Recasting federalism in Mexico

Publius: The Journal of Federalism

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 235-252

  Rodríguez, Victoria E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0039988152     PISSN: 00485950     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029950     Document Type: Article

References (91)

1. John Bailey, "Centralism and Political Change in Mexico: The Case of National Solidarity," Transforming State-Society Relations in Mexico: The National Solidarity Strategy, eds. Wayne Cornelius, Ann Craig, and Jonathan Fox (LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1994), pp. 97-119; Jorge Carpizo, El Presidencialismo Mexicano (Mexico City: Siglo XXI, 1978); Luis Javier Garrido, "The Crisis of Presidencialismo," Mexico's Alternative Political Futures, eds. Wayne Cornelius, Judith Gentleman, and Peter Smith (LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1989), pp. 417-434; Lorenzo Meyer, "Un Tema Añejo Siempre Actual: El Centro y las Regiones en la Historia Mexicana," Descentralización y Democracia en México, ed. Blanca Torres (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1986), pp. 23-32.
2. John Bailey, "Centralism and Political Change in Mexico: The Case of National Solidarity," Transforming State-Society Relations in Mexico: The National Solidarity Strategy, eds. Wayne Cornelius, Ann Craig, and Jonathan Fox (LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1994), pp. 97-119; Jorge Carpizo, El Presidencialismo Mexicano (Mexico City: Siglo XXI, 1978); Luis Javier Garrido, "The Crisis of Presidencialismo," Mexico's Alternative Political Futures, eds. Wayne Cornelius, Judith Gentleman, and Peter Smith (LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1989), pp. 417-434; Lorenzo Meyer, "Un Tema Añejo Siempre Actual: El Centro y las Regiones en la Historia Mexicana," Descentralización y Democracia en México, ed. Blanca Torres (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1986), pp. 23-32.
3. John Bailey, "Centralism and Political Change in Mexico: The Case of National Solidarity," Transforming State-Society Relations in Mexico: The National Solidarity Strategy, eds. Wayne Cornelius, Ann Craig, and Jonathan Fox (LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1994), pp. 97-119; Jorge Carpizo, El Presidencialismo Mexicano (Mexico City: Siglo XXI, 1978); Luis Javier Garrido, "The Crisis of Presidencialismo," Mexico's Alternative Political Futures, eds. Wayne Cornelius, Judith Gentleman, and Peter Smith (LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1989), pp. 417-434; Lorenzo Meyer, "Un Tema Añejo Siempre Actual: El Centro y las Regiones en la Historia Mexicana," Descentralización y Democracia en México, ed. Blanca Torres (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1986), pp. 23-32.
4. John Bailey, "Centralism and Political Change in Mexico: The Case of National Solidarity," Transforming State-Society Relations in Mexico: The National Solidarity Strategy, eds. Wayne Cornelius, Ann Craig, and Jonathan Fox (LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1994), pp. 97-119; Jorge Carpizo, El Presidencialismo Mexicano (Mexico City: Siglo XXI, 1978); Luis Javier Garrido, "The Crisis of Presidencialismo," Mexico's Alternative Political Futures, eds. Wayne Cornelius, Judith Gentleman, and Peter Smith (LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1989), pp. 417-434; Lorenzo Meyer, "Un Tema Añejo Siempre Actual: El Centro y las Regiones en la Historia Mexicana," Descentralización y Democracia en México, ed. Blanca Torres (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1986), pp. 23-32.
5. Miguel Acosta Romero, "Mexican Federalism: Conception and Reality," Public Administration Review 42 (September/October 1982): 401-402.
6. Centralism existed to the extent that the provinces of the new country were accountable to the central government in Spain, but operated within a federal system in the sense that the provinces were independent of one another. No province had control over any other.
7. See Claudio Véliz, The Centralist Tradition of Latin America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980).
8. Nettie Lee Benson, "Spain's Contribution to Federalism in Mexico," Essays in Mexican History: The Charles Wilson Hacket Memorial Volume, eds. Thomas Corner and Carlos Castañeda (Austin: University of Texas, 1958), p. 90.
9. Ibid., 90.
10. Ibid., 92. See also, Jaime Rodríguez, "The Struggle for the Nation: The First Centralist-Federalist Conflict in Mexico," The Americas 46 (January 1992): 1-22.
11. Ibid., 92. See also, Jaime Rodríguez, "The Struggle for the Nation: The First Centralist-Federalist Conflict in Mexico," The Americas 46 (January 1992): 1-22.
12. Benson, "Spain's Contribution to Federalism in Mexico"; Hira de Gortari Rabiela, "El Federalismo en la Construcción de los Estados,́ Mexico in the Age of Democratic Revolutions, 1750-1850, ed. Jaime Rodríguez (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994), pp. 209-222; Jaime Rodríguez, "The Struggle for the Nation."
13. Benson, "Spain's Contribution to Federalism in Mexico"; Hira de Gortari Rabiela, "El Federalismo en la Construcción de los Estados,́ Mexico in the Age of Democratic Revolutions, 1750-1850, ed. Jaime Rodríguez (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994), pp. 209-222; Jaime Rodríguez, "The Struggle for the Nation."
14. Benson, "Spain's Contribution to Federalism in Mexico"; Hira de Gortari Rabiela, "El Federalismo en la Construcción de los Estados,́ Mexico in the Age of Democratic Revolutions, 1750-1850, ed. Jaime Rodríguez (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994), pp. 209-222; Jaime Rodríguez, "The Struggle for the Nation."
15. Jaime Rodríguez, ed., Mexico in the Age of Democratic Revolutions, 1750-1850 (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994).
16. The 1821 discourse is especially illustrative for today's debates about the desirability of creating a new federalism in Mexico to restore the paramountcy of the regions over the center, and for the separation of powers. See, for example, Hira de Gortari Rabiela, "El Federalismo en la Construcción de los Estados."
17. Jaime Rodríguez, Mexico in the Age of Democratic Revolutions, 1750-1850, p. 132.
18. Lorenzo Meyer, "Un tema Añejo siempre Actual: El Centro y las Regiones en la Historia Mexicana," p. 31.
19. Garrido, "The Crisis of Presidencialismo," p. 422. See also Manuel González Oropeza, La Intervención Federal en la Desaparición de Poderes (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 1983).
20. Garrido, "The Crisis of Presidencialismo," p. 422. See also Manuel González Oropeza, La Intervención Federal en la Desaparición de Poderes (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 1983).
21. Garrido, "The Crisis of Presidencialismo," p. 424.
22. In 1989, Ernesto Ruffo Appel became the first member of the opposition PAN (Partido Actión National, National Action Party) to win a gubernatorial election. In 1992, Chihuahua became the second state to be governed by the PAN as a result of an electoral contest. Guanajuato was also governed by the PAN, but that was on an interim basis and the result of a different type of political negotiation. In the 1995 elections, Jalisco, Guanajuato, and Baja California (for the second time) were won by the PAN, and in the 1997 mid-term election, Querétaro and Nuevo León were added to the list of states governed by the PAN. Although it may be argued that these gubernatorial victories have weakened presidential control over the states, one might also argue that they are indicative of a strengthened presidency.
23. Victoria E. Rodríguez and Peter M. Ward, Political Change in Baja California: Democracy in the Making? Monograph Series, 40 (LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California - San Diego, 1994).
24. Victoria E. Rodríguez and Peter M. Ward, Policymaking, Politics, and Urban Governance in Chihuahua: The Experience of Recent Panista Governments (Austin: University of Texas at Austin, 1992); Rodríguez and Ward, Political Change in Baja California.
25. Victoria E. Rodríguez and Peter M. Ward, Policymaking, Politics, and Urban Governance in Chihuahua: The Experience of Recent Panista Governments (Austin: University of Texas at Austin, 1992); Rodríguez and Ward, Political Change in Baja California.
26. After Graham's and Fagen and Tuohy's early seminal work defined how relations between the center and local governments were conducted, little more was written, as virtually nothing changed. See Lawrence S. Graham, Mexican State Government: A Prefectural System in Action (Austin: University of Texas at Austin, 1971); Richard R. Fagen and William S. Tuohy, Politics and Privilege in a Mexican City (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972). See also Carlos Martínez Assad, ed., Municipios en Conflicto (Mexico City: UNAM, 1985); Carlos Martínez Assad and Alicia Ziccardi, "Política y Gestión Municipal en México," Descentralización y Democracia: Gobiernos Locales en América Latina, eds. Jordi Borja, et al., (Santiago de Chile: CLASCO, 1989), pp. 285-336.
27. After Graham's and Fagen and Tuohy's early seminal work defined how relations between the center and local governments were conducted, little more was written, as virtually nothing changed. See Lawrence S. Graham, Mexican State Government: A Prefectural System in Action (Austin: University of Texas at Austin, 1971); Richard R. Fagen and William S. Tuohy, Politics and Privilege in a Mexican City (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972). See also Carlos Martínez Assad, ed., Municipios en Conflicto (Mexico City: UNAM, 1985); Carlos Martínez Assad and Alicia Ziccardi, "Política y Gestión Municipal en México," Descentralización y Democracia: Gobiernos Locales en América Latina, eds. Jordi Borja, et al., (Santiago de Chile: CLASCO, 1989), pp. 285-336.
28. After Graham's and Fagen and Tuohy's early seminal work defined how relations between the center and local governments were conducted, little more was written, as virtually nothing changed. See Lawrence S. Graham, Mexican State Government: A Prefectural System in Action (Austin: University of Texas at Austin, 1971); Richard R. Fagen and William S. Tuohy, Politics and Privilege in a Mexican City (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972). See also Carlos Martínez Assad, ed., Municipios en Conflicto (Mexico City: UNAM, 1985); Carlos Martínez Assad and Alicia Ziccardi, "Política y Gestión Municipal en México," Descentralización y Democracia: Gobiernos Locales en América Latina, eds. Jordi Borja, et al., (Santiago de Chile: CLASCO, 1989), pp. 285-336.
29. After Graham's and Fagen and Tuohy's early seminal work defined how relations between the center and local governments were conducted, little more was written, as virtually nothing changed. See Lawrence S. Graham, Mexican State Government: A Prefectural System in Action (Austin: University of Texas at Austin, 1971); Richard R. Fagen and William S. Tuohy, Politics and Privilege in a Mexican City (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972). See also Carlos Martínez Assad, ed., Municipios en Conflicto (Mexico City: UNAM, 1985); Carlos Martínez Assad and Alicia Ziccardi, "Política y Gestión Municipal en México," Descentralización y Democracia: Gobiernos Locales en América Latina, eds. Jordi Borja, et al., (Santiago de Chile: CLASCO, 1989), pp. 285-336.
30. See, for example, Luis Aguilar Villanueva, "El Federalismo Mexicano: Funcionamiento y Tareas Pendientes," Hacia un Nuevo Federalismo? ed. Alicia Hernández Chávez (Mexico City: El Colegio de México and Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1996), pp. 109-152; Enrique Cabrero, La Nueva Gestión Municipal en México: Análisis de Experiencias Innovadoras en Gobiermos Locales (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/CIDE, 1995); Mauricio Merino, ed., En Busca de la Democracia Municipal. La Participación Ciudadana en el Gobierno Local Mexicano (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1994); Victoria E. Rodríguez and Peter M. Ward, Opposition Politics, Power and Public Administration in Urban Mexico: The Experience and Future of Opposition Parties in Government," Bulletin of Latin American Research 101 (Spring 1991 ): 23-36 Rodríguez and Ward, Policymaking, Politics, and Urban Governance in Chihuahua; Rodríguez and Ward, Political Change in Baja California; Alicia Ziccardi, ed., La Tarea de Gobiernar: Gobiernos Locales y Demandas Ciudadanas (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/UNAM, 1995).
31. See, for example, Luis Aguilar Villanueva, "El Federalismo Mexicano: Funcionamiento y Tareas Pendientes," Hacia un Nuevo Federalismo? ed. Alicia Hernández Chávez (Mexico City: El Colegio de México and Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1996), pp. 109-152; Enrique Cabrero, La Nueva Gestión Municipal en México: Análisis de Experiencias Innovadoras en Gobiermos Locales (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/CIDE, 1995); Mauricio Merino, ed., En Busca de la Democracia Municipal. La Participación Ciudadana en el Gobierno Local Mexicano (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1994); Victoria E. Rodríguez and Peter M. Ward, Opposition Politics, Power and Public Administration in Urban Mexico: The Experience and Future of Opposition Parties in Government," Bulletin of Latin American Research 101 (Spring 1991 ): 23-36 Rodríguez and Ward, Policymaking, Politics, and Urban Governance in Chihuahua; Rodríguez and Ward, Political Change in Baja California; Alicia Ziccardi, ed., La Tarea de Gobiernar: Gobiernos Locales y Demandas Ciudadanas (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/UNAM, 1995).
32. See, for example, Luis Aguilar Villanueva, "El Federalismo Mexicano: Funcionamiento y Tareas Pendientes," Hacia un Nuevo Federalismo? ed. Alicia Hernández Chávez (Mexico City: El Colegio de México and Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1996), pp. 109-152; Enrique Cabrero, La Nueva Gestión Municipal en México: Análisis de Experiencias Innovadoras en Gobiermos Locales (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/CIDE, 1995); Mauricio Merino, ed., En Busca de la Democracia Municipal. La Participación Ciudadana en el Gobierno Local Mexicano (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1994); Victoria E. Rodríguez and Peter M. Ward, Opposition Politics, Power and Public Administration in Urban Mexico: The Experience and Future of Opposition Parties in Government," Bulletin of Latin American Research 101 (Spring 1991 ): 23-36 Rodríguez and Ward, Policymaking, Politics, and Urban Governance in Chihuahua; Rodríguez and Ward, Political Change in Baja California; Alicia Ziccardi, ed., La Tarea de Gobiernar: Gobiernos Locales y Demandas Ciudadanas (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/UNAM, 1995).
33. See, for example, Luis Aguilar Villanueva, "El Federalismo Mexicano: Funcionamiento y Tareas Pendientes," Hacia un Nuevo Federalismo? ed. Alicia Hernández Chávez (Mexico City: El Colegio de México and Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1996), pp. 109-152; Enrique Cabrero, La Nueva Gestión Municipal en México: Análisis de Experiencias Innovadoras en Gobiermos Locales (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/CIDE, 1995); Mauricio Merino, ed., En Busca de la Democracia Municipal. La Participación Ciudadana en el Gobierno Local Mexicano (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1994); Victoria E. Rodríguez and Peter M. Ward, Opposition Politics, Power and Public Administration in Urban Mexico: The Experience and Future of Opposition Parties in Government," Bulletin of Latin American Research 101 (Spring 1991 ): 23-36 Rodríguez and Ward, Policymaking, Politics, and Urban Governance in Chihuahua; Rodríguez and Ward, Political Change in Baja California; Alicia Ziccardi, ed., La Tarea de Gobiernar: Gobiernos Locales y Demandas Ciudadanas (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/UNAM, 1995).
34. See, for example, Luis Aguilar Villanueva, "El Federalismo Mexicano: Funcionamiento y Tareas Pendientes," Hacia un Nuevo Federalismo? ed. Alicia Hernández Chávez (Mexico City: El Colegio de México and Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1996), pp. 109-152; Enrique Cabrero, La Nueva Gestión Municipal en México: Análisis de Experiencias Innovadoras en Gobiermos Locales (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/CIDE, 1995); Mauricio Merino, ed., En Busca de la Democracia Municipal. La Participación Ciudadana en el Gobierno Local Mexicano (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1994); Victoria E. Rodríguez and Peter M. Ward, Opposition Politics, Power and Public Administration in Urban Mexico: The Experience and Future of Opposition Parties in Government," Bulletin of Latin American Research 101 (Spring 1991 ): 23-36 Rodríguez and Ward, Policymaking, Politics, and Urban Governance in Chihuahua; Rodríguez and Ward, Political Change in Baja California; Alicia Ziccardi, ed., La Tarea de Gobiernar: Gobiernos Locales y Demandas Ciudadanas (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/UNAM, 1995).
35. See, for example, Luis Aguilar Villanueva, "El Federalismo Mexicano: Funcionamiento y Tareas Pendientes," Hacia un Nuevo Federalismo? ed. Alicia Hernández Chávez (Mexico City: El Colegio de México and Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1996), pp. 109-152; Enrique Cabrero, La Nueva Gestión Municipal en México: Análisis de Experiencias Innovadoras en Gobiermos Locales (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/CIDE, 1995); Mauricio Merino, ed., En Busca de la Democracia Municipal. La Participación Ciudadana en el Gobierno Local Mexicano (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1994); Victoria E. Rodríguez and Peter M. Ward, Opposition Politics, Power and Public Administration in Urban Mexico: The Experience and Future of Opposition Parties in Government," Bulletin of Latin American Research 101 (Spring 1991 ): 23-36 Rodríguez and Ward, Policymaking, Politics, and Urban Governance in Chihuahua; Rodríguez and Ward, Political Change in Baja California; Alicia Ziccardi, ed., La Tarea de Gobiernar: Gobiernos Locales y Demandas Ciudadanas (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/UNAM, 1995).
36. See, for example, Luis Aguilar Villanueva, "El Federalismo Mexicano: Funcionamiento y Tareas Pendientes," Hacia un Nuevo Federalismo? ed. Alicia Hernández Chávez (Mexico City: El Colegio de México and Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1996), pp. 109-152; Enrique Cabrero, La Nueva Gestión Municipal en México: Análisis de Experiencias Innovadoras en Gobiermos Locales (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/CIDE, 1995); Mauricio Merino, ed., En Busca de la Democracia Municipal. La Participación Ciudadana en el Gobierno Local Mexicano (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1994); Victoria E. Rodríguez and Peter M. Ward, Opposition Politics, Power and Public Administration in Urban Mexico: The Experience and Future of Opposition Parties in Government," Bulletin of Latin American Research 101 (Spring 1991 ): 23-36 Rodríguez and Ward, Policymaking, Politics, and Urban Governance in Chihuahua; Rodríguez and Ward, Political Change in Baja California; Alicia Ziccardi, ed., La Tarea de Gobiernar: Gobiernos Locales y Demandas Ciudadanas (Mexico City: Miguel Ángel Porrúa/UNAM, 1995).
37. Gustavo Garza, "Ciudad de México: Dinámica Industrial y Perspectivas de Descentralización Después del Terremoto," Descentralización y Democracia en México, ed. Blanca Torres (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1986), pp. 219-236; Alberto Rébora, "El OrdenamientoTerritorial y Urbano en México: Problemas y Perspectivas," Comercio Exterior 28 (Winter 1978): 1181-1191; Luis Unikel and R de la Peña Consideraciones Sobre la Concentración Económica en México," Asentamientos Humanos I (Mexico City: Secretaría de la Presidencia, 1976).
38. Gustavo Garza, "Ciudad de México: Dinámica Industrial y Perspectivas de Descentralización Después del Terremoto," Descentralización y Democracia en México, ed. Blanca Torres (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1986), pp. 219-236; Alberto Rébora, "El OrdenamientoTerritorial y Urbano en México: Problemas y Perspectivas," Comercio Exterior 28 (Winter 1978): 1181-1191; Luis Unikel and R de la Peña Consideraciones Sobre la Concentración Económica en México," Asentamientos Humanos I (Mexico City: Secretaría de la Presidencia, 1976).
39. Gustavo Garza, "Ciudad de México: Dinámica Industrial y Perspectivas de Descentralización Después del Terremoto," Descentralización y Democracia en México, ed. Blanca Torres (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1986), pp. 219-236; Alberto Rébora, "El OrdenamientoTerritorial y Urbano en México: Problemas y Perspectivas," Comercio Exterior 28 (Winter 1978): 1181-1191; Luis Unikel and R de la Peña Consideraciones Sobre la Concentración Económica en México," Asentamientos Humanos I (Mexico City: Secretaría de la Presidencia, 1976).
40. Victoria E. Rodríguez, Decentralization in Mexico. From Reforma Municipal to Solidaridad to Nuevo Federalismo (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997).
41. Presidencia de la República, Second State of the Nation Report: Emesto Zedillo (Mexico City-P.J., 1996), pp. 22-23.
42. Although various typologies for decentralization have been developed in the literature, the most widely used is based on the work of Dennis Rondinelli and his collaborators. See Dennis A. Rondinelli, "Government Decentralization in Comparative Perspective: Theory and Practice in Developing Countries," International Review of Administrative Science 47 (1981): 133-145; "Decentralizing Public Services in Developing Countries: Issues and Opportunities," Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies 14 (Spring 1989): 77-99; Decentralizing Urban Development Programs: A Framework for Analyzing Policy (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Agency for International Development, 1990). See also Shabbir G. Cheema and Dennis Rondinelli, Decentralization and Development: Policy Implementation in Developing Countries (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1983); Jerry Silverman, Public Sector Decentralization: Economic Policy and Sector Investment Programs (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1992); Henry Maddick, Democracy, Decentralization and Development (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1963); Robert J. Bennett, ed., Decentralization, Local Governments and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare Agenda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980).
43. Although various typologies for decentralization have been developed in the literature, the most widely used is based on the work of Dennis Rondinelli and his collaborators. See Dennis A. Rondinelli, "Government Decentralization in Comparative Perspective: Theory and Practice in Developing Countries," International Review of Administrative Science 47 (1981): 133-145; "Decentralizing Public Services in Developing Countries: Issues and Opportunities," Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies 14 (Spring 1989): 77-99; Decentralizing Urban Development Programs: A Framework for Analyzing Policy (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Agency for International Development, 1990). See also Shabbir G. Cheema and Dennis Rondinelli, Decentralization and Development: Policy Implementation in Developing Countries (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1983); Jerry Silverman, Public Sector Decentralization: Economic Policy and Sector Investment Programs (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1992); Henry Maddick, Democracy, Decentralization and Development (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1963); Robert J. Bennett, ed., Decentralization, Local Governments and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare Agenda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980).
44. Although various typologies for decentralization have been developed in the literature, the most widely used is based on the work of Dennis Rondinelli and his collaborators. See Dennis A. Rondinelli, "Government Decentralization in Comparative Perspective: Theory and Practice in Developing Countries," International Review of Administrative Science 47 (1981): 133-145; "Decentralizing Public Services in Developing Countries: Issues and Opportunities," Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies 14 (Spring 1989): 77-99; Decentralizing Urban Development Programs: A Framework for Analyzing Policy (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Agency for International Development, 1990). See also Shabbir G. Cheema and Dennis Rondinelli, Decentralization and Development: Policy Implementation in Developing Countries (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1983); Jerry Silverman, Public Sector Decentralization: Economic Policy and Sector Investment Programs (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1992); Henry Maddick, Democracy, Decentralization and Development (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1963); Robert J. Bennett, ed., Decentralization, Local Governments and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare Agenda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980).
45. Although various typologies for decentralization have been developed in the literature, the most widely used is based on the work of Dennis Rondinelli and his collaborators. See Dennis A. Rondinelli, "Government Decentralization in Comparative Perspective: Theory and Practice in Developing Countries," International Review of Administrative Science 47 (1981): 133-145; "Decentralizing Public Services in Developing Countries: Issues and Opportunities," Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies 14 (Spring 1989): 77-99; Decentralizing Urban Development Programs: A Framework for Analyzing Policy (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Agency for International Development, 1990). See also Shabbir G. Cheema and Dennis Rondinelli, Decentralization and Development: Policy Implementation in Developing Countries (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1983); Jerry Silverman, Public Sector Decentralization: Economic Policy and Sector Investment Programs (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1992); Henry Maddick, Democracy, Decentralization and Development (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1963); Robert J. Bennett, ed., Decentralization, Local Governments and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare Agenda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980).
46. Although various typologies for decentralization have been developed in the literature, the most widely used is based on the work of Dennis Rondinelli and his collaborators. See Dennis A. Rondinelli, "Government Decentralization in Comparative Perspective: Theory and Practice in Developing Countries," International Review of Administrative Science 47 (1981): 133-145; "Decentralizing Public Services in Developing Countries: Issues and Opportunities," Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies 14 (Spring 1989): 77-99; Decentralizing Urban Development Programs: A Framework for Analyzing Policy (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Agency for International Development, 1990). See also Shabbir G. Cheema and Dennis Rondinelli, Decentralization and Development: Policy Implementation in Developing Countries (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1983); Jerry Silverman, Public Sector Decentralization: Economic Policy and Sector Investment Programs (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1992); Henry Maddick, Democracy, Decentralization and Development (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1963); Robert J. Bennett, ed., Decentralization, Local Governments and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare Agenda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980).
47. Although various typologies for decentralization have been developed in the literature, the most widely used is based on the work of Dennis Rondinelli and his collaborators. See Dennis A. Rondinelli, "Government Decentralization in Comparative Perspective: Theory and Practice in Developing Countries," International Review of Administrative Science 47 (1981): 133-145; "Decentralizing Public Services in Developing Countries: Issues and Opportunities," Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies 14 (Spring 1989): 77-99; Decentralizing Urban Development Programs: A Framework for Analyzing Policy (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Agency for International Development, 1990). See also Shabbir G. Cheema and Dennis Rondinelli, Decentralization and Development: Policy Implementation in Developing Countries (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1983); Jerry Silverman, Public Sector Decentralization: Economic Policy and Sector Investment Programs (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1992); Henry Maddick, Democracy, Decentralization and Development (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1963); Robert J. Bennett, ed., Decentralization, Local Governments and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare Agenda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980).
48. Although various typologies for decentralization have been developed in the literature, the most widely used is based on the work of Dennis Rondinelli and his collaborators. See Dennis A. Rondinelli, "Government Decentralization in Comparative Perspective: Theory and Practice in Developing Countries," International Review of Administrative Science 47 (1981): 133-145; "Decentralizing Public Services in Developing Countries: Issues and Opportunities," Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies 14 (Spring 1989): 77-99; Decentralizing Urban Development Programs: A Framework for Analyzing Policy (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Agency for International Development, 1990). See also Shabbir G. Cheema and Dennis Rondinelli, Decentralization and Development: Policy Implementation in Developing Countries (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1983); Jerry Silverman, Public Sector Decentralization: Economic Policy and Sector Investment Programs (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1992); Henry Maddick, Democracy, Decentralization and Development (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1963); Robert J. Bennett, ed., Decentralization, Local Governments and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare Agenda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980).
49. Deconcentration is generally understood as a transfer of functions, powers, and resources to the state offices of central agencies, but with the center retaining ultimate authority and control, whereas devolution implies autonomy for states and municipalities. Clearly, this autonomy did not materialize in Mexico.
50. Bailey, "Centralism and Political Change in Mexico"; Rodríguez, Decentralization in Mexico.
51. Bailey, "Centralism and Political Change in Mexico"; Rodríguez, Decentralization in Mexico.
52. Not all opposition parties and their electoral victories have been treated alike. Whereas the PAN, to the right of the political spectrum, has won several governorships and numerous municipalities (including some in the largest and most important cities), the PRD (Partido de la Revolución Democrática, Party of the Democratic Revolution), to the left of the spectrum, has not fared so well. In southern Mexico, in particular, the PRD has not always been allowed to take power, even in cases that were heavily covered by the national and international media (e.g., Juchitán). See Kathleen Bruhn and Keith Yanner, "Governning under the Enemy: The PRD in Mirhoacán.," Opposition Government in Mexico, eds. Victoria E. Rodríguez and Pe M. Ward (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995), pp. 113-131.
53. See the various selections in Rodríguez and Ward, eds., Opposition Government in Mexico.
54. The basic purpose of the Municipal Reform was to guarantee municipalities fixed and untouchable sources of revenue, which would allow them to provide public services and, more important, to strengthen their political independence. For a detailed discussion of the reform, see Carlos Martínez Assad and Alicia Ziccardi, "Polilica y Gestión Municipal en México"; Victoria E. Rodríguez, "Mexico's Decentralization in the 1980s: Promises, Promises, Promises...", Decentralization in Latin America, eds. Arthur Morris and Stella Lowder (New York: Praeger, 1992), pp. 127-143; Rodríguez, Decentralization in Mexico.
55. The basic purpose of the Municipal Reform was to guarantee municipalities fixed and untouchable sources of revenue, which would allow them to provide public services and, more important, to strengthen their political independence. For a detailed discussion of the reform, see Carlos Martínez Assad and Alicia Ziccardi, "Polilica y Gestión Municipal en México"; Victoria E. Rodríguez, "Mexico's Decentralization in the 1980s: Promises, Promises, Promises...", Decentralization in Latin America, eds. Arthur Morris and Stella Lowder (New York: Praeger, 1992), pp. 127-143; Rodríguez, Decentralization in Mexico.
56. The basic purpose of the Municipal Reform was to guarantee municipalities fixed and untouchable sources of revenue, which would allow them to provide public services and, more important, to strengthen their political independence. For a detailed discussion of the reform, see Carlos Martínez Assad and Alicia Ziccardi, "Polilica y Gestión Municipal en México"; Victoria E. Rodríguez, "Mexico's Decentralization in the 1980s: Promises, Promises, Promises...", Decentralization in Latin America, eds. Arthur Morris and Stella Lowder (New York: Praeger, 1992), pp. 127-143; Rodríguez, Decentralization in Mexico.
57. See Fagen and Tuohy, Politics and Privilege in a Mexican City.
58. See Rodríguez and Ward, Policymaking, Politics, and Urban Governance in Chihuahua; Rodríguez and Ward. Political Change in Baja California; Rodríguez and Ward, "The New PRI: Recasting Its Identity," Dismantling the Mexican State? eds. Rob Aitken et al., (London: Macmillan, 1996), pp. 92-112; Peter M. Ward, "From Machine Politics to the Politics of Technocracy: Charting the Decline of Partisanship in the Mexican Municipality," Bulletin of Latin American Research 17 (Winter 1996): 341-365.
59. See Rodríguez and Ward, Policymaking, Politics, and Urban Governance in Chihuahua; Rodríguez and Ward. Political Change in Baja California; Rodríguez and Ward, "The New PRI: Recasting Its Identity," Dismantling the Mexican State? eds. Rob Aitken et al., (London: Macmillan, 1996), pp. 92-112; Peter M. Ward, "From Machine Politics to the Politics of Technocracy: Charting the Decline of Partisanship in the Mexican Municipality," Bulletin of Latin American Research 17 (Winter 1996): 341-365.
60. See Rodríguez and Ward, Policymaking, Politics, and Urban Governance in Chihuahua; Rodríguez and Ward. Political Change in Baja California; Rodríguez and Ward, "The New PRI: Recasting Its Identity," Dismantling the Mexican State? eds. Rob Aitken et al., (London: Macmillan, 1996), pp. 92-112; Peter M. Ward, "From Machine Politics to the Politics of Technocracy: Charting the Decline of Partisanship in the Mexican Municipality," Bulletin of Latin American Research 17 (Winter 1996): 341-365.
61. See Rodríguez and Ward, Policymaking, Politics, and Urban Governance in Chihuahua; Rodríguez and Ward. Political Change in Baja California; Rodríguez and Ward, "The New PRI: Recasting Its Identity," Dismantling the Mexican State? eds. Rob Aitken et al., (London: Macmillan, 1996), pp. 92-112; Peter M. Ward, "From Machine Politics to the Politics of Technocracy: Charting the Decline of Partisanship in the Mexican Municipality," Bulletin of Latin American Research 17 (Winter 1996): 341-365.
62. See Alberto Aziz Nassif, Prácticas Electorales y Democracia en Chihuahua. Cuadernos de la Casa Chata 151 (Mexico City: Centro de Investigación y Estudios Superiores de Antropología Social, 1987); Robert Bezdek, "Democratic Changes in an Authoritarian System: Navismo and Opposition Development in San Luis Potosí," Opposition Government in Mexico, eds. Rodríguez and Ward, pp. 33-61.
63. See Alberto Aziz Nassif, Prácticas Electorales y Democracia en Chihuahua. Cuadernos de la Casa Chata 151 (Mexico City: Centro de Investigación y Estudios Superiores de Antropología Social, 1987); Robert Bezdek, "Democratic Changes in an Authoritarian System: Navismo and Opposition Development in San Luis Potosí," Opposition Government in Mexico, eds. Rodríguez and Ward, pp. 33-61.
64. Peter H. Smith, Labyrinths of Power: Political Recruitment in Twentieth Century Mexico (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979).
65. See Luis Javier Garrido, La Ruptura. La Corriente Democrática del PRI (Mexico City: Grijalbo, 1993).
66. Rodríguez, Decentralization in Mexico .
67. See also Jonathan Fox and Josefina Aranda, Decentralization and Rural Development in Mexico Community Participation in Oaxaca's Municipal Funds Program, Monograph Series 42 (LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1996); Ann Varley, "Delivering the Goods," Dismantling the Mexican State, eds. Rob Aitken et al., (London: Macmillan, 1996) pp. 204-224. For an overall evaluation of the program, see the various selections in Cornelius, Craig, and Fox, eds., Transforming State-Society Relations .
68. See also Jonathan Fox and Josefina Aranda, Decentralization and Rural Development in Mexico Community Participation in Oaxaca's Municipal Funds Program, Monograph Series 42 (LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1996); Ann Varley, "Delivering the Goods," Dismantling the Mexican State, eds. Rob Aitken et al., (London: Macmillan, 1996) pp. 204-224. For an overall evaluation of the program, see the various selections in Cornelius, Craig, and Fox, eds., Transforming State-Society Relations .
69. See also Jonathan Fox and Josefina Aranda, Decentralization and Rural Development in Mexico Community Participation in Oaxaca's Municipal Funds Program, Monograph Series 42 (LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1996); Ann Varley, "Delivering the Goods," Dismantling the Mexican State, eds. Rob Aitken et al., (London: Macmillan, 1996) pp. 204-224. For an overall evaluation of the program, see the various selections in Cornelius, Craig, and Fox, eds., Transforming State-Society Relations .
70. The electoral landscape has changed dramatically during the last ten years. However that not all opposition victories were treated equally during the Salinas "opening." While PAN victories tended to be more readily acceptable because they appeared to be less threatening and PAN leaders were more amenable to "negotiation," such was not the case with PRD victories. Since its creation in 1989, following the electoral controversy of 1988, the PRD and its leaders (especially Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas) maintained a very conflictive relationship with Salinas, who refused to acknowledge and recognize their victories while the PRD refused to enter into any type of negotiations over electoral contests.
71. See Fox and Aranda, Decentralization and Rural Development in Mexico.
72. The formal system of revenue sharing in Mexico has been revised several times in the last ten years. Essentially, funds are allocated to states and municipalities through two funds, the General Revenue Sharing Fund (Fondo General de Participaciones) and the Fund for Municipal Development (Fondo de Fomento Municipal) following specific criteria set in a distribution formula. The revenues to states and municipalities were increased from 18 percent to 22 percent in 1996. The bulk of the resources for state and municipal development, however, are through other budgetary lines, especially in the funds allocated for social development The formulas allocating these funds were revised in 1996 in an effort to make the distribution more transparent and equitable. For a thorough discussion of revenue sharing and of intergovernmental finances, see Rodríguez, Decentralization in Mexico. For a discussion of fiscal centralization under Salinas, see Bailey, "Centralism and Political Change in Mexico."
73. The formal system of revenue sharing in Mexico has been revised several times in the last ten years. Essentially, funds are allocated to states and municipalities through two funds, the General Revenue Sharing Fund (Fondo General de Participaciones) and the Fund for Municipal Development (Fondo de Fomento Municipal) following specific criteria set in a distribution formula. The revenues to states and municipalities were increased from 18 percent to 22 percent in 1996. The bulk of the resources for state and municipal development, however, are through other budgetary lines, especially in the funds allocated for social development The formulas allocating these funds were revised in 1996 in an effort to make the distribution more transparent and equitable. For a thorough discussion of revenue sharing and of intergovernmental finances, see Rodríguez, Decentralization in Mexico. For a discussion of fiscal centralization under Salinas, see Bailey, "Centralism and Political Change in Mexico."
74. Presidencia de la República, Second State of the Nation Report. Ernesto Zedillo (Mexico City: PJ., 1996), p. 20.
75. Ibid., 21.
76. Fagen and Tuohy, Politics and Privilege in a Mexican City; Rodríguez, Decentralization in Mexico ; Tonatiuh Guillén López, Baja California 1989-1992. Balance de la Transición Democrática (Tijuana: El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, 1993).
77. Fagen and Tuohy, Politics and Privilege in a Mexican City; Rodríguez, Decentralization in Mexico ; Tonatiuh Guillén López, Baja California 1989-1992. Balance de la Transición Democrática (Tijuana: El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, 1993).
78. Fagen and Tuohy, Politics and Privilege in a Mexican City; Rodríguez, Decentralization in Mexico ; Tonatiuh Guillén López, Baja California 1989-1992. Balance de la Transición Democrática (Tijuana: El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, 1993).
79. Rodríguez and Ward, Political Change in Baja California.
80. Alberto Aziz Nassif, Territories de Alternancia El Primer Gobierno de Oposición en Chihuahua (Mexico City: Triana Editores, 1996).
81. Rodríguez and Ward, Political Change in Baja California; Aziz Nassif, Territorios de Alternancia.
82. Rodríguez and Ward, Political Change in Baja California; Aziz Nassif, Territorios de Alternancia.
83. Ward, "From Machine Politics to the Politics of Technocracy."
84. See Cabrero, La Nueva Gestión Municipal en México, Merino, ed., En busca de la Democracia Municipal; Victoria E. Rodríguez, Peter M. Ward et al., New Federalism, State, and Local Government in Mexico: Memoria of the Bi-National Conference (Austin, TX: Mexican Center of the Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Texas at Austin, 1996); Ziccardi, ed., La Tarea de Gobernar.
85. See Cabrero, La Nueva Gestión Municipal en México, Merino, ed., En busca de la Democracia Municipal; Victoria E. Rodríguez, Peter M. Ward et al., New Federalism, State, and Local Government in Mexico: Memoria of the Bi-National Conference (Austin, TX: Mexican Center of the Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Texas at Austin, 1996); Ziccardi, ed., La Tarea de Gobernar.
86. See Cabrero, La Nueva Gestión Municipal en México, Merino, ed., En busca de la Democracia Municipal; Victoria E. Rodríguez, Peter M. Ward et al., New Federalism, State, and Local Government in Mexico: Memoria of the Bi-National Conference (Austin, TX: Mexican Center of the Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Texas at Austin, 1996); Ziccardi, ed., La Tarea de Gobernar.
87. See Cabrero, La Nueva Gestión Municipal en México, Merino, ed., En busca de la Democracia Municipal; Victoria E. Rodríguez, Peter M. Ward et al., New Federalism, State, and Local Government in Mexico: Memoria of the Bi-National Conference (Austin, TX: Mexican Center of the Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Texas at Austin, 1996); Ziccardi, ed., La Tarea de Gobernar.
88. Rodríguez, Decentralization in Mexico.
89. Education and health were the first policy areas targeted for decentralization in the 1980s. By the end of the Salinas presidency, education had been transferred in its entirety to the states, and health to 14 of the 31 states. In both cases, the handing-over has been surrounded by controversy over the allocation of resources and decision-making authority.
90. Rodríguez and Ward et al., "New Federalism, State and Local Government in Mexico."
91. This position was formerly a presidential appointee called the regente.