Defining the industrial chemist in the United Kingdom, 1850-1921

Journal of Social History

Volumn 29, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 778-796

  Donnelly, James ^a  

^a School of Education   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 0039926820     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh/29.4.779     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. S. Marcson, The Scientist in American Industry (Princeton, 1960); W. Kornhauser, Scientists in Industry (Berkeley, 1963).
2. S. Marcson, The Scientist in American Industry (Princeton, 1960); W. Kornhauser, Scientists in Industry (Berkeley, 1963).
3. R. Torstendahl, "Engineers in Industry, 1850-1910: Professional Men and New Bureaucrats. A Comparative Approach," in C. G. Bernhard, E. Crawford and P. Sorbom (eds.), Science, Technology, and Society in the Time of Alfred Nobel (Oxford, 1982), 253-70. See also K. Gispen, "German Engineers and American Social Theory: Historical Perspectives on Professionalization," Comparative Studies in Society and History 30 (1988): 55-74. S. Clegg, P. Boreham and G. Dow, Class, Politics and Economy (London, 1986), 193. Andrew Abbot has authoritatively analysed the sociology of professionalization in terms of conflicts over jurisdiction. A. Abbott, The System of Professions. An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago, 1988).
4. R. Torstendahl, "Engineers in Industry, 1850-1910: Professional Men and New Bureaucrats. A Comparative Approach," in C. G. Bernhard, E. Crawford and P. Sorbom (eds.), Science, Technology, and Society in the Time of Alfred Nobel (Oxford, 1982), 253-70. See also K. Gispen, "German Engineers and American Social Theory: Historical Perspectives on Professionalization," Comparative Studies in Society and History 30 (1988): 55-74. S. Clegg, P. Boreham and G. Dow, Class, Politics and Economy (London, 1986), 193. Andrew Abbot has authoritatively analysed the sociology of professionalization in terms of conflicts over jurisdiction. A. Abbott, The System of Professions. An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago, 1988).
5. R. Torstendahl, "Engineers in Industry, 1850-1910: Professional Men and New Bureaucrats. A Comparative Approach," in C. G. Bernhard, E. Crawford and P. Sorbom (eds.), Science, Technology, and Society in the Time of Alfred Nobel (Oxford, 1982), 253-70. See also K. Gispen, "German Engineers and American Social Theory: Historical Perspectives on Professionalization," Comparative Studies in Society and History 30 (1988): 55-74. S. Clegg, P. Boreham and G. Dow, Class, Politics and Economy (London, 1986), 193. Andrew Abbot has authoritatively analysed the sociology of professionalization in terms of conflicts over jurisdiction. A. Abbott, The System of Professions. An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago, 1988).
6. R. Torstendahl, "Engineers in Industry, 1850-1910: Professional Men and New Bureaucrats. A Comparative Approach," in C. G. Bernhard, E. Crawford and P. Sorbom (eds.), Science, Technology, and Society in the Time of Alfred Nobel (Oxford, 1982), 253-70. See also K. Gispen, "German Engineers and American Social Theory: Historical Perspectives on Professionalization," Comparative Studies in Society and History 30 (1988): 55-74. S. Clegg, P. Boreham and G. Dow, Class, Politics and Economy (London, 1986), 193. Andrew Abbot has authoritatively analysed the sociology of professionalization in terms of conflicts over jurisdiction. A. Abbott, The System of Professions. An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago, 1988).
7. E. T. Layton, The Revolt of the Engineers. Social Responsibility and the American Engineering Profession (Cleveland, 1971); D. F. Noble, America by Design. Science, Technology and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism (New York, 1979).
8. E. T. Layton, The Revolt of the Engineers. Social Responsibility and the American Engineering Profession (Cleveland, 1971); D. F. Noble, America by Design. Science, Technology and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism (New York, 1979).
9. For surveys, see R. Carter, Capitalism, Class Conflict and the New Middle Class (London, 1985); C. Smith, Technical Workers. Class, Labour and Trade Unionism (London, 1987); C. Smith, D. Knights and H. Willmott (eds.) White-Collar Work. The Non-Manual Labour Process (London, 1991 ). G. Carchedi, The Economic Identification of Social Classes (London, 1977); idem, Problems in Class Analysis. Production, Knowledge, and the Function of Capital (London, 1983).
10. For surveys, see R. Carter, Capitalism, Class Conflict and the New Middle Class (London, 1985); C. Smith, Technical Workers. Class, Labour and Trade Unionism (London, 1987); C. Smith, D. Knights and H. Willmott (eds.) White-Collar Work. The Non-Manual Labour Process (London, 1991 ). G. Carchedi, The Economic Identification of Social Classes (London, 1977); idem, Problems in Class Analysis. Production, Knowledge, and the Function of Capital (London, 1983).
11. For surveys, see R. Carter, Capitalism, Class Conflict and the New Middle Class (London, 1985); C. Smith, Technical Workers. Class, Labour and Trade Unionism (London, 1987); C. Smith, D. Knights and H. Willmott (eds.) White-Collar Work. The Non-Manual Labour Process (London, 1991 ). G. Carchedi, The Economic Identification of Social Classes (London, 1977); idem, Problems in Class Analysis. Production, Knowledge, and the Function of Capital (London, 1983).
12. For surveys, see R. Carter, Capitalism, Class Conflict and the New Middle Class (London, 1985); C. Smith, Technical Workers. Class, Labour and Trade Unionism (London, 1987); C. Smith, D. Knights and H. Willmott (eds.) White-Collar Work. The Non-Manual Labour Process (London, 1991 ). G. Carchedi, The Economic Identification of Social Classes (London, 1977); idem, Problems in Class Analysis. Production, Knowledge, and the Function of Capital (London, 1983).
13. For surveys, see R. Carter, Capitalism, Class Conflict and the New Middle Class (London, 1985); C. Smith, Technical Workers. Class, Labour and Trade Unionism (London, 1987); C. Smith, D. Knights and H. Willmott (eds.) White-Collar Work. The Non-Manual Labour Process (London, 1991 ). G. Carchedi, The Economic Identification of Social Classes (London, 1977); idem, Problems in Class Analysis. Production, Knowledge, and the Function of Capital (London, 1983).
14. J. A. Johnson, "Academic, Proletarian ... Professional? Shaping Professionalization for German Industrial Chemists," in K. H. Jarausch and G. Cocks (eds.) German Professions, 1800-1950 (New York, 1990), 123-42. P. Meiksins, "Professionalism and Conflict: The Case of the American Association of Engineers," Journal of Social History 19 (1986): 403-21. K. Gispen, New Profession, Old Order. Engineers and German Society, 1815-1914 (Cambridge, 1990).
15. J. A. Johnson, "Academic, Proletarian ... Professional? Shaping Professionalization for German Industrial Chemists," in K. H. Jarausch and G. Cocks (eds.) German Professions, 1800-1950 (New York, 1990), 123-42. P. Meiksins, "Professionalism and Conflict: The Case of the American Association of Engineers," Journal of Social History 19 (1986): 403-21. K. Gispen, New Profession, Old Order. Engineers and German Society, 1815-1914 (Cambridge, 1990).
16. J. A. Johnson, "Academic, Proletarian ... Professional? Shaping Professionalization for German Industrial Chemists," in K. H. Jarausch and G. Cocks (eds.) German Professions, 1800-1950 (New York, 1990), 123-42. P. Meiksins, "Professionalism and Conflict: The Case of the American Association of Engineers," Journal of Social History 19 (1986): 403-21. K. Gispen, New Profession, Old Order. Engineers and German Society, 1815-1914 (Cambridge, 1990).
17. A. E. Musson and E. Robinson, Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution (London, 1969).
18. The educational institutions struggled to exist. Chemical practice was challenged in the courts and academe. Industrial capitalists and their managers and foremen re4 sisted a role for chemical knowledge. Men who studied chemistry commonly did not wish to be employed in works, though they may have wished to own or, later, manage them.
19. R. F. Bud and G. K. Roberts, Science versus Practice. Chemistry in Victorian Britain (Manchester, 1984); J. F. Donnelly, "Consultants, Managers, Testing Slaves: Changing Roles for Chemists in the British Alkali Industry, 1850-1920," Technology and Culture 34 (1994): 100-28; C. Russell, N. G. Coley and G. K. Roberts, Chemists by Profession. The Origins and Rise of the Royal Institute of Chemistry (London, 1977).
20. R. F. Bud and G. K. Roberts, Science versus Practice. Chemistry in Victorian Britain (Manchester, 1984); J. F. Donnelly, "Consultants, Managers, Testing Slaves: Changing Roles for Chemists in the British Alkali Industry, 1850-1920," Technology and Culture 34 (1994): 100-28; C. Russell, N. G. Coley and G. K. Roberts, Chemists by Profession. The Origins and Rise of the Royal Institute of Chemistry (London, 1977).
21. R. F. Bud and G. K. Roberts, Science versus Practice. Chemistry in Victorian Britain (Manchester, 1984); J. F. Donnelly, "Consultants, Managers, Testing Slaves: Changing Roles for Chemists in the British Alkali Industry, 1850-1920," Technology and Culture 34 (1994): 100-28; C. Russell, N. G. Coley and G. K. Roberts, Chemists by Profession. The Origins and Rise of the Royal Institute of Chemistry (London, 1977).
22. Compare L. Roberts, "The Death Of The Sensuous Chemist: Sensory Evidence In The Chemical Revolution," paper delivered to the conference "Bath 3. Rediscovering Skill," University of Bath, 1990.
23. To borrow the language of actor network theory from science studies, the analytical laboratory became a compulsory passage point: analytical chemistry and commercial relationships entered into a mutually reinforcing relationship. W. E. Bijker and J. Law (eds.), Shaping Technology/Building Society. Studies in Socio-technical Change (Baltimore, 1992).
24. Compare M. Nuwer, "From Batch To Flow: Production Technology and Workforce Skills in the Steel Industry, 1880-1920," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 808-38. Parallels with new accounting practices are evident. M. Power, "From the Science of Accounts to the Financial Accountability of Science," Science in Context 7 (1994): 355-87. P. Miller and T. O'Leary, "Accounting and the Construction of the Governable Person," Accounting, Organization and Society 12 (1987): 235-65. Compare also Alfred Chandler's writing on the strategic restructuring of industrial firms. A. D. Chandler, "Technology and the Transformation of Industrial Organization," in J. Colton and S. Bruchey (eds.) Technology, the Economy, and Society: the American Experience (New York, 1987), 56-82.
25. Compare M. Nuwer, "From Batch To Flow: Production Technology and Workforce Skills in the Steel Industry, 1880-1920," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 808-38. Parallels with new accounting practices are evident. M. Power, "From the Science of Accounts to the Financial Accountability of Science," Science in Context 7 (1994): 355-87. P. Miller and T. O'Leary, "Accounting and the Construction of the Governable Person," Accounting, Organization and Society 12 (1987): 235-65. Compare also Alfred Chandler's writing on the strategic restructuring of industrial firms. A. D. Chandler, "Technology and the Transformation of Industrial Organization," in J. Colton and S. Bruchey (eds.) Technology, the Economy, and Society: the American Experience (New York, 1987), 56-82.
26. Compare M. Nuwer, "From Batch To Flow: Production Technology and Workforce Skills in the Steel Industry, 1880-1920," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 808-38. Parallels with new accounting practices are evident. M. Power, "From the Science of Accounts to the Financial Accountability of Science," Science in Context 7 (1994): 355-87. P. Miller and T. O'Leary, "Accounting and the Construction of the Governable Person," Accounting, Organization and Society 12 (1987): 235-65. Compare also Alfred Chandler's writing on the strategic restructuring of industrial firms. A. D. Chandler, "Technology and the Transformation of Industrial Organization," in J. Colton and S. Bruchey (eds.) Technology, the Economy, and Society: the American Experience (New York, 1987), 56-82.
27. Compare M. Nuwer, "From Batch To Flow: Production Technology and Workforce Skills in the Steel Industry, 1880-1920," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 808-38. Parallels with new accounting practices are evident. M. Power, "From the Science of Accounts to the Financial Accountability of Science," Science in Context 7 (1994): 355-87. P. Miller and T. O'Leary, "Accounting and the Construction of the Governable Person," Accounting, Organization and Society 12 (1987): 235-65. Compare also Alfred Chandler's writing on the strategic restructuring of industrial firms. A. D. Chandler, "Technology and the Transformation of Industrial Organization," in J. Colton and S. Bruchey (eds.) Technology, the Economy, and Society: the American Experience (New York, 1987), 56-82.
28. S. Bennett, "Process Control in the Chemical Industry in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century," paper delivered at the European Science Foundation Workshop, "From Perkin to Bosch, 1856-1918," held at Maastricht, The Netherlands, 23-4 March 1995.
29. "Experiences of a Works Chemist," Chemical Review 7 (1878): 308-9.
30. The technical role of scientific knowledge has not so far been discussed. While it is usually understood under the rubric of applied science, this notion needs to be handled with care. Whether one calls, for example, the development of chlorine bleaching an application of science is largely a matter of semantics. If acknowledged as such, if appears a weak form of application, depending largely on the ad hoc technical exploitation of a new substance rather than the transfer of chemical theories into industrial processes. The analytical work which formed the basis of the early large-scale employment of chemists was also a weak form of application, but it was systemic in its role. It stands in contrast to the more sophisticated forms of industrial work which developed in dyestuffs and, later, in other sectors. A. S. Travis, The Rainbow Makers. The Origins of the Synthetic Dyestuffs Industry in Western Europe (London, 1993). L. Reich, The Making of American Industrial Research. Science and Business at GE and Bell (Cambridge, 1985).
31. The technical role of scientific knowledge has not so far been discussed. While it is usually understood under the rubric of applied science, this notion needs to be handled with care. Whether one calls, for example, the development of chlorine bleaching an application of science is largely a matter of semantics. If acknowledged as such, if appears a weak form of application, depending largely on the ad hoc technical exploitation of a new substance rather than the transfer of chemical theories into industrial processes. The analytical work which formed the basis of the early large-scale employment of chemists was also a weak form of application, but it was systemic in its role. It stands in contrast to the more sophisticated forms of industrial work which developed in dyestuffs and, later, in other sectors. A. S. Travis, The Rainbow Makers. The Origins of the Synthetic Dyestuffs Industry in Western Europe (London, 1993). L. Reich, The Making of American Industrial Research. Science and Business at GE and Bell (Cambridge, 1985).
32. J. F. Donnelly, "Industrial Recruitment of Chemistry Students from English Universities: A Reevaluation of its Early Importance," British journal for the History of Science 24 (1991): 1-20. The issue is discussed further in J. F. Donnelly, "Chemical Education and the Chemical Industry in Late Ninteenth and Early Twentieth Century England" unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Leeds, 1988.
33. J. F. Donnelly, "Industrial Recruitment of Chemistry Students from English Universities: A Reevaluation of its Early Importance," British journal for the History of Science 24 (1991): 1-20. The issue is discussed further in J. F. Donnelly, "Chemical Education and the Chemical Industry in Late Ninteenth and Early Twentieth Century England" unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Leeds, 1988.
34. This figure is comparable, pro rata, with William McMurtie's estimate of 5,000 chemists working in US industry at about the same time. W. McMurtie, "The Condition, Prospects and Future Educational Demands of the Chemical Industries," Journal of the American Chemical Society 23 (1901): 71-89.
35. Many qualifications could be entered about these figures. It is important to note that the chemical training of such men was extremely diverse. Perhaps less than half (around 1,000), were trained in universities, and then often without gaining a formal qualification. Nevertheless by 1870 the Royal College of Chemistry had sent some 200 men into industrial occupations, while in that single year Owens College Manchester had some 50 intending industrial chemists on its courses. When other institutions are taken into account, it is not difficult to reach a cumulative total of 1,000 trained men by the 1880s on this basis. It is also important to note that these men were employed in a wide range of industries outside chemical manufacturing narrowly understood. I have argued elsewhere that the importance of industrial recruitment of chemists from British higher education during this period has been underestimated. The figures just cited can be compared with the total of about 500 chemists who were employed in British universities and technical colleges by the turn of the century. Almost all of these, however, were formally qualified. Institute of Chemistry, Official Chemical Appointments (London, 1900).
36. It is worth noting that this process had begun more than a century earlier, with the first use of analysis in industry. In 1782 the French chemist Guyton de Morveau had written: "... il faut surtout pouvoir arriver àcette connoissance par des moyons simples, expéditifs, qui en peu de jours deviennent une routine aveugle mais sur dans la main des Ouvriers les moins intelligens." R. Christophe, "L'Analyse Volumetrique de 1790 à 1860," Revue d'Histoire des Sciences 24 (1971): 25-44.
37. The tax-returns of one analyst/consultant, which have been preserved, indicate that he earned around £2,000 per annum at the turn of the century. Davis Papers, Science Museum Library, London, DAV3/3-1.
38. This is not to suggest that the theoretical detail of Carchedi's perspective (e.g. his distinctions between payment from profit and revenue or between co-ordination and control) is necessarily interpretable in empirical terms. An examination of the latter distinction is certainly of significance in any attempt to understand the place of science and technology in the social relations of industry
39. The first two organizations have been the subject of detailed study, the last has not. Bud and Roberts, Science versus Practice; Russell, Coley and Roberts, Chemists by Profession.
40. The first two organizations have been the subject of detailed study, the last has not. Bud and Roberts, Science versus Practice; Russell, Coley and Roberts, Chemists by Profession.
41. R. Bud, "The Discipline of Chemistry. The Origins and Early Years of the Chemical Society of London," unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1980. See also P. J. T. Morris and A. S. Travis, "The Chemical Society of London and the Dye Industry in the 1860s," Ambix 39 (1992): 117-26.
42. R. Bud, "The Discipline of Chemistry. The Origins and Early Years of the Chemical Society of London," unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1980. See also P. J. T. Morris and A. S. Travis, "The Chemical Society of London and the Dye Industry in the 1860s," Ambix 39 (1992): 117-26.
43. For methodological details, see Donnelly "Chemical Education."
44. Obituary data suggest that a substantial number of those who gave private addresses, but who cannot otherwise be identified, had industrial interests.
45. Russell, Coley and Roberts, Chemists by Profession.
46. Chemical News 32 (1876): 178-9; ibid., 43 (1881): 194. Donnelly, "Industrial Recruitment."
47. Chemical News 32 (1876): 178-9; ibid., 43 (1881): 194. Donnelly, "Industrial Recruitment."
48. Chemical News 32 (1876): 178-9; ibid., 43 (1881): 194. Donnelly, "Industrial Recruitment."
49. R. Angus Smith, A Centenary of Science in Manchester (Manchester, 1883), 348, nl. A. Thackray, "Natural Knowledge in a Cultural Context: the Manchester Model," American Historical Review 78 (1974): 672-709 .
50. R. Angus Smith, A Centenary of Science in Manchester (Manchester, 1883), 348, nl. A. Thackray, "Natural Knowledge in a Cultural Context: the Manchester Model," American Historical Review 78 (1974): 672-709 .
51. One of the active members of the Manchester society, James Young, is said to have left the alkali industry precisely because of a disagreement over the possibility of a partnership with his employers. J. Butt, "James Young, Scottish Industrialist and Philanthropist," Ph.D. thesis, University of Glasgow, 1964, 57-64.
52. W. W. Proctor, Tyne Social Chemical Society, Inaugural Address 1873-4 (Newcastle, 1873), 3. Tyne Chemical Society, Inaugural Address 1878-9 (Newcastle, 1878), 165
53. W. W. Proctor, Tyne Social Chemical Society, Inaugural Address 1873-4 (Newcastle, 1873), 3. Tyne Chemical Society, Inaugural Address 1878-9 (Newcastle, 1878), 165
54. Chemical News (1872): 57.
55. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 34 (1915): 749. Correspondence in a St. Helen's newspaper about an, apparently, independent proposal at about the same time also made reference to the hostility of employers. ' Leo' wrote "... the chemical manufacturers would not approve of it for obvious reasons (but) it would have the support of the majority of chemists." St. Helen's Standard, 2 October 1875; 9 October 1875.
56. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 34 (1915): 749. Correspondence in a St. Helen's newspaper about an, apparently, independent proposal at about the same time also made reference to the hostility of employers. ' Leo' wrote "... the chemical manufacturers would not approve of it for obvious reasons (but) it would have the support of the majority of chemists." St. Helen's Standard, 2 October 1875; 9 October 1875.
57. It is recorded in several, somewhat confusing, published accounts and in the archives of the SCI. Chemical Trade Journal 34 (1904): 442; Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 34 (1915): 749-50; ibid., 40 (1921): 29R, 47R, 86R; ibid., Special Jubilee Number, (1931): 9-21. Society of Chemical Industry, Minute Book of the Preliminary Meetings, held at the Society's Offices.
58. It is recorded in several, somewhat confusing, published accounts and in the archives of the SCI. Chemical Trade Journal 34 (1904): 442; Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 34 (1915): 749-50; ibid., 40 (1921): 29R, 47R, 86R; ibid., Special Jubilee Number, (1931): 9-21. Society of Chemical Industry, Minute Book of the Preliminary Meetings, held at the Society's Offices.
59. It is recorded in several, somewhat confusing, published accounts and in the archives of the SCI. Chemical Trade Journal 34 (1904): 442; Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 34 (1915): 749-50; ibid., 40 (1921): 29R, 47R, 86R; ibid., Special Jubilee Number, (1931): 9-21. Society of Chemical Industry, Minute Book of the Preliminary Meetings, held at the Society's Offices.
60. It is recorded in several, somewhat confusing, published accounts and in the archives of the SCI. Chemical Trade Journal 34 (1904): 442; Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 34 (1915): 749-50; ibid., 40 (1921): 29R, 47R, 86R; ibid., Special Jubilee Number, (1931): 9-21. Society of Chemical Industry, Minute Book of the Preliminary Meetings, held at the Society's Offices.
61. They were D. B. Hewitt, Ludwig Mond and E. K. Muspratt. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 1 (1882): 1.
62. It was later claimed that the rapid early growth in membership was due to the Journal. Chemical News 70 (1894): 95-6. W. Smith to Henry Roscoe, 21 April 1907, reprinted in Chemistry and Industry 66 (1947): 5.
63. It was later claimed that the rapid early growth in membership was due to the Journal. Chemical News 70 (1894): 95-6. W. Smith to Henry Roscoe, 21 April 1907, reprinted in Chemistry and Industry 66 (1947): 5.
64. Chemical News 8 (1866): 11 May and p. 249.
65. Chemical Review 10 (1881): 172-4; Chemical Trade Journal 7 (1890): 349.
66. Chemical Review 10 (1881): 172-4; Chemical Trade Journal 7 (1890): 349.
67. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 33 (1914): 1130-4.
68. Journal of the Chemical Society 61 (1892): 475-82; Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 19 (1900): 595.
69. Journal of the Chemical Society 61 (1892): 475-82; Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 19 (1900): 595.
70. R. S. Lineham, A Directory of Science, Art, and Technical Colleges, Schools and Teachers in the United Kingdom (London, 1895).
71. Institute of Chemistry, Council Minutes, 13 March 1903 and many subsequent entries. Proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry 30 (November, 1906): 35-41. Such examinations were only open to existing members of the Institute.
72. On Cassal (1858-1921) see Proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry 46 (1922): 59-60.
73. R. A. Dibdin, "The Status of the Works Chemist," ibid., 12-13. J. W. Green, "Technical Chemistry and the Chemical Technologist," ibid., 58-61.
74. R. A. Dibdin, "The Status of the Works Chemist," ibid., 12-13. J. W. Green, "Technical Chemistry and the Chemical Technologist," ibid., 58-61.
75. W. E. Hughes, "The Relation of Employer and Works Chemist," Journal of Chemical Technology 1 (1912-13): 27-9.
76. R. A. Dibdin, "The Chemical Technologist," Chemical Engineering and the Works Chemist 1 (1911): 62-4. The ambivalent attitude of the Association towards academic qualifications is also visible in the comments of Hughes above. On the one hand, "a fortnight of actual experience is worth a year in the classrooms of some technical institute," but "the trained chemist has his knowledge of chemistry to aid him: he is already furnished with the idea of atoms, molecules, solutions, and the rest ..." (29).
77. ibid., 4.
78. ibid., 41-5.
79. The government-sponsored Whitley Councils (Joint Industrial Councils) discussed pay and conditions and were set up as a result of the 1917 report of the Whitley Committee on the Relations of Employers and Employed. They involved representatives of employers and unions and were effective mainly in the public sector. See R. Charles, The Development of Industrial Relations in Britain 1911-1939 (London, 1973); H. A. Clegg, A History of British Trade Unions since 1889. II 1911-1933 (Oxford, 1985); George S. Bain, The Growth of White-Collar Unionism (Oxford, 1970); C. Wrigley (ed.) A History of British Industrial Relations. 2 1914-1939 (London, 1987).
80. The government-sponsored Whitley Councils (Joint Industrial Councils) discussed pay and conditions and were set up as a result of the 1917 report of the Whitley Committee on the Relations of Employers and Employed. They involved representatives of employers and unions and were effective mainly in the public sector. See R. Charles, The Development of Industrial Relations in Britain 1911-1939 (London, 1973); H. A. Clegg, A History of British Trade Unions since 1889. II 1911-1933 (Oxford, 1985); George S. Bain, The Growth of White-Collar Unionism (Oxford, 1970); C. Wrigley (ed.) A History of British Industrial Relations. 2 1914-1939 (London, 1987).
81. The government-sponsored Whitley Councils (Joint Industrial Councils) discussed pay and conditions and were set up as a result of the 1917 report of the Whitley Committee on the Relations of Employers and Employed. They involved representatives of employers and unions and were effective mainly in the public sector. See R. Charles, The Development of Industrial Relations in Britain 1911-1939 (London, 1973); H. A. Clegg, A History of British Trade Unions since 1889. II 1911-1933 (Oxford, 1985); George S. Bain, The Growth of White-Collar Unionism (Oxford, 1970); C. Wrigley (ed.) A History of British Industrial Relations. 2 1914-1939 (London, 1987).
82. The government-sponsored Whitley Councils (Joint Industrial Councils) discussed pay and conditions and were set up as a result of the 1917 report of the Whitley Committee on the Relations of Employers and Employed. They involved representatives of employers and unions and were effective mainly in the public sector. See R. Charles, The Development of Industrial Relations in Britain 1911-1939 (London, 1973); H. A. Clegg, A History of British Trade Unions since 1889. II 1911-1933 (Oxford, 1985); George S. Bain, The Growth of White-Collar Unionism (Oxford, 1970); C. Wrigley (ed.) A History of British Industrial Relations. 2 1914-1939 (London, 1987).
83. In fact no organization for chemists achieved recognition on the Heavy Chemical Industry Committee. Ministry of Labour, Directory of Joint Standing Industrial Councils, Interim Reconstruction Committees and Trade Boards (London, 1919).
84. Report of the speech by A. C. J. Charlier to the first Conference of the Council of the Association. Chemical Trade Journal 62 (1918): 208.
85. Chemical Trade Journal 62 (1918): 454.
86. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 37 (1918): 29R. Chemical Trade Journal 62 (1918): 208.
87. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 37 (1918): 29R. Chemical Trade Journal 62 (1918): 208.
88. Chemical Trade Journal 62 (1918): 513.
89. Chemical Trade Journal 62 (1918): 417-8, 437, 478. ibid., 63 (1918): 273, 289,308.
90. Chemical Trade Journal 62 (1918): 417-8, 437, 478. ibid., 63 (1918): 273, 289,308.
91. The NAIC registered as a trade union in 1919 and survived, with a stable membership of around 1,000, until about 1921 At this time it was negotiating to amalgamate with the BAC, but the negotiations failed, because of the "difference in standard of membership." There appears to be no further record of the NAIC. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 38 (1919): 479; Chemical Trade Journal 68 (1921): 484; Chemical Age 5 (1921): 832.
92. The NAIC registered as a trade union in 1919 and survived, with a stable membership of around 1,000, until about 1921 At this time it was negotiating to amalgamate with the BAC, but the negotiations failed, because of the "difference in standard of membership." There appears to be no further record of the NAIC. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 38 (1919): 479; Chemical Trade Journal 68 (1921): 484; Chemical Age 5 (1921): 832.
93. The NAIC registered as a trade union in 1919 and survived, with a stable membership of around 1,000, until about 1921 At this time it was negotiating to amalgamate with the BAC, but the negotiations failed, because of the "difference in standard of membership." There appears to be no further record of the NAIC. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 38 (1919): 479; Chemical Trade Journal 68 (1921): 484; Chemical Age 5 (1921): 832.
94. Chemical Trade Journal 62 (1915): 344. The author went on to claim that the BAC's aim was to make "industrial chemistry the preserve of the graduate."
95. Manchester Guardian, 12 November 1917.
96. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 37 (1918): 4R and passim. The correspondence already cited in the Chemical Trade Journal also deals with this as does Proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry 42 part II (1918): 9-24.
97. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 37 (1918): 4R and passim. The correspondence already cited in the Chemical Trade Journal also deals with this as does Proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry 42 part II (1918): 9-24.
98. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 37 (1918): 244. ibid., 4 and Chemical Trade Journal 63 (1918): 248
99. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 37 (1918): 244. ibid., 4 and Chemical Trade Journal 63 (1918): 248
100. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 37 (1918): 244. ibid., 4 and Chemical Trade Journal 63 (1918): 248
101. Proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry 42 Part II (1918): 20.
102. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 37 (1918): 51R.
103. Chemical Trade Journal 62 (1918): 417.
104. Hinchley, who was a consultant and lecturer in chemical engineering at Imperial College as well as a member of the Fabians, told the meeting that "it was essential that chemists should organize in order that they might have a voice in the deliberations of the Industrial Councils as outlined in the Whitley report." He had attended many of the meetings at which the future of the Association had been discussed, and it may be that his Fabian instincts had had a significant influence. On Hinchley (1871-1931), who was active in most organizations for chemists as well as the moving force behind the Institution of Chemical Engineers, see E. M. Hinchley, John William Hinchley, Chemical Engineer. A Memoir (London, 1935).
105. The decision was taken at a national meeting held at Manchester. The attendance at the meeting was about 500, two-thirds of whom qualified for attendance under regulation B. The Executive had apparently reversed the earlier recommendation to disband the organization, which had met with such disapproval. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 37 (1918): 199R, 243R-5R.
106. Chemical Age 7 (1922): 500-1, 640-1. On Levinstein (1878-1956) see Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 72 (1956): 582-3.
107. Chemical Age 7 (1922): 500-1, 640-1. On Levinstein (1878-1956) see Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 72 (1956): 582-3.
108. H. D. Richmond, "Present and Future Prospects of the Chemical Societies of Great Britain," Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 40 (1921): 4-6R.
109. There appear to be no data available to indicate the occupations of these new members.
110. On the National Certificate scheme see R.T. Briggs, "Development of ONC and HNC with Particular Reference to the Development of Chemistry Syllabuses," unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of Sheffield, 1966. Russell, Coley and Roberts, Chemists by Profession, 265-6.
111. On the National Certificate scheme see R.T. Briggs, "Development of ONC and HNC with Particular Reference to the Development of Chemistry Syllabuses," unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of Sheffield, 1966. Russell, Coley and Roberts, Chemists by Profession, 265-6.
112. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 37 (1918): 5R.
113. Russell, Coley and Roberts, Chemists by Profession, 250.
114. See, for example, the account of an industrial dispute in the early twenties at the firm of Synthetic Ammonia & Nitrates, the firm which operated the British version of the Haber process. V. E. Parke, Billingham. The First Ten Years (Imperial Chemical Industries, 1957)
115. Institute of Chemistry, Conference on the Place of Applied Chemistry in the Training of Chemists held at The Salters' Hall, St. Swithin's Lane, London EC4 on Friday, 30th January, 1925 (London, 1925)
116. Russell, Coley and Roberts, Chemists by Profession, chapter 13.
117. R. Collins, The Credential Society. An Historical Sociology of Education and Stratification (New York, 1979). An obvious and important question is how, having helped define this boundary, the Institute responded to the sustained pressure towards routinized (often mechanized) activity which makes most forms of analytical chemistry amenable to deskilling and control. To answer this question would require a quite different study.