework, and social relations analysis. The gender role framework is based on neoclassical models that emphasize differences in bargaining power within households. This approach, however, is focused on efficiency of resource allocation rather than empowerment. K. Cloud, "Women's Productivity in Agricultural Systems: Considerations for Project Design," in Gender Roles in Development Projects, ed. C. Overholt et al. (West Hartford, CT: Kumarain Press, 1984). The triple role framework draws attention to the multiple demands placed on women, which include their productive, reproductive, child-care, and collective activities. C. Moser, "Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Needs," World Development, 17(11):1799-1825. As Kabeer noted, a weakness in Moser's triple role framework is that it failed to "integrate the ways in which social differences between women structure the performance of their roles." Naila Kabeer, "Triple Roles, Gender Roles, Social Relations: The Political Sub-Text of Gender Training" (Discussion paper, Institute for Development Studies, Sussex, United Kingdom, 1992), p. 13. Social relations analysis drew attention to the distribution of power between men and women as influenced by socially constructed institutional arrangements. K. Young, "Introduction," in Women's Concerns and Planning: A Methodological Approach for Their Integration into Local, Regional and National Planning (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 1984); R. Whitehead, "Gender-Aware Planning in Agricultural Production" (Module 7, Gender and Third World Development Modules, Institute for Development Studies, Sussex, United Kingdom, 1984). The significant aspect of social relations analysis is that it sees "the issue of strategic gender interests as an issue of politics rather than of better information ([gender role framework]) or more enlightened planning ([triple role framework])." Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 37.
26. Other approaches seeking to accommodate these criticisms are the gender role framework, the triple role framework, and social relations analysis. The gender role framework is based on neoclassical models that emphasize differences in bargaining power within households. This approach, however, is focused on efficiency of resource allocation rather than empowerment. K. Cloud, "Women's Productivity in Agricultural Systems: Considerations for Project Design," in Gender Roles in Development Projects, ed. C. Overholt et al. (West Hartford, CT: Kumarain Press, 1984). The triple role framework draws attention to the multiple demands placed on women, which include their productive, reproductive, child-care, and collective activities. C. Moser, "Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Needs," World Development, 17(11):1799-1825. As Kabeer noted, a weakness in Moser's triple role framework is that it failed to "integrate the ways in which social differences between women structure the performance of their roles." Naila Kabeer, "Triple Roles, Gender Roles, Social Relations: The Political Sub-Text of Gender Training" (Discussion paper, Institute for Development Studies, Sussex, United Kingdom, 1992), p. 13. Social relations analysis drew attention to the distribution of power between men and women as influenced by socially constructed institutional arrangements. K. Young, "Introduction," in Women's Concerns and Planning: A Methodological Approach for Their Integration into Local, Regional and National Planning (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 1984); R. Whitehead, "Gender-Aware Planning in Agricultural Production" (Module 7, Gender and Third World Development Modules, Institute for Development Studies, Sussex, United Kingdom, 1984). The significant aspect of social relations analysis is that it sees "the issue of strategic gender interests as an issue of politics rather than of better information ([gender role framework]) or more enlightened planning ([triple role framework])." Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 37.
27. Other approaches seeking to accommodate these criticisms are the gender role framework, the triple role framework, and social relations analysis. The gender role framework is based on neoclassical models that emphasize differences in bargaining power within households. This approach, however, is focused on efficiency of resource allocation rather than empowerment. K. Cloud, "Women's Productivity in Agricultural Systems: Considerations for Project Design," in Gender Roles in Development Projects, ed. C. Overholt et al. (West Hartford, CT: Kumarain Press, 1984). The triple role framework draws attention to the multiple demands placed on women, which include their productive, reproductive, child-care, and collective activities. C. Moser, "Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Needs," World Development, 17(11):1799-1825. As Kabeer noted, a weakness in Moser's triple role framework is that it failed to "integrate the ways in which social differences between women structure the performance of their roles." Naila Kabeer, "Triple Roles, Gender Roles, Social Relations: The Political Sub-Text of Gender Training" (Discussion paper, Institute for Development Studies, Sussex, United Kingdom, 1992), p. 13. Social relations analysis drew attention to the distribution of power between men and women as influenced by socially constructed institutional arrangements. K. Young, "Introduction," in Women's Concerns and Planning: A Methodological Approach for Their Integration into Local, Regional and National Planning (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 1984); R. Whitehead, "Gender-Aware Planning in Agricultural Production" (Module 7, Gender and Third World Development Modules, Institute for Development Studies, Sussex, United Kingdom, 1984). The significant aspect of social relations analysis is that it sees "the issue of strategic gender interests as an issue of politics rather than of better information ([gender role framework]) or more enlightened planning ([triple role framework])." Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 37.
28. Other approaches seeking to accommodate these criticisms are the gender role framework, the triple role framework, and social relations analysis. The gender role framework is based on neoclassical models that emphasize differences in bargaining power within households. This approach, however, is focused on efficiency of resource allocation rather than empowerment. K. Cloud, "Women's Productivity in Agricultural Systems: Considerations for Project Design," in Gender Roles in Development Projects, ed. C. Overholt et al. (West Hartford, CT: Kumarain Press, 1984). The triple role framework draws attention to the multiple demands placed on women, which include their productive, reproductive, child-care, and collective activities. C. Moser, "Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Needs," World Development, 17(11):1799-1825. As Kabeer noted, a weakness in Moser's triple role framework is that it failed to "integrate the ways in which social differences between women structure the performance of their roles." Naila Kabeer, "Triple Roles, Gender Roles, Social Relations: The Political Sub-Text of Gender Training" (Discussion paper, Institute for Development Studies, Sussex, United Kingdom, 1992), p. 13. Social relations analysis drew attention to the distribution of power between men and women as influenced by socially constructed institutional arrangements. K. Young, "Introduction," in Women's Concerns and Planning: A Methodological Approach for Their Integration into Local, Regional and National Planning (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 1984); R. Whitehead, "Gender-Aware Planning in Agricultural Production" (Module 7, Gender and Third World Development Modules, Institute for Development Studies, Sussex, United Kingdom, 1984). The significant aspect of social relations analysis is that it sees "the issue of strategic gender interests as an issue of politics rather than of better information ([gender role framework]) or more enlightened planning ([triple role framework])." Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 37.
29. Other approaches seeking to accommodate these criticisms are the gender role framework, the triple role framework, and social relations analysis. The gender role framework is based on neoclassical models that emphasize differences in bargaining power within households. This approach, however, is focused on efficiency of resource allocation rather than empowerment. K. Cloud, "Women's Productivity in Agricultural Systems: Considerations for Project Design," in Gender Roles in Development Projects, ed. C. Overholt et al. (West Hartford, CT: Kumarain Press, 1984). The triple role framework draws attention to the multiple demands placed on women, which include their productive, reproductive, child-care, and collective activities. C. Moser, "Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Needs," World Development, 17(11):1799-1825. As Kabeer noted, a weakness in Moser's triple role framework is that it failed to "integrate the ways in which social differences between women structure the performance of their roles." Naila Kabeer, "Triple Roles, Gender Roles, Social Relations: The Political Sub-Text of Gender Training" (Discussion paper, Institute for Development Studies, Sussex, United Kingdom, 1992), p. 13. Social relations analysis drew attention to the distribution of power between men and women as influenced by socially constructed institutional arrangements. K. Young, "Introduction," in Women's Concerns and Planning: A Methodological Approach for Their Integration into Local, Regional and National Planning (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 1984); R. Whitehead, "Gender-Aware Planning in Agricultural Production" (Module 7, Gender and Third World Development Modules, Institute for Development Studies, Sussex, United Kingdom, 1984). The significant aspect of social relations analysis is that it sees "the issue of strategic gender interests as an issue of politics rather than of better information ([gender role framework]) or more enlightened planning ([triple role framework])." Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 37.
30. Other approaches seeking to accommodate these criticisms are the gender role framework, the triple role framework, and social relations analysis. The gender role framework is based on neoclassical models that emphasize differences in bargaining power within households. This approach, however, is focused on efficiency of resource allocation rather than empowerment. K. Cloud, "Women's Productivity in Agricultural Systems: Considerations for Project Design," in Gender Roles in Development Projects, ed. C. Overholt et al. (West Hartford, CT: Kumarain Press, 1984). The triple role framework draws attention to the multiple demands placed on women, which include their productive, reproductive, child-care, and collective activities. C. Moser, "Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Needs," World Development, 17(11):1799-1825. As Kabeer noted, a weakness in Moser's triple role framework is that it failed to "integrate the ways in which social differences between women structure the performance of their roles." Naila Kabeer, "Triple Roles, Gender Roles, Social Relations: The Political Sub-Text of Gender Training" (Discussion paper, Institute for Development Studies, Sussex, United Kingdom, 1992), p. 13. Social relations analysis drew attention to the distribution of power between men and women as influenced by socially constructed institutional arrangements. K. Young, "Introduction," in Women's Concerns and Planning: A Methodological Approach for Their Integration into Local, Regional and National Planning (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 1984); R. Whitehead, "Gender-Aware Planning in Agricultural Production" (Module 7, Gender and Third World Development Modules, Institute for Development Studies, Sussex, United Kingdom, 1984). The significant aspect of social relations analysis is that it sees "the issue of strategic gender interests as an issue of politics rather than of better information ([gender role framework]) or more enlightened planning ([triple role framework])." Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 37.
31. Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 299.
32. The difference between women's strategic and practical interests is based on the specificity of the positioning of women in the society on the basis of gender attributes. According to Molyneux, strategic interests are derived from the "analysis of their subordination and from the formulation of an alternative, more satisfactory set of arrangements than those which exist." Practical interests are derived from "concrete conditions of women's positioning within the gender division of labor. The practical interests are usually a response to immediate perceived need. And they do not generally entail a strategic goal such as women's emancipation or gender equality." The micro-enterprises, by responding to practical interests, are believed to be capable of meeting strategic interests, thereby transforming women's subordinate position. M. Molyneux, "Mobilization Without Emancipation: Women's Interests, State and Revolution in Nicaragua," Feminist Studies, 11(2):232 (1992).
33. Ibid.
34. Srilatha Batliwala, "Meaning of Empowerment: New Concepts Form Action," in Population Policies Reconsidered: Health Empowerment and Rights, ed. Gita Sen, Adrienne Germaine, and Lincoln Chen (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), p. 129.
35. Ibid., pp. 130-31.
36. Ibid., p. 131.
37. Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 299.
38. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Seasbury Press, 1968), pp. 32-33.
39. Ibid., p. 47.
40. Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 229; Transition in Rural Bangladesh (Dhaka: Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee, 1996), p. 80.
41. Kabeer, Reversed Realities, p. 229; Transition in Rural Bangladesh (Dhaka: Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee, 1996), p. 80.
42. Martha Alter Chen, A Quiet Revolution: Women in Transition in Rural Bangladesh (Dhaka: Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee, 1996), p. 80.
43. Targeted Programs for the Poor During Structural Adjustment (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1988), p. 1.
44. The OXFAM Poverty Report (London: OXFAM, 1995), p. 77.
45. This school of thought is a product of three articles influenced by the institutional tradition of development economics. Steven Cheung, Theory of Tenancy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969); George Akelof, "The Markets for 'Lemons': Quantitative Uncertainty and Market Mechanisms," Quarterly Journal of Economics, pp. 488-500 (1984); Joseph Stiglitz, "Incentives and Risk in Share Cropping," Review of Economic Studies, 41:219-55 (1974).
46. This school of thought is a product of three articles influenced by the institutional tradition of development economics. Steven Cheung, Theory of Tenancy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969); George Akelof, "The Markets for 'Lemons': Quantitative Uncertainty and Market Mechanisms," Quarterly Journal of Economics, pp. 488-500 (1984); Joseph Stiglitz, "Incentives and Risk in Share Cropping," Review of Economic Studies, 41:219-55 (1974).
47. This school of thought is a product of three articles influenced by the institutional tradition of development economics. Steven Cheung, Theory of Tenancy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969); George Akelof, "The Markets for 'Lemons': Quantitative Uncertainty and Market Mechanisms," Quarterly Journal of Economics, pp. 488-500 (1984); Joseph Stiglitz, "Incentives and Risk in Share Cropping," Review of Economic Studies, 41:219-55 (1974).
48. Karla Hoff, Avishay Braverman, and Joseph E. Stiglitz. The Economics of Rural Organization: Theory, Practice, and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
49. J. D. Von Pishke et al., eds., Rural Financial Markets in Developing Countries (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983).
50. Stiglitz et al., Theory of Economic Organization, p. 9.
51. Avishay Braverman and Luis Guasch, "Administrative Failures in Government Credit Programs," in The Economics of Rural Organization: Theory, Practice, and Policy, ed. Karla Hoff, Avishay Braverman, and Joseph E. Stiglitz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 60.
52. Ibid., p. 2.
53. A. Escobar, "Discourse and Power in Development: Michel Foucault and the Relevance of His Work to the Third World," Alternatives, no. 10, pp. 387-90 (1994).
54. Susan Gold Mark and Jay Rosengard, Manual for Evaluating Small-Scale Enterprise Development Projects, AID Program Design and Evaluation Report no. 6 (Washington, DC: Agency for International Development, 1985).
55. Stephen Devereux, "Collection of Production and Income Data: A Commentary," in Data Needs for Food Policy and Household Surveys, ed. Joachim Von Braun and Detle Puetz (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1993), pp. 202-7.
56. Carl Liedholm, Data Collection Strategies for Small Scale Industry Surveys (Bethesda, MD: Development Alternatives, 1991).
57. Harold Alderman, "Obtaining Useful Data on Household Incomes from Surveys," in Data Needs for Food Policy in Developing Countries: New Directions for Household Surveys, ed. J. Von Braun and Detle Puetz (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Institute, 1993).
58. Mark Pitt and Shaidur Khandkar, "The Impact of Group-Based Credit Programs on Poor Households in Bangladesh: Does the Gender of Participants Matter?" (Manuscript, n.p., 1995); idem, "The Household and Intrahousehold Impact of the Grameen Bank and Similar Credit Programs in Bangladesh" (Manuscript, n.p., 1995).
59. Mark Pitt and Shaidur Khandkar, "The Impact of Group-Based Credit Programs on Poor Households in Bangladesh: Does the Gender of Participants Matter?" (Manuscript, n.p., 1995); idem, "The Household and Intrahousehold Impact of the Grameen Bank and Similar Credit Programs in Bangladesh" (Manuscript, n.p., 1995).
60. Pitt and Khandkar, "Impact of Group-Based Credit Programs"; idem, "Household and Intrahousehold Impact."
61. Pitt and Khandkar, "Impact of Group-Based Credit Programs"; idem, "Household and Intrahousehold Impact."
62. Ann Marie Goetz and Rina Sen Gupta, "Who Takes Credit? Gender, Power, and Control over Loan Use in Rural Credit Programs in Bangladesh," World Development, 24:45-63 (Jan. 1996).
63. For discussion on the welfare state and the family, see E. Wilson, Women and the Welfare State (London: Tavistock, 1977); Cynthia Cockburn, The Local State: Management of Cities and People (London: Pluto Press, 1977).
64. For discussion on the welfare state and the family, see E. Wilson, Women and the Welfare State (London: Tavistock, 1977); Cynthia Cockburn, The Local State: Management of Cities and People (London: Pluto Press, 1977).
65. Goetz and Sen Gupta, "Who Takes Credit?" p. 54.
66. "Grameen Bank Phase III Project: Project Completion Mission, Final Report" (Grameen Bank, 1995), pp. i-ii.
67. Ibid., p. iv.
68. Ibid., p. 6.
69. Ibid.