Supervised devolution: The case of child-support enforcement

Publius: The Journal of Federalism

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 99-116

  Crowley, Jocelyn Elise ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039849585     PISSN: 00485950     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a030075     Document Type: Article

References (51)

1. Statistics cited in the first two paragraphs are taken from the U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Ways and Means, The 1998 Green Book (Washington, DC: GPO, 1998), pp. 545-657, and from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Twenty-second Annual Report to Congress (Washington, DC: GPO, 1998), pp. 25-10.
2. Statistics cited in the first two paragraphs are taken from the U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Ways and Means, The 1998 Green Book (Washington, DC: GPO, 1998), pp. 545-657, and from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Twenty-second Annual Report to Congress (Washington, DC: GPO, 1998), pp. 25-10.
3. Social Security Amendments passed in 1950, 1965, and 1967 began the process of granting the states the authority to access information to locate non-custodial parents. These laws represented the foundation upon which the program was launched in 1975.
4. Under current law, the federal government pays for 66 percent of the program's administrative costs, including outlays for locating parents, paternity establishment, establishing orders, and collecting payments. The federal government also pays for between 80 percent and 90 percent of the costs of developing improved management technology systems and for 90 percent of paternity laboratory tests.
5. In the U.S. Supreme Court decision Shapiro v. Thompson, 394 U.S. 618 (1969), for example, the justices held that residency requirements preventing newly relocated families (who had moved from one state to another) from accessing benefits were unconstitutional, while in King v. Smith, 392 U.S. 309 (1968), and Lewis v. Martin, 397 U.S. 552 (1970), the Court voided man-in-the-house rules, which had prohibited mothers from receiving benefits if they were cohabiting with a man. In addition, Goldberg v. Kelly, 397 U.S. 254 (1970), guaranteed recipients the right to appeal welfare agency decisions that involved a change in their benefit levels. See Michael Sosin, "Legal Rights and Welfare Change, 1960-1980," in Fighting Poverty, eds. Sheldon Danziger and Daniel Weinberg (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), pp. 260-286, for a thorough discussion of these decisions.
6. States had the option of providing services to non-AFDC families beginning in 1975, but most chose to focus on the welfare caseload.
7. States use three basic formulas. The income-shares model calculates support based on the combined income of both parents, and the percentage-of-income standard calculates support based on the noncustodial parent's income. The Melson-Delaware formula first takes into account the parents' need for self-support before calculating each person's contribution for the children.
8. Of course, this list of legislation is not exhaustive. See the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Twenty-second Annual Report to Congress, for a complete discussion of all relevant legislative activity.
9. The federal government has already been involved in penalizing states that have failed to conform to program regulations/operational standards (i.e., prior to 1994, Ohio, New Mexico, Mississippi, and Arizona were assessed millions of dollars in financial penalties).
10. See, for example, Kenneth L. Deavers and Anita U. Hattiangadi, "Welfare to Work: Building a Better Path to Private Employment," Journal of Labor Research 19 (Spring 1998): 205-228: Robert M. Hutchens, "The Effects of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981 on AFDC Recipients: A Review of Studies," in Research in Labor Economics, vol. 8, part B, ed. David Wise (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1986) ; Robert Moffitt, "Incentive Effects of the U.S. Welfare System: A Review," Journal of Economic Literature 30 (March 1992): 1-61; Rebecca M. Blank, "The Employment Strategy: Public Policies to Increase Work and Earnings," Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for Change, eds. Sheldon H. Danziger, Gary D. Sandefur, and Daniel H. Weinberg (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1994), pp. 168-204.
11. See, for example, Kenneth L. Deavers and Anita U. Hattiangadi, "Welfare to Work: Building a Better Path to Private Employment," Journal of Labor Research 19 (Spring 1998): 205-228: Robert M. Hutchens, "The Effects of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981 on AFDC Recipients: A Review of Studies," in Research in Labor Economics, vol. 8, part B, ed. David Wise (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1986) ; Robert Moffitt, "Incentive Effects of the U.S. Welfare System: A Review," Journal of Economic Literature 30 (March 1992): 1-61; Rebecca M. Blank, "The Employment Strategy: Public Policies to Increase Work and Earnings," Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for Change, eds. Sheldon H. Danziger, Gary D. Sandefur, and Daniel H. Weinberg (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1994), pp. 168-204.
12. See, for example, Kenneth L. Deavers and Anita U. Hattiangadi, "Welfare to Work: Building a Better Path to Private Employment," Journal of Labor Research 19 (Spring 1998): 205-228: Robert M. Hutchens, "The Effects of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981 on AFDC Recipients: A Review of Studies," in Research in Labor Economics, vol. 8, part B, ed. David Wise (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1986) ; Robert Moffitt, "Incentive Effects of the U.S. Welfare System: A Review," Journal of Economic Literature 30 (March 1992): 1-61; Rebecca M. Blank, "The Employment Strategy: Public Policies to Increase Work and Earnings," Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for Change, eds. Sheldon H. Danziger, Gary D. Sandefur, and Daniel H. Weinberg (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1994), pp. 168-204.
13. See, for example, Kenneth L. Deavers and Anita U. Hattiangadi, "Welfare to Work: Building a Better Path to Private Employment," Journal of Labor Research 19 (Spring 1998): 205-228: Robert M. Hutchens, "The Effects of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981 on AFDC Recipients: A Review of Studies," in Research in Labor Economics, vol. 8, part B, ed. David Wise (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1986) ; Robert Moffitt, "Incentive Effects of the U.S. Welfare System: A Review," Journal of Economic Literature 30 (March 1992): 1-61; Rebecca M. Blank, "The Employment Strategy: Public Policies to Increase Work and Earnings," Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for Change, eds. Sheldon H. Danziger, Gary D. Sandefur, and Daniel H. Weinberg (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1994), pp. 168-204.
14. Daniel R. Meyer, Judi Bartfeld, Irwin Garfinkel, and Patricia Brown, "Child Support Reform: Lessons from Wisconsin," Family Relations 45 (January 1996): 11-18. Philip K. Robins, "Why Did Child Support Award Levels Decline from 1978 to 1985?" Journal of Human Resources 27 (Spring 1992): 362-379; Daniel R. Meyer, "Supporting Children Born Outside of Marriage: Do Child Support Awards Keep Pace with Changes in Fathers' Incomes?" Social Science Quarterly 76 (September 1995): 577-593; Donald T. Oellerich, Irwin Garfinkel, and Philip Robins, "Private Child Support: Current and Potential Impacts," Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 18 (March 1991): 3-23 ; Daniel R. Meyer, "Child Support and Welfare Dynamics: Evidence from Wisconsin," Demography 30 (February 1993): 45-62; Irwin Garfinkel and Sara S. McLanahan, "The Effects of the Child Support Provisions of the Family Support Act of 1988 on Child Well-Being," Population Research and Policy Review 9 (June 1990): 205-234.
15. Daniel R. Meyer, Judi Bartfeld, Irwin Garfinkel, and Patricia Brown, "Child Support Reform: Lessons from Wisconsin," Family Relations 45 (January 1996): 11-18. Philip K. Robins, "Why Did Child Support Award Levels Decline from 1978 to 1985?" Journal of Human Resources 27 (Spring 1992): 362-379; Daniel R. Meyer, "Supporting Children Born Outside of Marriage: Do Child Support Awards Keep Pace with Changes in Fathers' Incomes?" Social Science Quarterly 76 (September 1995): 577-593; Donald T. Oellerich, Irwin Garfinkel, and Philip Robins, "Private Child Support: Current and Potential Impacts," Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 18 (March 1991): 3-23 ; Daniel R. Meyer, "Child Support and Welfare Dynamics: Evidence from Wisconsin," Demography 30 (February 1993): 45-62; Irwin Garfinkel and Sara S. McLanahan, "The Effects of the Child Support Provisions of the Family Support Act of 1988 on Child Well-Being," Population Research and Policy Review 9 (June 1990): 205-234.
16. Daniel R. Meyer, Judi Bartfeld, Irwin Garfinkel, and Patricia Brown, "Child Support Reform: Lessons from Wisconsin," Family Relations 45 (January 1996): 11-18. Philip K. Robins, "Why Did Child Support Award Levels Decline from 1978 to 1985?" Journal of Human Resources 27 (Spring 1992): 362-379; Daniel R. Meyer, "Supporting Children Born Outside of Marriage: Do Child Support Awards Keep Pace with Changes in Fathers' Incomes?" Social Science Quarterly 76 (September 1995): 577-593; Donald T. Oellerich, Irwin Garfinkel, and Philip Robins, "Private Child Support: Current and Potential Impacts," Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 18 (March 1991): 3-23 ; Daniel R. Meyer, "Child Support and Welfare Dynamics: Evidence from Wisconsin," Demography 30 (February 1993): 45-62; Irwin Garfinkel and Sara S. McLanahan, "The Effects of the Child Support Provisions of the Family Support Act of 1988 on Child Well-Being," Population Research and Policy Review 9 (June 1990): 205-234.
17. Daniel R. Meyer, Judi Bartfeld, Irwin Garfinkel, and Patricia Brown, "Child Support Reform: Lessons from Wisconsin," Family Relations 45 (January 1996): 11-18. Philip K. Robins, "Why Did Child Support Award Levels Decline from 1978 to 1985?" Journal of Human Resources 27 (Spring 1992): 362-379; Daniel R. Meyer, "Supporting Children Born Outside of Marriage: Do Child Support Awards Keep Pace with Changes in Fathers' Incomes?" Social Science Quarterly 76 (September 1995): 577-593; Donald T. Oellerich, Irwin Garfinkel, and Philip Robins, "Private Child Support: Current and Potential Impacts," Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 18 (March 1991): 3-23 ; Daniel R. Meyer, "Child Support and Welfare Dynamics: Evidence from Wisconsin," Demography 30 (February 1993): 45-62; Irwin Garfinkel and Sara S. McLanahan, "The Effects of the Child Support Provisions of the Family Support Act of 1988 on Child Well-Being," Population Research and Policy Review 9 (June 1990): 205-234.
18. Daniel R. Meyer, Judi Bartfeld, Irwin Garfinkel, and Patricia Brown, "Child Support Reform: Lessons from Wisconsin," Family Relations 45 (January 1996): 11-18. Philip K. Robins, "Why Did Child Support Award Levels Decline from 1978 to 1985?" Journal of Human Resources 27 (Spring 1992): 362-379; Daniel R. Meyer, "Supporting Children Born Outside of Marriage: Do Child Support Awards Keep Pace with Changes in Fathers' Incomes?" Social Science Quarterly 76 (September 1995): 577-593; Donald T. Oellerich, Irwin Garfinkel, and Philip Robins, "Private Child Support: Current and Potential Impacts," Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 18 (March 1991): 3-23 ; Daniel R. Meyer, "Child Support and Welfare Dynamics: Evidence from Wisconsin," Demography 30 (February 1993): 45-62; Irwin Garfinkel and Sara S. McLanahan, "The Effects of the Child Support Provisions of the Family Support Act of 1988 on Child Well-Being," Population Research and Policy Review 9 (June 1990): 205-234.
19. Daniel R. Meyer, Judi Bartfeld, Irwin Garfinkel, and Patricia Brown, "Child Support Reform: Lessons from Wisconsin," Family Relations 45 (January 1996): 11-18. Philip K. Robins, "Why Did Child Support Award Levels Decline from 1978 to 1985?" Journal of Human Resources 27 (Spring 1992): 362-379; Daniel R. Meyer, "Supporting Children Born Outside of Marriage: Do Child Support Awards Keep Pace with Changes in Fathers' Incomes?" Social Science Quarterly 76 (September 1995): 577-593; Donald T. Oellerich, Irwin Garfinkel, and Philip Robins, "Private Child Support: Current and Potential Impacts," Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 18 (March 1991): 3-23 ; Daniel R. Meyer, "Child Support and Welfare Dynamics: Evidence from Wisconsin," Demography 30 (February 1993): 45-62; Irwin Garfinkel and Sara S. McLanahan, "The Effects of the Child Support Provisions of the Family Support Act of 1988 on Child Well-Being," Population Research and Policy Review 9 (June 1990): 205-234.
20. Lawrence M. Mead, "The New Paternalism in Action: Welfare Reform in Wisconsin," (Madison: Wisconsin Policy Research Institute, 1995), p. 34.
21. Judi Bartfeld and Daniel R. Meyer, "Are There Really Deadbeat Dads? The Relationship Between Ability to Pay, Enforcement, and Compliance in Nonmarital Child Support Cases," Social Service Review 68 (June 1994): 219-235.
22. Ronald Mincy and Elaine J. Sorensen, "Deadbeats and Turnips in Child Support Reform," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 17 (Winter 1998): 44-51.
23. Elizabeth Phillips and Irwin Garfinkel, "Changes Over Time in the Incomes of Nonresident Fathers in Wisconsin," (Madison, WI: Institute for Research on Poverty-University of Wisconsin, Paper DP#967-92, 1992).
24. Bartfeld and Meyer, "Are There Really Deadbeat Dads?"
25. Elaine Sorensen, "A National Profile of Nonresident Fathers and Their Ability to Pay Child Support," Journal of Marriage and the Family 59 (November 1997): 785-797; Cynthia Miller, Irwin Garfinkel, and Sara S. McLanahan, "Child Support in the United States: Can Fathers afford to Pay More?" Review of Income and Wealth 43 (September 1997): 261-281 .
26. Elaine Sorensen, "A National Profile of Nonresident Fathers and Their Ability to Pay Child Support," Journal of Marriage and the Family 59 (November 1997): 785-797; Cynthia Miller, Irwin Garfinkel, and Sara S. McLanahan, "Child Support in the United States: Can Fathers afford to Pay More?" Review of Income and Wealth 43 (September 1997): 261-281 .
27. See, for example, Sara S. McLanahan and Karen Booth, "Mother Only Families: Problems, Prospects, and Politics," Journal of Marriage and the Family 51 (August 1989) : 557-580; Sara S. McLanahan and L. Bumpass, "Intergenerational Consequences of Family Disruption," American Journal of Sociology 94 (July 1988): 130-152: Sheila Fitzgerald Krein and Andrea H. Beller, "Educational Attainment of Children from Single-parent families: Differences by Exposure, Gender, and Race," Demography 25 (May 1988): 221-234; Frank K. Furstenberg, Jr., "Burdens and Benefits: The Impact of Early Childbearing on the Family," Journal of Social Issues 36 (Spring 1980): 64-87.
28. See, for example, Sara S. McLanahan and Karen Booth, "Mother Only Families: Problems, Prospects, and Politics," Journal of Marriage and the Family 51 (August 1989) : 557-580; Sara S. McLanahan and L. Bumpass, "Intergenerational Consequences of Family Disruption," American Journal of Sociology 94 (July 1988): 130-152: Sheila Fitzgerald Krein and Andrea H. Beller, "Educational Attainment of Children from Single-parent families: Differences by Exposure, Gender, and Race," Demography 25 (May 1988): 221-234; Frank K. Furstenberg, Jr., "Burdens and Benefits: The Impact of Early Childbearing on the Family," Journal of Social Issues 36 (Spring 1980): 64-87.
29. See, for example, Sara S. McLanahan and Karen Booth, "Mother Only Families: Problems, Prospects, and Politics," Journal of Marriage and the Family 51 (August 1989) : 557-580; Sara S. McLanahan and L. Bumpass, "Intergenerational Consequences of Family Disruption," American Journal of Sociology 94 (July 1988): 130-152: Sheila Fitzgerald Krein and Andrea H. Beller, "Educational Attainment of Children from Single-parent families: Differences by Exposure, Gender, and Race," Demography 25 (May 1988): 221-234; Frank K. Furstenberg, Jr., "Burdens and Benefits: The Impact of Early Childbearing on the Family," Journal of Social Issues 36 (Spring 1980): 64-87.
30. See, for example, Sara S. McLanahan and Karen Booth, "Mother Only Families: Problems, Prospects, and Politics," Journal of Marriage and the Family 51 (August 1989) : 557-580; Sara S. McLanahan and L. Bumpass, "Intergenerational Consequences of Family Disruption," American Journal of Sociology 94 (July 1988): 130-152: Sheila Fitzgerald Krein and Andrea H. Beller, "Educational Attainment of Children from Single-parent families: Differences by Exposure, Gender, and Race," Demography 25 (May 1988): 221-234; Frank K. Furstenberg, Jr., "Burdens and Benefits: The Impact of Early Childbearing on the Family," Journal of Social Issues 36 (Spring 1980): 64-87.
31. See Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., "Divorce and the American Family," Annual Review of Sociology 16 (1990): 379-403; Catherine S. Chilman, "Social and Psychological Research Concerning Adolescent Childbearing: 1970-1980," Journal of Marriage and the Family 42 (November 1980): 793-806; Arline T. Geronimus and Sanders Korenman, "The Socioeconomic Consequences of Teen Childbearing Reconsidered," Quarterly Journal of Economics 107 (November 1992): 1187-1214; Douglas M. Teti and Michael E. Lamb, "Socioeconomic and Marital Outcomes of Adolescent Marriage, Adolescent Childbirth, and Their Co-occurrence," Journal of Marriage and the Family 51 (February 1989): 203-212; Deborah Rhode, "Adolescent Pregnancy and Public Policy," Political Science Quarterly 108 (Winter 1994): 635-669.
32. See Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., "Divorce and the American Family," Annual Review of Sociology 16 (1990): 379-403; Catherine S. Chilman, "Social and Psychological Research Concerning Adolescent Childbearing: 1970-1980," Journal of Marriage and the Family 42 (November 1980): 793-806; Arline T. Geronimus and Sanders Korenman, "The Socioeconomic Consequences of Teen Childbearing Reconsidered," Quarterly Journal of Economics 107 (November 1992): 1187-1214; Douglas M. Teti and Michael E. Lamb, "Socioeconomic and Marital Outcomes of Adolescent Marriage, Adolescent Childbirth, and Their Co-occurrence," Journal of Marriage and the Family 51 (February 1989): 203-212; Deborah Rhode, "Adolescent Pregnancy and Public Policy," Political Science Quarterly 108 (Winter 1994): 635-669.
33. See Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., "Divorce and the American Family," Annual Review of Sociology 16 (1990): 379-403; Catherine S. Chilman, "Social and Psychological Research Concerning Adolescent Childbearing: 1970-1980," Journal of Marriage and the Family 42 (November 1980): 793-806; Arline T. Geronimus and Sanders Korenman, "The Socioeconomic Consequences of Teen Childbearing Reconsidered," Quarterly Journal of Economics 107 (November 1992): 1187-1214; Douglas M. Teti and Michael E. Lamb, "Socioeconomic and Marital Outcomes of Adolescent Marriage, Adolescent Childbirth, and Their Co-occurrence," Journal of Marriage and the Family 51 (February 1989): 203-212; Deborah Rhode, "Adolescent Pregnancy and Public Policy," Political Science Quarterly 108 (Winter 1994): 635-669.
34. See Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., "Divorce and the American Family," Annual Review of Sociology 16 (1990): 379-403; Catherine S. Chilman, "Social and Psychological Research Concerning Adolescent Childbearing: 1970-1980," Journal of Marriage and the Family 42 (November 1980): 793-806; Arline T. Geronimus and Sanders Korenman, "The Socioeconomic Consequences of Teen Childbearing Reconsidered," Quarterly Journal of Economics 107 (November 1992): 1187-1214; Douglas M. Teti and Michael E. Lamb, "Socioeconomic and Marital Outcomes of Adolescent Marriage, Adolescent Childbirth, and Their Co-occurrence," Journal of Marriage and the Family 51 (February 1989): 203-212; Deborah Rhode, "Adolescent Pregnancy and Public Policy," Political Science Quarterly 108 (Winter 1994): 635-669.
35. See Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., "Divorce and the American Family," Annual Review of Sociology 16 (1990): 379-403; Catherine S. Chilman, "Social and Psychological Research Concerning Adolescent Childbearing: 1970-1980," Journal of Marriage and the Family 42 (November 1980): 793-806; Arline T. Geronimus and Sanders Korenman, "The Socioeconomic Consequences of Teen Childbearing Reconsidered," Quarterly Journal of Economics 107 (November 1992): 1187-1214; Douglas M. Teti and Michael E. Lamb, "Socioeconomic and Marital Outcomes of Adolescent Marriage, Adolescent Childbirth, and Their Co-occurrence," Journal of Marriage and the Family 51 (February 1989): 203-212; Deborah Rhode, "Adolescent Pregnancy and Public Policy," Political Science Quarterly 108 (Winter 1994): 635-669.
36. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, "Fathering: The Man and the Family: The Department of Health and Human Services-Response to President Clinton's June 16 Memorandum to Strengthen the Role of Fathers in Families" (memo produced by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC, 16 October 1995), 1.
37. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Ways and Means, The 1998 Green Book.
38. Jessica Pearson and Nancy Thoennes, "Programs to Increase Fathers' Access to their Children," Fathers Under Fire, eds. Irwin Garfinkel, Sara S. McLanahan, Daniel R. Meyer, and Judith A. Seltzer (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1998), pp. 220-252.
39. Marilyn Ray Smith, interview by author, Cambridge, MA, 23 December 1997.
40. Mincy and Sorensen, "Deadbeats and Turnips in Child Support Reform."
41. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Child Support Report (Washington, DC: Division of Consumer Services, October 1999).
42. Ibid., June 1999.
43. Fred Doolittle, Virginia Knox, Cynthia Miller, and Sharon Rowser, Building Opportunities, Enforcing Obligations: Implementation and Interim Impacts of Parents' Fair Share (New York Manpower Development Research Corporation, 1998).
44. Boumil and Friedman, Deadbeat Dads: A National Child Support Scandal; Andrea H. Beller and John W. Graham, Small Change: The Economics of Child Support (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993).
45. Boumil and Friedman, Deadbeat Dads: A National Child Support Scandal; Andrea H. Beller and John W. Graham, Small Change: The Economics of Child Support (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993).
46. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Child Support Report (Washington, DC: Division of Consumer Services, November 1999).
47. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, "An Interstate Summit: Crossing the Lines for the Children of America" (memo, 13 September 1999).
48. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Twenty-second Annual Report to Congress.
49. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Ways and Means, The 1998 Green Book, p. 601.
50. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Twenty-second Annual Report to Congress, p. 54; U.S. General Accounting Office, Child Support Enforcement: Effects of Declining Welfare Caseloads Are Beginning to Emerge (Washington, DC: GAO, 1999).
51. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Twenty-second Annual Report to Congress, p. 54; U.S. General Accounting Office, Child Support Enforcement: Effects of Declining Welfare Caseloads Are Beginning to Emerge (Washington, DC: GAO, 1999).