Military expenditures, health, and education: Bedfellows or antagonists in third world development?

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 22, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 441-467

  Adeola, Francis O ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW ORLEANS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039862398     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X9602200306     Document Type: Article

References (132)

1. See the data from the World Bank, World Development Report, (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1987); The U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (USACDA), World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers (WMEAT) (Washington, D.C.: USACDA, 1977, 1987, 1990); and Ruth L. Sivard, World Military and Social Expenditures (Washington, D.C.: World Priorities, Inc., 1983, 1985) . The terms Third World countries (TWCs), Less Developed Countries (LDCs), and Third World states are used synonymously throughout the paper to refer to a group of relatively poor, underdeveloped nations that have per capita Gross National Products (GNP) of less than 5,000 U.S. dollars.
2. See the data from the World Bank, World Development Report, (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1987); The U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (USACDA), World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers (WMEAT) (Washington, D.C.: USACDA, 1977, 1987, 1990); and Ruth L. Sivard, World Military and Social Expenditures (Washington, D.C.: World Priorities, Inc., 1983, 1985) . The terms Third World countries (TWCs), Less Developed Countries (LDCs), and Third World states are used synonymously throughout the paper to refer to a group of relatively poor, underdeveloped nations that have per capita Gross National Products (GNP) of less than 5,000 U.S. dollars.
3. See the data from the World Bank, World Development Report, (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1987); The U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (USACDA), World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers (WMEAT) (Washington, D.C.: USACDA, 1977, 1987, 1990); and Ruth L. Sivard, World Military and Social Expenditures (Washington, D.C.: World Priorities, Inc., 1983, 1985) . The terms Third World countries (TWCs), Less Developed Countries (LDCs), and Third World states are used synonymously throughout the paper to refer to a group of relatively poor, underdeveloped nations that have per capita Gross National Products (GNP) of less than 5,000 U.S. dollars.
4. Ibid.
5. See B. Bullock and G. Firebaugh, "Guns and Butter? The Effect of Militarization on Economic Growth and Social Development in the Third World," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 18 (1990): 231-266.
6. See R. Faini, P. Annez, and L. Taylor, "Defense Spending, Economic Structure, and Growth: Evidence among Countries over Time," Economic Development and Cultural Change, 32 (1984): 387-498; B. Biswas and R. Ram, "Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Less Developed Countries: An Augmented Model and Further Evidence," Economic Development and Cultural Change 34 (1986): 361-372.
7. See R. Faini, P. Annez, and L. Taylor, "Defense Spending, Economic Structure, and Growth: Evidence among Countries over Time," Economic Development and Cultural Change, 32 (1984): 387-498; B. Biswas and R. Ram, "Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Less Developed Countries: An Augmented Model and Further Evidence," Economic Development and Cultural Change 34 (1986): 361-372.
8. E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1973); Henry Bienen, The Military and Modernization (Chicago: Aldine, 1971); M. Janowitz, The Military in Political Development of New Nations: An Essay in Comparative Analysis (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); L. Pye, "Armies in the Process of Political Modernization," in The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, ed. J.J. Johnson, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962), 69-89; David Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York: Free Press, 1965); S. Deger and S. Sen, Military Expenditure: The Political Economy of International Security (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); and Alex Inkeles and David H. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974).
9. E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1973); Henry Bienen, The Military and Modernization (Chicago: Aldine, 1971); M. Janowitz, The Military in Political Development of New Nations: An Essay in Comparative Analysis (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); L. Pye, "Armies in the Process of Political Modernization," in The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, ed. J.J. Johnson, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962), 69-89; David Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York: Free Press, 1965); S. Deger and S. Sen, Military Expenditure: The Political Economy of International Security (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); and Alex Inkeles and David H. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974).
10. E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1973); Henry Bienen, The Military and Modernization (Chicago: Aldine, 1971); M. Janowitz, The Military in Political Development of New Nations: An Essay in Comparative Analysis (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); L. Pye, "Armies in the Process of Political Modernization," in The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, ed. J.J. Johnson, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962), 69-89; David Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York: Free Press, 1965); S. Deger and S. Sen, Military Expenditure: The Political Economy of International Security (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); and Alex Inkeles and David H. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974).
11. E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1973); Henry Bienen, The Military and Modernization (Chicago: Aldine, 1971); M. Janowitz, The Military in Political Development of New Nations: An Essay in Comparative Analysis (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); L. Pye, "Armies in the Process of Political Modernization," in The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, ed. J.J. Johnson, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962), 69-89; David Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York: Free Press, 1965); S. Deger and S. Sen, Military Expenditure: The Political Economy of International Security (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); and Alex Inkeles and David H. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974).
12. E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1973); Henry Bienen, The Military and Modernization (Chicago: Aldine, 1971); M. Janowitz, The Military in Political Development of New Nations: An Essay in Comparative Analysis (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); L. Pye, "Armies in the Process of Political Modernization," in The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, ed. J.J. Johnson, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962), 69-89; David Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York: Free Press, 1965); S. Deger and S. Sen, Military Expenditure: The Political Economy of International Security (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); and Alex Inkeles and David H. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974).
13. E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1973); Henry Bienen, The Military and Modernization (Chicago: Aldine, 1971); M. Janowitz, The Military in Political Development of New Nations: An Essay in Comparative Analysis (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); L. Pye, "Armies in the Process of Political Modernization," in The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, ed. J.J. Johnson, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962), 69-89; David Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York: Free Press, 1965); S. Deger and S. Sen, Military Expenditure: The Political Economy of International Security (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); and Alex Inkeles and David H. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974).
14. E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1973); Henry Bienen, The Military and Modernization (Chicago: Aldine, 1971); M. Janowitz, The Military in Political Development of New Nations: An Essay in Comparative Analysis (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); L. Pye, "Armies in the Process of Political Modernization," in The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, ed. J.J. Johnson, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962), 69-89; David Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York: Free Press, 1965); S. Deger and S. Sen, Military Expenditure: The Political Economy of International Security (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); and Alex Inkeles and David H. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974).
15. See L. M. Grobar and R. C. Porter, "Benoit Revisited: Defense Spending and Economic Growth in LDCs," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33 (1989): 318-345; S. Deeger and S. Sen, Military Expenditure: The Political Economy of International Security (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
16. See L. M. Grobar and R. C. Porter, "Benoit Revisited: Defense Spending and Economic Growth in LDCs," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33 (1989): 318-345; S. Deeger and S. Sen, Military Expenditure: The Political Economy of International Security (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
17. P. Hess and B. Mullan, "The Military Burden and Public Education Expenditures in Contemporary Developing Nations: Is There a Trade-off?" Journal of Developing Areas 22 (1988): 497-514; N. E. Babin, "Military Expenditures and Education: Allies or Adversaries in Third World Development?" Journal of Political and Military Sociology 18 (1990): 267-283.
18. P. Hess and B. Mullan, "The Military Burden and Public Education Expenditures in Contemporary Developing Nations: Is There a Trade-off?" Journal of Developing Areas 22 (1988): 497-514; N. E. Babin, "Military Expenditures and Education: Allies or Adversaries in Third World Development?" Journal of Political and Military Sociology 18 (1990): 267-283.
19. See note 5.
20. A. Hawley, Human Ecology: A Theoretical Essay (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 30.
21. See W. Dixon and B. E. Moon, "The Military Burden and Basic Human Needs," Journal of Conflict Resolution 30 (1986): 660-684; E. Weede, "Military Participation Ratios, Human Capital Formation, and Economic Growth: A Cross-National Analysis," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 11 (1983): 11-19; R. E. Looney, "Militarization, Military Regimes, and the General Quality of Life in the Third World," Armed Forces & Society 17 (1990): 127-139.
22. See W. Dixon and B. E. Moon, "The Military Burden and Basic Human Needs," Journal of Conflict Resolution 30 (1986): 660-684; E. Weede, "Military Participation Ratios, Human Capital Formation, and Economic Growth: A Cross-National Analysis," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 11 (1983): 11-19; R. E. Looney, "Militarization, Military Regimes, and the General Quality of Life in the Third World," Armed Forces & Society 17 (1990): 127-139.
23. See W. Dixon and B. E. Moon, "The Military Burden and Basic Human Needs," Journal of Conflict Resolution 30 (1986): 660-684; E. Weede, "Military Participation Ratios, Human Capital Formation, and Economic Growth: A Cross-National Analysis," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 11 (1983): 11-19; R. E. Looney, "Militarization, Military Regimes, and the General Quality of Life in the Third World," Armed Forces & Society 17 (1990): 127-139.
24. See Nicole Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988); P. Hess, "The Military Burden, Economic Growth, and the Human Suffering Index: Evidence from LDCs," Cambridge Journal of Economics 13 (1989): 497-515; and Alex Mintz, "Guns Versus Butter: A Disaggregated Analysis," American Political Science Review 4 (1989): 1285-1293.
25. See Nicole Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988); P. Hess, "The Military Burden, Economic Growth, and the Human Suffering Index: Evidence from LDCs," Cambridge Journal of Economics 13 (1989): 497-515; and Alex Mintz, "Guns Versus Butter: A Disaggregated Analysis," American Political Science Review 4 (1989): 1285-1293.
26. See Nicole Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988); P. Hess, "The Military Burden, Economic Growth, and the Human Suffering Index: Evidence from LDCs," Cambridge Journal of Economics 13 (1989): 497-515; and Alex Mintz, "Guns Versus Butter: A Disaggregated Analysis," American Political Science Review 4 (1989): 1285-1293.
27. See D. Dabelko and J.M. McCormick, "Opportunity Costs of Defense: Some Cross-National Evidence, " Journal of Peace Research 14 (1977): 145-154; Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World; M. D. Wolpin, Militarization, Internal Repression and Social Welfare in the Third World (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986).
28. See D. Dabelko and J.M. McCormick, "Opportunity Costs of Defense: Some Cross-National Evidence, " Journal of Peace Research 14 (1977): 145-154; Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World; M. D. Wolpin, Militarization, Internal Repression and Social Welfare in the Third World (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986).
29. See D. Dabelko and J.M. McCormick, "Opportunity Costs of Defense: Some Cross-National Evidence, " Journal of Peace Research 14 (1977): 145-154; Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World; M. D. Wolpin, Militarization, Internal Repression and Social Welfare in the Third World (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986).
30. Bullock and Firebaugh, "Guns and Butter"; Babin, "Military Expenditure and Education."
31. Bullock and Firebaugh, "Guns and Butter"; Babin, "Military Expenditure and Education."
32. See Dixon And Moon, "The Military Burden";
33. E. Kick and B.D. Sharda, "Third World Militarization and Development," Journal of Developing Societies 2 (1986): 49-67;
34. B. E. Moon and W. J. Dixon, "Politics, The State, and Basic Human Needs: A Cross-National Study," Journal of Political Science 29 (1985): 661-694.
35. Looney, " Militarization," 131, note 10.
36. See S. Deger and R. Smith, "Military Expenditures and Growth in Less Developed Countries," Journal of Conflict Resolution 30 (1983): 660-684; E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth; Ball, Security and Economy; Grobar and Porter, "Benoit Revisited;" Weede, "Military Participation Ratios."
37. See S. Deger and R. Smith, "Military Expenditures and Growth in Less Developed Countries," Journal of Conflict Resolution 30 (1983): 660-684; E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth; Ball, Security and Economy; Grobar and Porter, "Benoit Revisited;" Weede, "Military Participation Ratios."
38. See S. Deger and R. Smith, "Military Expenditures and Growth in Less Developed Countries," Journal of Conflict Resolution 30 (1983): 660-684; E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth; Ball, Security and Economy; Grobar and Porter, "Benoit Revisited;" Weede, "Military Participation Ratios."
39. See S. Deger and R. Smith, "Military Expenditures and Growth in Less Developed Countries," Journal of Conflict Resolution 30 (1983): 660-684; E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth; Ball, Security and Economy; Grobar and Porter, "Benoit Revisited;" Weede, "Military Participation Ratios."
40. E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth; note number 4; N. Ball, "Defense and Economic Development: A Critique of Benoit Study," Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1983): 507-524; D. K. Whynes, The Economics of Third World Military Expenditure (Austin, TX: The University of Texas Press, 1979); N. E. Babin, "Military Spending, Economic Growth and the Time Factor," Armed Forces & Society 15 (1989): 249-262.
41. E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth; note number 4; N. Ball, "Defense and Economic Development: A Critique of Benoit Study," Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1983): 507-524; D. K. Whynes, The Economics of Third World Military Expenditure (Austin, TX: The University of Texas Press, 1979); N. E. Babin, "Military Spending, Economic Growth and the Time Factor," Armed Forces & Society 15 (1989): 249-262.
42. E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth; note number 4; N. Ball, "Defense and Economic Development: A Critique of Benoit Study," Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1983): 507-524; D. K. Whynes, The Economics of Third World Military Expenditure (Austin, TX: The University of Texas Press, 1979); N. E. Babin, "Military Spending, Economic Growth and the Time Factor," Armed Forces & Society 15 (1989): 249-262.
43. E. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth; note number 4; N. Ball, "Defense and Economic Development: A Critique of Benoit Study," Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1983): 507-524; D. K. Whynes, The Economics of Third World Military Expenditure (Austin, TX: The University of Texas Press, 1979); N. E. Babin, "Military Spending, Economic Growth and the Time Factor," Armed Forces & Society 15 (1989): 249-262.
44. See David Lim, "Another Look at Growth and Defense in Less Developed Countries," Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1983): 377-384; Weede, "Military Participation Ratios," note 10.
45. See David Lim, "Another Look at Growth and Defense in Less Developed Countries," Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1983): 377-384; Weede, "Military Participation Ratios," note 10.
46. See Gi-Wook Shin, "The Military, State Involvement in the Economy, and Economic Growth, 1960-1975: A Cross-National Analysis," Sociological Perspectives 33 (1990): 219-233.
47. See Babin, "Military Expenditures and Education," note number 7.
48. See Ball, Security and Economy; "Defense and Economic Development;" notes 11 and 17; Hess, "The Military Burden"; B. Biswas and R. Ram, "Military Expenditures and Growth;" Economic Development and Cultural Change 34 (1986): 361-372; A. R. Chowdhury, "A Causal Analysis of Defense Spending and Economic Growth," Journal of Conflict Resolution 35 (1991): 80-97; and G. Kennedy, Defense Economics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983).
49. See Ball, Security and Economy; "Defense and Economic Development;" notes 11 and 17; Hess, "The Military Burden"; B. Biswas and R. Ram, "Military Expenditures and Growth;" Economic Development and Cultural Change 34 (1986): 361-372; A. R. Chowdhury, "A Causal Analysis of Defense Spending and Economic Growth," Journal of Conflict Resolution 35 (1991): 80-97; and G. Kennedy, Defense Economics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983).
50. See Ball, Security and Economy; "Defense and Economic Development;" notes 11 and 17; Hess, "The Military Burden"; B. Biswas and R. Ram, "Military Expenditures and Growth;" Economic Development and Cultural Change 34 (1986): 361-372; A. R. Chowdhury, "A Causal Analysis of Defense Spending and Economic Growth," Journal of Conflict Resolution 35 (1991): 80-97; and G. Kennedy, Defense Economics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983).
51. See Ball, Security and Economy; "Defense and Economic Development;" notes 11 and 17; Hess, "The Military Burden"; B. Biswas and R. Ram, "Military Expenditures and Growth;" Economic Development and Cultural Change 34 (1986): 361-372; A. R. Chowdhury, "A Causal Analysis of Defense Spending and Economic Growth," Journal of Conflict Resolution 35 (1991): 80-97; and G. Kennedy, Defense Economics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983).
52. See Ball, Security and Economy; "Defense and Economic Development;" notes 11 and 17; Hess, "The Military Burden"; B. Biswas and R. Ram, "Military Expenditures and Growth;" Economic Development and Cultural Change 34 (1986): 361-372; A. R. Chowdhury, "A Causal Analysis of Defense Spending and Economic Growth," Journal of Conflict Resolution 35 (1991): 80-97; and G. Kennedy, Defense Economics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983).
53. See Deger and Sen, Military Expenditure; note number 5; Wolpin, Militarization, Internal Repression and Social Welfare, note number 11; F. Adeola, "Military Factors and External Debt in Less Developed Countries: Evidence from Cross-Sectional and Panel Assessments," Journal of Third World Studies X, 2 (1993): 126-157.
54. See Deger and Sen, Military Expenditure; note number 5; Wolpin, Militarization, Internal Repression and Social Welfare, note number 11; F. Adeola, "Military Factors and External Debt in Less Developed Countries: Evidence from Cross-Sectional and Panel Assessments," Journal of Third World Studies X, 2 (1993): 126-157.
55. See Deger and Sen, Military Expenditure; note number 5; Wolpin, Militarization, Internal Repression and Social Welfare, note number 11; F. Adeola, "Military Factors and External Debt in Less Developed Countries: Evidence from Cross-Sectional and Panel Assessments," Journal of Third World Studies X, 2 (1993): 126-157.
56. See Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth; Bienen, The Military and Modernization; Janowitz, The Military in Political Development; and Pye, "Armies in the Process of Political Modernization," note 5.
57. See Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth; Bienen, The Military and Modernization; Janowitz, The Military in Political Development; and Pye, "Armies in the Process of Political Modernization," note 5.
58. E. Benoit, "Growth and Defense in Developing Countries," Economic Development and Cultural Change 26 (1978): 271-280.
59. Ball, Security and Economy, 333; note 11.
60. See P. O. Agbese, "With Fingers on the Trigger: The Military as Custodian of Democracy in Nigeria," Journal of Third World Studies IX (1992): 220-253. Also see S. Deger, Military Expenditure in Third World Countries: The Economic Effects (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1986), 17.
61. See P. O. Agbese, "With Fingers on the Trigger: The Military as Custodian of Democracy in Nigeria," Journal of Third World Studies IX (1992): 220-253. Also see S. Deger, Military Expenditure in Third World Countries: The Economic Effects (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1986), 17.
62. Agbese, "With Fingers on the Trigger," 231.
63. See Sivard, World Military and Social Expenditures; The World Bank, World Development Report; note 1.
64. For a comprehensive review of literature on world system/dependency theory, see I. Wallerstein, The Modern World System (New York: Academy Press, 1974), The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1979); V. Bornschier and C. Chase-Dunn, Transnational Corporations and Underdevelopment, (New York: Praeger, 1985); P. Evans, Dependent Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979); T. R. Shannon, An Introduction to the World System Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989).
65. For a comprehensive review of literature on world system/dependency theory, see I. Wallerstein, The Modern World System (New York: Academy Press, 1974), The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1979); V. Bornschier and C. Chase-Dunn, Transnational Corporations and Underdevelopment, (New York: Praeger, 1985); P. Evans, Dependent Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979); T. R. Shannon, An Introduction to the World System Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989).
66. For a comprehensive review of literature on world system/dependency theory, see I. Wallerstein, The Modern World System (New York: Academy Press, 1974), The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1979); V. Bornschier and C. Chase-Dunn, Transnational Corporations and Underdevelopment, (New York: Praeger, 1985); P. Evans, Dependent Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979); T. R. Shannon, An Introduction to the World System Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989).
67. For a comprehensive review of literature on world system/dependency theory, see I. Wallerstein, The Modern World System (New York: Academy Press, 1974), The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1979); V. Bornschier and C. Chase-Dunn, Transnational Corporations and Underdevelopment, (New York: Praeger, 1985); P. Evans, Dependent Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979); T. R. Shannon, An Introduction to the World System Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989).
68. For a comprehensive review of literature on world system/dependency theory, see I. Wallerstein, The Modern World System (New York: Academy Press, 1974), The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1979); V. Bornschier and C. Chase-Dunn, Transnational Corporations and Underdevelopment, (New York: Praeger, 1985); P. Evans, Dependent Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979); T. R. Shannon, An Introduction to the World System Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989).
69. See L. W. Snider, "Guns, Debt, and Politics: New Variations on an Old Theme," Armed Forces & Society 17 (1991): 167-190; and Adeola, "Military Factor and External Debt."
70. See L. W. Snider, "Guns, Debt, and Politics: New Variations on an Old Theme," Armed Forces & Society 17 (1991): 167-190; and Adeola, "Military Factor and External Debt."
71. Ball, Security and Economy, 21.
72. See J. Delacroix and C.C. Ragin, "Structural Blockage: A Cross-National Study of Economic Dependency, State Efficacy, and Underdevelopment," American Journal of Sociology 86 (1981): 1311-1347.
73. See Robert M. Rosh, "Third World Militarization: Security Webs and the States they Ensnare," Journal of Conflict Resolution 32 (1988): 647-698.
74. Sivard, World Military and Social Expenditures; note 1.
75. See E. L. Kick, R. Nasser, B. L. Davis, and L. Bean, "Militarization and Infant Mortality in the Third World," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 18 (1990): 285-305; and E. L. Kick and B. D. Sharda, "Third World Militarization and Development." Journal of Developing Societies 2 (1986): 49-67.
76. See E. L. Kick, R. Nasser, B. L. Davis, and L. Bean, "Militarization and Infant Mortality in the Third World," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 18 (1990): 285-305; and E. L. Kick and B. D. Sharda, "Third World Militarization and Development." Journal of Developing Societies 2 (1986): 49-67.
77. See Dixon and Moon, "The Military Burden;" Wolpin, 1986, Militarization, Internal Repression and Social Welfare: O. Nabe, "Military Expenditures and Industrialization in Africa," Journal of Economic Issues 17 (1983): 575-587; F.O. Adeola, Military Burden, Modernization, and Social Well-Being: The Dynamics of Developmental Problems in Third World Countries, (Ph.D. diss., Mississippi State University, 1991).
78. See Dixon and Moon, "The Military Burden;" Wolpin, 1986, Militarization, Internal Repression and Social Welfare: O. Nabe, "Military Expenditures and Industrialization in Africa," Journal of Economic Issues 17 (1983): 575-587; F.O. Adeola, Military Burden, Modernization, and Social Well-Being: The Dynamics of Developmental Problems in Third World Countries, (Ph.D. diss., Mississippi State University, 1991).
79. See Dixon and Moon, "The Military Burden;" Wolpin, 1986, Militarization, Internal Repression and Social Welfare: O. Nabe, "Military Expenditures and Industrialization in Africa," Journal of Economic Issues 17 (1983): 575-587; F.O. Adeola, Military Burden, Modernization, and Social Well-Being: The Dynamics of Developmental Problems in Third World Countries, (Ph.D. diss., Mississippi State University, 1991).
80. See Dixon and Moon, "The Military Burden;" Wolpin, 1986, Militarization, Internal Repression and Social Welfare: O. Nabe, "Military Expenditures and Industrialization in Africa," Journal of Economic Issues 17 (1983): 575-587; F.O. Adeola, Military Burden, Modernization, and Social Well-Being: The Dynamics of Developmental Problems in Third World Countries, (Ph.D. diss., Mississippi State University, 1991).
81. See Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations (New York: Modern Library, 1937).
82. See R. W. DeGrasse, Military Expansion and Economic Decline: The Impact of Military Spending on U.S. Economic Performance (New York: M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 1983).
83. See Lim, "Another Look."
84. See B. Russett, "Defense Expenditures and National Well-Being," American Political Science Review 76 (1982): 767-777; W. K. Domke, R. C. Eichenberg, and C. M. Kelleher, "The Illusion of Choice: Defense and Welfare in Advanced Industrial Democracies," American Political Science Review 77 (1983): 19-35; Mintz, "Guns Versus Butter."
85. See B. Russett, "Defense Expenditures and National Well-Being," American Political Science Review 76 (1982): 767-777; W. K. Domke, R. C. Eichenberg, and C. M. Kelleher, "The Illusion of Choice: Defense and Welfare in Advanced Industrial Democracies," American Political Science Review 77 (1983): 19-35; Mintz, "Guns Versus Butter."
86. See B. Russett, "Defense Expenditures and National Well-Being," American Political Science Review 76 (1982): 767-777; W. K. Domke, R. C. Eichenberg, and C. M. Kelleher, "The Illusion of Choice: Defense and Welfare in Advanced Industrial Democracies," American Political Science Review 77 (1983): 19-35; Mintz, "Guns Versus Butter."
87. For a comprehensive review of problems associated with various sources of data on military expenditure, defense-related activities, and socioeconomic conditions in Third World countries, see S. Deger, Military Expenditure, chapter 2, especially pp. 53-59; and Deger and Smith, "Military Expenditures and Growth," 347-349. While the ACDA data are more comprehensive in terms of variables and countries covered (due in part to multiple data sources), the SIPRI with limited coverage is considered by some as the most reliable/verifiable source. Thus, important sources of military-related data, in terms of both coverage and reliability, appear to be ACDA and SIPRI. One reviewer suggested using both ACDA and SIPRI data separately; since this approach is beyond the scope of this paper, it is strongly recommended for future research. Nevertheless, there is cross-referencing between the ACDA and SIPRI, see Appendix 5B, p. 180, of SIPRI Yearbook: World Armaments and Disarmament (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
88. For a comprehensive review of problems associated with various sources of data on military expenditure, defense-related activities, and socioeconomic conditions in Third World countries, see S. Deger, Military Expenditure, chapter 2, especially pp. 53-59; and Deger and Smith, "Military Expenditures and Growth," 347-349. While the ACDA data are more comprehensive in terms of variables and countries covered (due in part to multiple data sources), the SIPRI with limited coverage is considered by some as the most reliable/verifiable source. Thus, important sources of military-related data, in terms of both coverage and reliability, appear to be ACDA and SIPRI. One reviewer suggested using both ACDA and SIPRI data separately; since this approach is beyond the scope of this paper, it is strongly recommended for future research. Nevertheless, there is cross-referencing between the ACDA and SIPRI, see Appendix 5B, p. 180, of SIPRI Yearbook: World Armaments and Disarmament (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
89. For a comprehensive review of problems associated with various sources of data on military expenditure, defense-related activities, and socioeconomic conditions in Third World countries, see S. Deger, Military Expenditure, chapter 2, especially pp. 53-59; and Deger and Smith, "Military Expenditures and Growth," 347-349. While the ACDA data are more comprehensive in terms of variables and countries covered (due in part to multiple data sources), the SIPRI with limited coverage is considered by some as the most reliable/verifiable source. Thus, important sources of military-related data, in terms of both coverage and reliability, appear to be ACDA and SIPRI. One reviewer suggested using both ACDA and SIPRI data separately; since this approach is beyond the scope of this paper, it is strongly recommended for future research. Nevertheless, there is cross-referencing between the ACDA and SIPRI, see Appendix 5B, p. 180, of SIPRI Yearbook: World Armaments and Disarmament (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
90. See note 1.
91. See L. C. Taylor and D. A. Jodice, World Handbook of Political and Social Indicators (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983).
92. Bornschier and Chase-Dunn, Transnational Corporations, 156-159.
93. See the World Bank, World Development Report, note 1.
94. There is no general hard and fast rule that favors longitudinal over cross-sectional analysis. However, the question of whether to use cross-sectional, longitudinal, or historical methods in a cross-national comparative research must be ultimately based on theoretical considerations.
95. In development literature, there is sufficient theoretical basis for a conceptualization of modernization using energy consumption and a conceptualization of economic development in terms of per capita GNP. For a comprehensive discussion, see P. H. Irwin, "An Operational Definition of Societal Modernization," Economic Developmem and Cultural Change 23 (1974): 595-613; R. H. Weller and D. F. Sly, "Modernization and Demographic Change," Rural Sociology 34 (1969): 313-326; and K. C. Land, "Social Indicators'" Annual Review of Sociology 9 (1983): 1-26.
96. In development literature, there is sufficient theoretical basis for a conceptualization of modernization using energy consumption and a conceptualization of economic development in terms of per capita GNP. For a comprehensive discussion, see P. H. Irwin, "An Operational Definition of Societal Modernization," Economic Developmem and Cultural Change 23 (1974): 595-613; R. H. Weller and D. F. Sly, "Modernization and Demographic Change," Rural Sociology 34 (1969): 313-326; and K. C. Land, "Social Indicators'" Annual Review of Sociology 9 (1983): 1-26.
97. In development literature, there is sufficient theoretical basis for a conceptualization of modernization using energy consumption and a conceptualization of economic development in terms of per capita GNP. For a comprehensive discussion, see P. H. Irwin, "An Operational Definition of Societal Modernization," Economic Developmem and Cultural Change 23 (1974): 595-613; R. H. Weller and D. F. Sly, "Modernization and Demographic Change," Rural Sociology 34 (1969): 313-326; and K. C. Land, "Social Indicators'" Annual Review of Sociology 9 (1983): 1-26.
98. The World Bank, World Development Report.
99. i is life expectancy at age one and 38 is the minimum range selected and .39 is the life expectancy elasticity of the index. The PQLI is determined by: IMRI + LEI + Literacy Rates divided by 3.
100. Adeola, Military Burden, 108; and S. Deger, Military Expenditure, 16.
101. Adeola, Military Burden, 108; and S. Deger, Military Expenditure, 16.
102. See Bornschier and Chase-Dunn, Transnational Corporations; Y. W. Bradshaw, "Urbanization and Underdevelopment: A Global Study of Modernization, Urban Bias, and Economic Dependency," American Sociological Review 52 (1987): 224-239.
103. See Bornschier and Chase-Dunn, Transnational Corporations; Y. W. Bradshaw, "Urbanization and Underdevelopment: A Global Study of Modernization, Urban Bias, and Economic Dependency," American Sociological Review 52 (1987): 224-239.
104. See Y. W. Bradshaw, "Reassessing Economic Dependency and Uneven Development: The Kenyan Experience," American Sociological Review 53 (1988): 693-708.
105. See S. Deger, "Human Resources, Government Education Expenditure, and Military Burden in Less Developed Countries," Journal of Developing Areas 20 (1985): 37-48;
106. and Kick, et al., "Militarization and Infant Mortality."
107. Three measures of military expenditures are used in Table 2 and the rest of the tables to determine whether the choice of indicator would influence the consistency of results. It is clear in the three equations that the use of a particular indicator of military expenditures or military burden often yields different outcomes, thus explaining the source of divergence of empirical results in the literature. In this analysis, military burden and per capita MILEX are not significant predictors of modernization, while total military expenditure is a significant determinant of modernization.
108. Babin, "Military Expenditures and Education."
109. Lerner, 1965, The Passing of Traditional Society; Inkeles and Smith, Becoming Modern.
110. Lerner, 1965, The Passing of Traditional Society; Inkeles and Smith, Becoming Modern.
111. See Kick, et al., "Militarization and and Infant Mortality."
112. The lack of a consistent systematic relationship between military expenditures and economic development growth/development has been emphasized in the literature. See Ball, "Defense and Economic Growth," note 17, and Biswas and Ram, "Military Expenditure and Economic Growth."
113. The lack of a consistent systematic relationship between military expenditures and economic development growth/development has been emphasized in the literature. See Ball, "Defense and Economic Growth," note 17, and Biswas and Ram, "Military Expenditure and Economic Growth."
114. See Y. W. Bradshaw, "Reassessing Economic Dependency."
115. See Kennedy, Defense Economics; note 21.
116. See Kick, et al., "Third World Militarization and Development," 289.
117. See R. M. Rosh, "The Impact of Third World Defense Burdens on Basic Human Needs," Policy Studies Journal 15 (1986): 135-146.
118. i for the ith point indicates the number of estimated standard errors that the predicted (fitted) value of the dependent variable changes if the ith point is deleted from the data set. Influential data point is an observation that either by itself or in conjunction with other observations has a demonstrably larger impact on the calculated values of parameter estimates. For further discussion, see R. H. Myers, Classical and Modern Regression with Applications (Boston: PWS-Kent, 1990); D. A. Belsley, E. Kuh, and R. Welsch, Regression Diagnostics: Identifying Influential Data and Sources of Collinearity (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1980); and K. A. Bollen and R. W. Jackman, "Regression Diagnostics: An Expository Treatment of Outliers and Influential Cases," Sociological Methods and Research 13 (1985): 510-542.
119. i for the ith point indicates the number of estimated standard errors that the predicted (fitted) value of the dependent variable changes if the ith point is deleted from the data set. Influential data point is an observation that either by itself or in conjunction with other observations has a demonstrably larger impact on the calculated values of parameter estimates. For further discussion, see R. H. Myers, Classical and Modern Regression with Applications (Boston: PWS-Kent, 1990); D. A. Belsley, E. Kuh, and R. Welsch, Regression Diagnostics: Identifying Influential Data and Sources of Collinearity (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1980); and K. A. Bollen and R. W. Jackman, "Regression Diagnostics: An Expository Treatment of Outliers and Influential Cases," Sociological Methods and Research 13 (1985): 510-542.
120. i for the ith point indicates the number of estimated standard errors that the predicted (fitted) value of the dependent variable changes if the ith point is deleted from the data set. Influential data point is an observation that either by itself or in conjunction with other observations has a demonstrably larger impact on the calculated values of parameter estimates. For further discussion, see R. H. Myers, Classical and Modern Regression with Applications (Boston: PWS-Kent, 1990); D. A. Belsley, E. Kuh, and R. Welsch, Regression Diagnostics: Identifying Influential Data and Sources of Collinearity (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1980); and K. A. Bollen and R. W. Jackman, "Regression Diagnostics: An Expository Treatment of Outliers and Influential Cases," Sociological Methods and Research 13 (1985): 510-542.
121. In anticipation of criticism of a cross-sectional research design, I also estimated panel regression models with lagged dependent variables for all the equations and the results suggest that per capita military expenditures or military expenditure as a fraction of GNP may not be allies in predicting social and economic development. This method remains controversial in the literature in terms of its conservative estimates on one hand, and the presence of serial correlation due to the lagged dependent variable that may yield inconsistent OLS parameter estimates, especially if the data is pooled, on the other hand. For more details, see Paul Allison, "Using Panel Data to Estimate the Effects of Events," Sociological Methods and Research 23 (1994): 174-199. Time series, panel, and longitudinal research designs are attractive methods for studying change. However, since the focus here is to demonstrate the type of association between MILEX, education and health expenditures, the cross-sectional models estimated are quite appropriate. Nevertheless, as suggested by one anonymous reviewer, the nature of trade-offs between MILEX and education and health expenditures may be better understood using time series or moving averages. For further discussion, see Edwin Kuh, "The Validity of Cross-Sectionally Estimated Behavior Equations in Time Series Applications," Econometrica 27 (1959): 197-214; Glen Firebaugh, "Cross-National Versus Historical Regression Models: Conditions of Equivalence in Comparative Analysis," Comparative Social Research 3 (1980): 333-344; R. Jackman, "Cross-National Statistical Research and the Study of Comparative Politics," American Journal of Political Science 29 (1985): 161-182; Hess and Mullan, "The Military Burden"; and Chowdhury, "A Causal Analysis of Defense Spending;" and notes 7, 21, and 46.
122. In anticipation of criticism of a cross-sectional research design, I also estimated panel regression models with lagged dependent variables for all the equations and the results suggest that per capita military expenditures or military expenditure as a fraction of GNP may not be allies in predicting social and economic development. This method remains controversial in the literature in terms of its conservative estimates on one hand, and the presence of serial correlation due to the lagged dependent variable that may yield inconsistent OLS parameter estimates, especially if the data is pooled, on the other hand. For more details, see Paul Allison, "Using Panel Data to Estimate the Effects of Events," Sociological Methods and Research 23 (1994): 174-199. Time series, panel, and longitudinal research designs are attractive methods for studying change. However, since the focus here is to demonstrate the type of association between MILEX, education and health expenditures, the cross-sectional models estimated are quite appropriate. Nevertheless, as suggested by one anonymous reviewer, the nature of trade-offs between MILEX and education and health expenditures may be better understood using time series or moving averages. For further discussion, see Edwin Kuh, "The Validity of Cross-Sectionally Estimated Behavior Equations in Time Series Applications," Econometrica 27 (1959): 197-214; Glen Firebaugh, "Cross-National Versus Historical Regression Models: Conditions of Equivalence in Comparative Analysis," Comparative Social Research 3 (1980): 333-344; R. Jackman, "Cross-National Statistical Research and the Study of Comparative Politics," American Journal of Political Science 29 (1985): 161-182; Hess and Mullan, "The Military Burden"; and Chowdhury, "A Causal Analysis of Defense Spending;" and notes 7, 21, and 46.
123. In anticipation of criticism of a cross-sectional research design, I also estimated panel regression models with lagged dependent variables for all the equations and the results suggest that per capita military expenditures or military expenditure as a fraction of GNP may not be allies in predicting social and economic development. This method remains controversial in the literature in terms of its conservative estimates on one hand, and the presence of serial correlation due to the lagged dependent variable that may yield inconsistent OLS parameter estimates, especially if the data is pooled, on the other hand. For more details, see Paul Allison, "Using Panel Data to Estimate the Effects of Events," Sociological Methods and Research 23 (1994): 174-199. Time series, panel, and longitudinal research designs are attractive methods for studying change. However, since the focus here is to demonstrate the type of association between MILEX, education and health expenditures, the cross-sectional models estimated are quite appropriate. Nevertheless, as suggested by one anonymous reviewer, the nature of trade-offs between MILEX and education and health expenditures may be better understood using time series or moving averages. For further discussion, see Edwin Kuh, "The Validity of Cross-Sectionally Estimated Behavior Equations in Time Series Applications," Econometrica 27 (1959): 197-214; Glen Firebaugh, "Cross-National Versus Historical Regression Models: Conditions of Equivalence in Comparative Analysis," Comparative Social Research 3 (1980): 333-344; R. Jackman, "Cross-National Statistical Research and the Study of Comparative Politics," American Journal of Political Science 29 (1985): 161-182; Hess and Mullan, "The Military Burden"; and Chowdhury, "A Causal Analysis of Defense Spending;" and notes 7, 21, and 46.
124. In anticipation of criticism of a cross-sectional research design, I also estimated panel regression models with lagged dependent variables for all the equations and the results suggest that per capita military expenditures or military expenditure as a fraction of GNP may not be allies in predicting social and economic development. This method remains controversial in the literature in terms of its conservative estimates on one hand, and the presence of serial correlation due to the lagged dependent variable that may yield inconsistent OLS parameter estimates, especially if the data is pooled, on the other hand. For more details, see Paul Allison, "Using Panel Data to Estimate the Effects of Events," Sociological Methods and Research 23 (1994): 174-199. Time series, panel, and longitudinal research designs are attractive methods for studying change. However, since the focus here is to demonstrate the type of association between MILEX, education and health expenditures, the cross-sectional models estimated are quite appropriate. Nevertheless, as suggested by one anonymous reviewer, the nature of trade-offs between MILEX and education and health expenditures may be better understood using time series or moving averages. For further discussion, see Edwin Kuh, "The Validity of Cross-Sectionally Estimated Behavior Equations in Time Series Applications," Econometrica 27 (1959): 197-214; Glen Firebaugh, "Cross-National Versus Historical Regression Models: Conditions of Equivalence in Comparative Analysis," Comparative Social Research 3 (1980): 333-344; R. Jackman, "Cross-National Statistical Research and the Study of Comparative Politics," American Journal of Political Science 29 (1985): 161-182; Hess and Mullan, "The Military Burden"; and Chowdhury, "A Causal Analysis of Defense Spending;" and notes 7, 21, and 46.
125. In anticipation of criticism of a cross-sectional research design, I also estimated panel regression models with lagged dependent variables for all the equations and the results suggest that per capita military expenditures or military expenditure as a fraction of GNP may not be allies in predicting social and economic development. This method remains controversial in the literature in terms of its conservative estimates on one hand, and the presence of serial correlation due to the lagged dependent variable that may yield inconsistent OLS parameter estimates, especially if the data is pooled, on the other hand. For more details, see Paul Allison, "Using Panel Data to Estimate the Effects of Events," Sociological Methods and Research 23 (1994): 174-199. Time series, panel, and longitudinal research designs are attractive methods for studying change. However, since the focus here is to demonstrate the type of association between MILEX, education and health expenditures, the cross-sectional models estimated are quite appropriate. Nevertheless, as suggested by one anonymous reviewer, the nature of trade-offs between MILEX and education and health expenditures may be better understood using time series or moving averages. For further discussion, see Edwin Kuh, "The Validity of Cross-Sectionally Estimated Behavior Equations in Time Series Applications," Econometrica 27 (1959): 197-214; Glen Firebaugh, "Cross-National Versus Historical Regression Models: Conditions of Equivalence in Comparative Analysis," Comparative Social Research 3 (1980): 333-344; R. Jackman, "Cross-National Statistical Research and the Study of Comparative Politics," American Journal of Political Science 29 (1985): 161-182; Hess and Mullan, "The Military Burden"; and Chowdhury, "A Causal Analysis of Defense Spending;" and notes 7, 21, and 46.
126. In anticipation of criticism of a cross-sectional research design, I also estimated panel regression models with lagged dependent variables for all the equations and the results suggest that per capita military expenditures or military expenditure as a fraction of GNP may not be allies in predicting social and economic development. This method remains controversial in the literature in terms of its conservative estimates on one hand, and the presence of serial correlation due to the lagged dependent variable that may yield inconsistent OLS parameter estimates, especially if the data is pooled, on the other hand. For more details, see Paul Allison, "Using Panel Data to Estimate the Effects of Events," Sociological Methods and Research 23 (1994): 174-199. Time series, panel, and longitudinal research designs are attractive methods for studying change. However, since the focus here is to demonstrate the type of association between MILEX, education and health expenditures, the cross-sectional models estimated are quite appropriate. Nevertheless, as suggested by one anonymous reviewer, the nature of trade-offs between MILEX and education and health expenditures may be better understood using time series or
127. See Somnath Sen, "Debt, Financial Flows and International Security." In SIPRI Yearbook, World Armament and Disarmament (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 203-217. R. T. Cunningham, "The Effects of Debt Burden on Economic Growth in Heavily Indebted Developing Nations, " Journal of Economic Development 18 (1993): 115-126.
128. See Somnath Sen, "Debt, Financial Flows and International Security." In SIPRI Yearbook, World Armament and Disarmament (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 203-217. R. T. Cunningham, "The Effects of Debt Burden on Economic Growth in Heavily Indebted Developing Nations, " Journal of Economic Development 18 (1993): 115-126.
129. See Rosh, "The Impact of Third World Defense Burdens."
130. See Deger, "Human Resources," Military Expenditure: Ball, Security and Economy; and Dixon and Moon, "The Military Burden."
131. See Deger, "Human Resources," Military Expenditure: Ball, Security and Economy; and Dixon and Moon, "The Military Burden."
132. See Deger, "Human Resources," Military Expenditure: Ball, Security and Economy; and Dixon and Moon, "The Military Burden."