The reconstitution of American federalism? The Rehnquist Court and federal-state relations, 1991-1997

Publius: The Journal of Federalism

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 189-215

  Brisbin, Richard A ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039988207     PISSN: 00485950     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029947     Document Type: Article

References (158)

1. David G. Savage, "High Court Bolsters States' Rights," State Legislatures 23 (September 1997): 11-13; James L. Huffman, "Lopez Pop Feds' Ballooning Power," National Law Journal 17 (May 1995): A21.
2. David G. Savage, "High Court Bolsters States' Rights," State Legislatures 23 (September 1997): 11-13; James L. Huffman, "Lopez Pop Feds' Ballooning Power," National Law Journal 17 (May 1995): A21.
3. Christopher A. Marks, "United States Term Limits v. Thornton and United States v. Lopez: The Supreme Court Resuscitates the Tenth Amendment," University of Colorado Law Review 68 (Spring 1997): 560-569.
4. The three questions are derived from Walter Murphy, James E. Fleming, and Sotorios A. Barber, American Constitutional Interpretation, 2nd ed. (Westbury, NY: Foundation Press, 1995), pp. 16-19.
5. Austin Sarat and Thomas R. Kearns, "Beyond the Great Divide: Forms of Legal Scholarship and Everyday Life," Law in Everday Life, eds. Austin Sarat and Thomas R. Kearns (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), pp. 21-32, 41-54. See Also John Brigham, The Constitution of Rights: Beyond the Politics of Interests (New York: New York University Press, 1996); William F. Harris II, The Interpretable Constitution (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 7-32; Alan Hunt, Explorations in Law and Society: Toward a Constitute Theory of Law (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 301-333.
6. Austin Sarat and Thomas R. Kearns, "Beyond the Great Divide: Forms of Legal Scholarship and Everyday Life," Law in Everday Life, eds. Austin Sarat and Thomas R. Kearns (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), pp. 21-32, 41-54. See Also John Brigham, The Constitution of Rights: Beyond the Politics of Interests (New York: New York University Press, 1996); William F. Harris II, The Interpretable Constitution (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 7-32; Alan Hunt, Explorations in Law and Society: Toward a Constitute Theory of Law (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 301-333.
7. Austin Sarat and Thomas R. Kearns, "Beyond the Great Divide: Forms of Legal Scholarship and Everyday Life," Law in Everday Life, eds. Austin Sarat and Thomas R. Kearns (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), pp. 21-32, 41-54. See Also John Brigham, The Constitution of Rights: Beyond the Politics of Interests (New York: New York University Press, 1996); William F. Harris II, The Interpretable Constitution (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 7-32; Alan Hunt, Explorations in Law and Society: Toward a Constitute Theory of Law (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 301-333.
8. Austin Sarat and Thomas R. Kearns, "Beyond the Great Divide: Forms of Legal Scholarship and Everyday Life," Law in Everday Life, eds. Austin Sarat and Thomas R. Kearns (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), pp. 21-32, 41-54. See Also John Brigham, The Constitution of Rights: Beyond the Politics of Interests (New York: New York University Press, 1996); William F. Harris II, The Interpretable Constitution (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 7-32; Alan Hunt, Explorations in Law and Society: Toward a Constitute Theory of Law (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 301-333.
9. The question answered in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, 1 Wheat. 304 (1816)
10. Abelman v. Booth, 21 How. 506 (1859); Cooper v. Aaron, 358 U.S. 1 (1958).
11. For examples of this conclusion by political scientists, see J. Woodford Howard, Jr., "Constitutional Power to Enforce Individual Rights: The Legacy of McCulloch v. Maryland," This Constitution 19 special issue (Fall 1991): 10-12; Alpheus Thomas Mason and William M. Beaney, The Supreme Court in a Free Society (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1968), pp. 96-102. Conservative legal scholars also reach this conclusion, even if they deplore its political consequences. See Robert Bork, The Tempting of America: The Political Seduction of the Law (New York: The Free Press, 1989), p. 57; Richard A. Epstein, "The Proper Scope of the Commerce Power," Virginia Law Review 73 (November 1987): 1387-1455, especially 1443, 1451.
12. For examples of this conclusion by political scientists, see J. Woodford Howard, Jr., "Constitutional Power to Enforce Individual Rights: The Legacy of McCulloch v. Maryland," This Constitution 19 special issue (Fall 1991): 10-12; Alpheus Thomas Mason and William M. Beaney, The Supreme Court in a Free Society (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1968), pp. 96-102. Conservative legal scholars also reach this conclusion, even if they deplore its political consequences. See Robert Bork, The Tempting of America: The Political Seduction of the Law (New York: The Free Press, 1989), p. 57; Richard A. Epstein, "The Proper Scope of the Commerce Power," Virginia Law Review 73 (November 1987): 1387-1455, especially 1443, 1451.
13. For examples of this conclusion by political scientists, see J. Woodford Howard, Jr., "Constitutional Power to Enforce Individual Rights: The Legacy of McCulloch v. Maryland," This Constitution 19 special issue (Fall 1991): 10-12; Alpheus Thomas Mason and William M. Beaney, The Supreme Court in a Free Society (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1968), pp. 96-102. Conservative legal scholars also reach this conclusion, even if they deplore its political consequences. See Robert Bork, The Tempting of America: The Political Seduction of the Law (New York: The Free Press, 1989), p. 57; Richard A. Epstein, "The Proper Scope of the Commerce Power," Virginia Law Review 73 (November 1987): 1387-1455, especially 1443, 1451.
14. For examples of this conclusion by political scientists, see J. Woodford Howard, Jr., "Constitutional Power to Enforce Individual Rights: The Legacy of McCulloch v. Maryland," This Constitution 19 special issue (Fall 1991): 10-12; Alpheus Thomas Mason and William M. Beaney, The Supreme Court in a Free Society (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1968), pp. 96-102. Conservative legal scholars also reach this conclusion, even if they deplore its political consequences. See Robert Bork, The Tempting of America: The Political Seduction of the Law (New York: The Free Press, 1989), p. 57; Richard A. Epstein, "The Proper Scope of the Commerce Power," Virginia Law Review 73 (November 1987): 1387-1455, especially 1443, 1451.
15. See for example, United States v. Darby Lumber Co., 312 U.S. 100 (1941)
16. Wickard v. Filburn, 317 U.S. 111 (1942)
17. Southern Pacific Co. v. Arizona, 325 U.S. 761 (1946)
18. H.P. Hood and Sons v. Dumond, 336 U.S. 525 (1949)
19. Maryland v. Wirtz, 392 U.S. 183 (1968)
20. Perez v. United States, 402 U.S. 146 (1971)
21. Hodel v. Virginia Surface Mining and Reclamation Ass'n., 452 U.S. 264 (1981).
22. 300 U.S. 379 (1937).
23. See South Carolina State Highway Dept. v. Barnwell Brothers, 303 U.S. 177 (1938)
24. Southern Pacific Co. v. Arizona, 325 U.S. 761 (1946)
25. Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc., 397 U.S. 137 (1970)
26. See the standards used in Dean Milk Co. v. Madison 340 U.S. 349 (1951)
27. Philadelphia v. New Jersey, 437 U.S. 617 (1978).
28. 10 331 U.S. 218 (1947).
29. For a discussion of this topic to the beginning of the Rehnquist Court, see Russell W. Galloway, "Means-Ends Scrutiny in American Constitutional Law," Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 21 (January 1988): 449-496; extended to 1991 in Richard A. Brisbin, Jr. and Edward V. Heck, "The Battle over Strict Scrutiny: Coalitional Conflict in the Rehnquist Court" Santa Clara Law Review 32 (1992): 1049-1105.
30. For a discussion of this topic to the beginning of the Rehnquist Court, see Russell W. Galloway, "Means-Ends Scrutiny in American Constitutional Law," Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 21 (January 1988): 449-496; extended to 1991 in Richard A. Brisbin, Jr. and Edward V. Heck, "The Battle over Strict Scrutiny: Coalitional Conflict in the Rehnquist Court" Santa Clara Law Review 32 (1992): 1049-1105.
31. 304 U.S. 64 (1938). On states' powers after the New Deal see also Stephen Gardbaum, "New Deal Constitutionalism and the Unshackling of the States," University of Chicago Law Review 64 (Spring 1997): 483-566.
32. 304 U.S. 64 (1938). On states' powers after the New Deal see also Stephen Gardbaum, "New Deal Constitutionalism and the Unshackling of the States," University of Chicago Law Review 64 (Spring 1997): 483-566.
33. See Timothy J. Conlan, New Federalism: Intergovernmental Reform from Nixon to Reagan (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1988).
34. 426 U.S. 833 (1976).
35. 469 U.S. 528 (1985).
36. 469 U.S. 528 (1985).
37. Brennan retired from the Court at the end of the 1989 term in July 1990; Marshall retired at the end of the 1990 term in July 1991. Support for the federal government in conflicts with the states as measured by the federalism score of the U.S. Supreme Court Database and reported in Lee Epstein, Jeffrey A. Segal, Harold J. Spaeth, and Thomas G. Walker, The Supreme Court Compendium: Data, Decisions, and Developments, 2nd ed. (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1996), pp. 452-455, indicates that Brennan supported the federal government in 67.0 percent of his votes, and Marshall supported the federal government in 67.5 percent of his votes Through July 1995, David Souter, Brennan's replacement, supported the federal government in 50.0 percent of his votes, and Clarence Thomas, Marshall's replacement, supported the federal government 45.8 percent of his votes. Also, at the end of the 1992 term, Byron White, who supported the federal government in 67.0 percent of his votes, retired and was, replaced by Ruth Ginsburg, who through July 1995 supported the federal government in 41.7 percent of her vote. At the end of the 1993 term, Harry Blackmun, who supported the federal government in 65.9 percent of his votes, retired and was replaced by Stephen Breyer, who through Jury 1995 supported the federal government in 57.1 percent of his votes.
38. Kathleen M. Sullivan, "Dueling Sovereignties: United States Term Limits v. Thornton," Harvard Law Review 109 (November 1995): 103.
39. Harris, The Interpretable Constitution, p. 144. See also Charles L. Black, Jr., Structure and Relationship in Constitutional Law (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969).
40. Harris, The Interpretable Constitution, p. 144. See also Charles L. Black, Jr., Structure and Relationship in Constitutional Law (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969).
41. Harris, Interpretable Constitution, pp. 152-158. Murphy, Fleming, and Barber, American Constitutional Interpretation, pp. 399-409, use the term "systemic structuralism" to label the same interpretive approach.
42. Harris, Interpretable Constitution, pp. 152-158. Murphy, Fleming, and Barber, American Constitutional Interpretation, pp. 399-409, use the term "systemic structuralism" to label the same interpretive approach.
43. 4 Wheat. 316 (1819).
44. Ibid., at 406, 408-9, 414-416, 421.
45. Harris, Interpretable Constitution, pp. 148-150. Murphy, Fleming, and Barber, American Constitutional Interpretation, pp. 399-409, use the more confusing term "textual structuralism" to label the same interpretive approach.
46. Harris, Interpretable Constitution, pp. 148-150. Murphy, Fleming, and Barber, American Constitutional Interpretation, pp. 399-409, use the more confusing term "textual structuralism" to label the same interpretive approach.
47. 11 Pet. 102 (1837).
48. William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England; Book the Fourth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1759), p. 162; Adam Smith, Lectures on Jurisprudence, eds. Ronald L. Meek, David D. Raphael, and Peter G. Stein, (1762-1763, 1766, reprint, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), pp. 5, 331-334, 398, 486-487.
49. William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England; Book the Fourth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1759), p. 162; Adam Smith, Lectures on Jurisprudence, eds. Ronald L. Meek, David D. Raphael, and Peter G. Stein, (1762-1763, 1766, reprint, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), pp. 5, 331-334, 398, 486-487.
50. 11 Pet., at 132-143.
51. 505 U.S. 144 (1992).
52. Ibid., at 155-183, 187-188.
53. 115 S. Ct. 1624 (1995).
54. Ibid., at 1626-1633.
55. Ibid., at 1657-1665 (Breyer, J., dissenting).
56. Ibid., at 1633-1634.
57. 117 S. Ct. 2365 (1997).
58. Ibid., at 2384.
59. Ibid., at 2369-2376.
60. Ibid., at 2401-2404 (Souter, J., dissenting).
61. Ibid., at 2369-2376.
62. Ibid., at 2376-2378.
63. Ibid., at 2386-2397 (Stevens, J., dissenting)
64. Ibid., at 2378-2379.
65. Ibid., at 2379-2384.
66. David M. O'Brien, "What Happened to 'Our Federalism'?" Journal of Law and Politics 9 (1993): 618-633; David M. O'Brien, "The Rehnquist Court and Federal Preemption: In Search of a Theory," Publius: The Journal of Federalism 23 (Fall 1993): 15-31.
67. David M. O'Brien, "What Happened to 'Our Federalism'?" Journal of Law and Politics 9 (1993): 618-633; David M. O'Brien, "The Rehnquist Court and Federal Preemption: In Search of a Theory," Publius: The Journal of Federalism 23 (Fall 1993): 15-31.
68. Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc., 397 U.S. 137 (1970). See the Rehnquist Court uses of it in Quill Corp. v. North Dakota, 504 U.S. 298 (1992); Wyoming v. Oklahoma, 502 U.S. 437 (1992); Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. Hunt, 504 U.S. 334 (1992); Fort Gratiot Sanitary Landfill, Inc. v. Michigan Dept of Revenue, 504 U.S. 353 (1992):
69. Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc., 397 U.S. 137 (1970). See the Rehnquist Court uses of it in Quill Corp. v. North Dakota, 504 U.S. 298 (1992); Wyoming v. Oklahoma, 502 U.S. 437 (1992); Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. Hunt, 504 U.S. 334 (1992); Fort Gratiot Sanitary Landfill, Inc. v. Michigan Dept of Revenue, 504 U.S. 353 (1992):
70. Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc., 397 U.S. 137 (1970). See the Rehnquist Court uses of it in Quill Corp. v. North Dakota, 504 U.S. 298 (1992); Wyoming v. Oklahoma, 502 U.S. 437 (1992); Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. Hunt, 504 U.S. 334 (1992); Fort Gratiot Sanitary Landfill, Inc. v. Michigan Dept of Revenue, 504 U.S. 353 (1992):
71. Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc., 397 U.S. 137 (1970). See the Rehnquist Court uses of it in Quill Corp. v. North Dakota, 504 U.S. 298 (1992); Wyoming v. Oklahoma, 502 U.S. 437 (1992); Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. Hunt, 504 U.S. 334 (1992); Fort Gratiot Sanitary Landfill, Inc. v. Michigan Dept of Revenue, 504 U.S. 353 (1992):
72. Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc., 397 U.S. 137 (1970). See the Rehnquist Court uses of it in Quill Corp. v. North Dakota, 504 U.S. 298 (1992); Wyoming v. Oklahoma, 502 U.S. 437 (1992); Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. Hunt, 504 U.S. 334 (1992); Fort Gratiot Sanitary Landfill, Inc. v. Michigan Dept of Revenue, 504 U.S. 353 (1992):
73. Oregon Waste Systems, Inc. v. Dept. Of Environmental Quality, 511 U.S. 93 (1994); C & A Carbone, Inc. v. Clarkstown, 511 U.S. 383 (1994); West Lynn Creamery v. Healy, 512 U.S. 186 (1994).
74. Oregon Waste Systems, Inc. v. Dept. Of Environmental Quality, 511 U.S. 93 (1994); C & A Carbone, Inc. v. Clarkstown, 511 U.S. 383 (1994); West Lynn Creamery v. Healy, 512 U.S. 186 (1994).
75. Oregon Waste Systems, Inc. v. Dept. Of Environmental Quality, 511 U.S. 93 (1994); C & A Carbone, Inc. v. Clarkstown, 511 U.S. 383 (1994); West Lynn Creamery v. Healy, 512 U.S. 186 (1994).
76. 117 S. Ct. 1590 (1997).
77. 379 U.S. 241 (1964).
78. Camps Newfound/Owatonna v. Town of Harrison, 117 S.Ct. at 1596-1602.
79. Ibid., at 1602-1608.
80. 117 S. Ct. 811 (1997).
81. Camps Newfound/Owatonna v. Town of Harrison, 117 S. Ct. at 1608-1614 (Scalia, J., dissenting).
82. California Division of Labor Standards Enforcement v. Dillingham Construction N.A. Inc., 117 S. Ct. 832 (1997).
83. Harris, Interpretable Constitution, 145, 147-148.
84. 117 S. Ct. at 830-1 (Scalia, J., concurring). For further discussion of Scalia's position, see Richard A. Brisbin, Jr., Justice Antonin Scalia and the Conservative Revival (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), pp. 135-141.
85. 115 S. Ct. 1842, 1875-1914 (1995) (Thomas, J., dissenting).
86. Compare John Taylor, Construction Construed, and Constitutions Vindicated (Richmond: Shepherd and Pollard, 1820); John Taylor, New Views of the Constitution of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Way and Gideon, 1823). See also "A Virginian's 'Amphictyon' Essays," and "Roane's 'Hampden' Essays," John Marshall's Defense of McCulloch v. Maryland, ed. Gerald Gunther (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1969), pp. 52-77, 106-154.
87. Compare John Taylor, Construction Construed, and Constitutions Vindicated (Richmond: Shepherd and Pollard, 1820); John Taylor, New Views of the Constitution of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Way and Gideon, 1823). See also "A Virginian's 'Amphictyon' Essays," and "Roane's 'Hampden' Essays," John Marshall's Defense of McCulloch v. Maryland, ed. Gerald Gunther (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1969), pp. 52-77, 106-154.
88. Compare John Taylor, Construction Construed, and Constitutions Vindicated (Richmond: Shepherd and Pollard, 1820); John Taylor, New Views of the Constitution of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Way and Gideon, 1823). See also "A Virginian's 'Amphictyon' Essays," and "Roane's 'Hampden' Essays," John Marshall's Defense of McCulloch v. Maryland, ed. Gerald Gunther (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1969), pp. 52-77, 106-154.
89. McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat., at 403-405.
90. United States Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton, 115 S. Ct. at 1857-1914 (Thomas, J., dissenting).
91. Camps Newfound/Owatonna v. Harrison, 117 S. Ct., at 1620-30 (Thomas, J., dissenting).
92. Printz v. United States, 117 S.Ct., at 2385-2386 (Thomas, J., concurring).
93. See Ex parte Virginia, 100 U.S. 339 (1879); South Carolina v. Katzenbach, 383 U.S. 301 (1966); Katzenbach v. Morgan, 384 U.S. 641 (1966); Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer, 427 U.S. 445 (1976).
94. See Ex parte Virginia, 100 U.S. 339 (1879); South Carolina v. Katzenbach, 383 U.S. 301 (1966); Katzenbach v. Morgan, 384 U.S. 641 (1966); Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer, 427 U.S. 445 (1976).
95. See Ex parte Virginia, 100 U.S. 339 (1879); South Carolina v. Katzenbach, 383 U.S. 301 (1966); Katzenbach v. Morgan, 384 U.S. 641 (1966); Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer, 427 U.S. 445 (1976).
96. See Ex parte Virginia, 100 U.S. 339 (1879); South Carolina v. Katzenbach, 383 U.S. 301 (1966); Katzenbach v. Morgan, 384 U.S. 641 (1966); Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer, 427 U.S. 445 (1976).
97. 117 S. Ct. 2157 (1997).
98. 494 U.S. 872, 879 (1990).
99. City of Borne v. Flores, 117 S. Ct. at 2167.
100. Ibid., at 2170, 2172.
101. Ibid., at 2176-85 (O'Connor, J., dissenting); Ibid., at 2185-86 (Souter, J., dissenting); Ibid., at 2186 (Breyer, J., dissenting).
102. Ibid., at 2176-85 (O'Connor, J., dissenting); Ibid., at 2185-86 (Souter, J., dissenting); Ibid., at 2186 (Breyer, J., dissenting).
103. Ibid., at 2176-85 (O'Connor, J., dissenting); Ibid., at 2185-86 (Souter, J., dissenting); Ibid., at 2186 (Breyer, J., dissenting).
104. Mark E. Rush, "From Shaw v. Reno to Miller v. Johnson: Minority Representation and State Compliance with the Voting Rights Act," Publius: The Journal of Federalism 25 (Summer 1995): 155-172, also points out that the Court has yet to set forth clear standards about what constitutes a valid claim of vote dilution and whether voting is an individual or a group right Rush claims that the Court seems to be waiting for Congress to clarify these issues.
105. Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993); Johnson v. DeGrandy, 512 U.S. 997 (1994); Miller v. Johnson, 515 U.S. 900 (1995); Bush v. Vera, 116 S. Ct. 1941 (1996); Shaw v. Hunt, 116 S. Ct. 1894 (1996).
106. Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993); Johnson v. DeGrandy, 512 U.S. 997 (1994); Miller v. Johnson, 515 U.S. 900 (1995); Bush v. Vera, 116 S. Ct. 1941 (1996); Shaw v. Hunt, 116 S. Ct. 1894 (1996).
107. Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993); Johnson v. DeGrandy, 512 U.S. 997 (1994); Miller v. Johnson, 515 U.S. 900 (1995); Bush v. Vera, 116 S. Ct. 1941 (1996); Shaw v. Hunt, 116 S. Ct. 1894 (1996).
108. Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993); Johnson v. DeGrandy, 512 U.S. 997 (1994); Miller v. Johnson, 515 U.S. 900 (1995); Bush v. Vera, 116 S. Ct. 1941 (1996); Shaw v. Hunt, 116 S. Ct. 1894 (1996).
109. Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993); Johnson v. DeGrandy, 512 U.S. 997 (1994); Miller v. Johnson, 515 U.S. 900 (1995); Bush v. Vera, 116 S. Ct. 1941 (1996); Shaw v. Hunt, 116 S. Ct. 1894 (1996).
110. Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. at 2824-30. The racial neutrality principle is detailed in
111. City of Richmond v. J. A. Croson Co., 488 U.S. 469, 493-498 (1989).
112. 117 S. Ct. 1925 (1997).
113. 478 U.S. 30 (1986).
114. Abrams v. Johnson, 117 S. Ct. at 1943-1951 (Breyer, J., dissenting).
115. 117 S. Ct. 2186 (1997).
116. Ibid., at 2196-2199 (Scalia, J., dissenting).
117. Ibid., at 2192-2195.
118. 117 S. Ct. 1491, 1496-1503 (1997).
119. Ibid., at 1507-1512 (Stevens,J., dissenting).
120. Young v. Fordice, 117 S. Ct. 1228 (1997).
121. 134 U.S. 1 (1890).
122. See Daniel J. Meltzer, "The Seminole Decision and State Sovereign Immunity," Supreme Court Review (1996): 47-48.
123. 491 U.S. 1 (1989).
124. 79 116 S. Ct. 1114 (1996).
125. Litigation on federalism, the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, and the politics of the Indian gaming issue is discussed in Anne Merline McCulloch, "The Politics of Indian Gaming: Tribe/State Relations and American Federalism," Publius: The Journal of Federalism 24 (Summer 1994): 99-112.
126. Seminole Tribe of Florida v. Florida, 116 S. Ct. at 1119-1133.
127. Ibid., 1145-1185 (Souter, J., dissenting).
128. Ibid., 1133-1145 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
129. 117 S. Ct. 2028 (1997).
130. Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho, 117 S. Ct. at 2031-2040.
131. 209 U.S. 123 (1908).
132. Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho, 117 S. Ct. at 2040-2043.
133. Ibid., at 2043-2047 (O'Connor, J., concurring).
134. Ibid., at 2047-2059 (Souter, J., dissenting).
135. 501 U.S. 452 (1991).
136. However, the Rehnquist Court continued to apply established standards or levels of scrutiny in cases in which racial, gender, abortion rights, voter rights, and economic rights claims were lodged against the states. See, for example, Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993); United States v. Virginia, 116 S. Ct. 2264 (1996); Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvannia v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992); Timmons v. Twin Cities Area New Party, 117 S. Ct. 1365 (1997); FCC v. Beach Communications, Inc. 508 U.S. 307 (1993).
137. However, the Rehnquist Court continued to apply established standards or levels of scrutiny in cases in which racial, gender, abortion rights, voter rights, and economic rights claims were lodged against the states. See, for example, Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993); United States v. Virginia, 116 S. Ct. 2264 (1996); Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvannia v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992); Timmons v. Twin Cities Area New Party, 117 S. Ct. 1365 (1997); FCC v. Beach Communications, Inc. 508 U.S. 307 (1993).
138. However, the Rehnquist Court continued to apply established standards or levels of scrutiny in cases in which racial, gender, abortion rights, voter rights, and economic rights claims were lodged against the states. See, for example, Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993); United States v. Virginia, 116 S. Ct. 2264 (1996); Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvannia v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992); Timmons v. Twin Cities Area New Party, 117 S. Ct. 1365 (1997); FCC v. Beach Communications, Inc. 508 U.S. 307 (1993).
139. However, the Rehnquist Court continued to apply established standards or levels of scrutiny in cases in which racial, gender, abortion rights, voter rights, and economic rights claims were lodged against the states. See, for example, Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993); United States v. Virginia, 116 S. Ct. 2264 (1996); Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvannia v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992); Timmons v. Twin Cities Area New Party, 117 S. Ct. 1365 (1997); FCC v. Beach Communications, Inc. 508 U.S. 307 (1993).
140. However, the Rehnquist Court continued to apply established standards or levels of scrutiny in cases in which racial, gender, abortion rights, voter rights, and economic rights claims were lodged against the states. See, for example, Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993); United States v. Virginia, 116 S. Ct. 2264 (1996); Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvannia v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992); Timmons v. Twin Cities Area New Party, 117 S. Ct. 1365 (1997); FCC v. Beach Communications, Inc. 508 U.S. 307 (1993).
141. 117 S. Ct. 2258 (1997).
142. 117 S. Ct. 2293 (1997).
143. Washington v. Glucksberg, 117 S. Ct. at 2262-2275.
144. Vacco v. Quill, 117 S. Ct. at 2296-2302.
145. 117 S. Ct. 2072 (1997).
146. Ibid., at 2079-2087.
147. Ibid., at 2090-2098 (Breyer, J., dissenting).
148. 116 S. Ct. 1620 (1996).
149. Ibid., at 1624-1629.
150. Ibid., at 1629-1637 (Scalia, J., dissenting).
151. 117 S. Ct. 555 (1996).
152. Ibid., at 560-570.
153. Ibid., at 570-578 (Thomas, J., dissenting).
154. William J. Brennan, Jr., "State Constitutions and the Protection of Individual Rights," Harvard Law Review 90 (1977): 489.
155. New State Ice Co. v. Liebman, 285 U.S. 262, 311 (1932) (Brandeis, J., dissenting).
156. A point O'Connor also made in Gregory v. Ashcroft, 501 U.S. 452, 458-459 (1992).
157. Sandra Day O'Connor, "The Edward G. Donley Memorial Address," (presented at the West Virginia University, College of Law, Morgantown, WV, 19 November 1997).
158. Kansas v. Hendricks, 117 S. Ct. at 2098 (Breyer, J., dissenting).