Prospects for solving the Cyprus problem and the role of the European Union

Publius: The Journal of Federalism

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 217-239

  Theophanous, Andreas ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039849505     PISSN: 00485950     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a030063     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. For the texts of the high-level agreements, see Republic of Cyprus, Press and Information Office, The Cyprus Problem (Nicosia: Republic of Cyprus, Press and Information Office, revised April 1999).
2. For the resolutions adopted by the UN on Cyprus from 1964 to 1996, see Republic of Cyprus, Press and Information Office, Resolutions adopted by the United Nations on the Cyprus problem 1964-1996 (Nicosia: Republic of Cyprus, Press and Information Office, 1997). Subsequent UN resolutions on Cyprus are Resolutions 1117, 1146 (1997); Resolutions 1178, 1179, 1217, 1218 (1998):and Resolutions 1250, 1251, 1283 (1999).
3. Given the objective of the Republic of Cyprus to join the EU, it is of critical importance that Cyprus harmonizes with European norms and laws. Consequently, the provisions of a federal structure in Cyprus should take this seriously into consideration. See Regular Report from the Commission on Progress Towards Accession of Cyprus (4 November 1998), http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/cyprus/rep_11_98/index.htm (no date available); Commission of the European Communities, Commission Opinion on the Application by the Republic of Cyprus for Membership (Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, 30 June 1993), COM(93) 313 final.
4. Given the objective of the Republic of Cyprus to join the EU, it is of critical importance that Cyprus harmonizes with European norms and laws. Consequently, the provisions of a federal structure in Cyprus should take this seriously into consideration. See Regular Report from the Commission on Progress Towards Accession of Cyprus (4 November 1998), http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/cyprus/rep_11_98/index.htm (no date available); Commission of the European Communities, Commission Opinion on the Application by the Republic of Cyprus for Membership (Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, 30 June 1993), COM(93) 313 final.
5. The Turkish Cypriot Bayrak Television broadcast a joint press conference live (on 31 August 1998) by Turkish Foreign Minister Ismail Cem and Turkish Cypriot leader Rauf Denktash after their meeting in the occupied part of Nicosia. See press releases of 1 September 1998 from Republic of Cyprus, Press and Information Office, as well as both Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot press.
6. See Van Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," pp. 13-20; Nadejda Alexandrova-Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," pp. 223-230; and Charalambos Papasoteriou, "Regional and International Conditions for a Viable Solution to the Cyprus Problem," in Andreas Theophanous, Andreas Ioannou and Nicos Peristianis, eds., The Cyprus Problem: Its Solution and the Day After (Nicosia: Research and Development Center-Intercollege, Conference Proceedings/1, 1998), pp. 231-237. Furthermore, see Analysis, of Current Event, year 7, no. 9 New York: Association for the Study of Nationalities-(Eastern Europe and ex-USSR), [May 1996]; Christos Ioannides, In Turkey's Image: The Transformation of Occupied Cyprus into a Turkish Province (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1991); Christos Ioannides, ed., Cyprus: Domestic Dynamics, External Constraints (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1992). See also Brendan O'Malley and Ian Craig, The Cyprus Conspiracy: America, Espionage and the Turkish Invasion (London, New York: I. B. Tauris and Co., Ltd., 1999).
7. See Van Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," pp. 13-20; Nadejda Alexandrova-Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," pp. 223-230; and Charalambos Papasoteriou, "Regional and International Conditions for a Viable Solution to the Cyprus Problem," in Andreas Theophanous, Andreas Ioannou and Nicos Peristianis, eds., The Cyprus Problem: Its Solution and the Day After (Nicosia: Research and Development Center-Intercollege, Conference Proceedings/1, 1998), pp. 231-237. Furthermore, see Analysis, of Current Event, year 7, no. 9 New York: Association for the Study of Nationalities-(Eastern Europe and ex-USSR), [May 1996]; Christos Ioannides, In Turkey's Image: The Transformation of Occupied Cyprus into a Turkish Province (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1991); Christos Ioannides, ed., Cyprus: Domestic Dynamics, External Constraints (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1992). See also Brendan O'Malley and Ian Craig, The Cyprus Conspiracy: America, Espionage and the Turkish Invasion (London, New York: I. B. Tauris and Co., Ltd., 1999).
8. See Van Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," pp. 13-20; Nadejda Alexandrova-Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," pp. 223-230; and Charalambos Papasoteriou, "Regional and International Conditions for a Viable Solution to the Cyprus Problem," in Andreas Theophanous, Andreas Ioannou and Nicos Peristianis, eds., The Cyprus Problem: Its Solution and the Day After (Nicosia: Research and Development Center-Intercollege, Conference Proceedings/1, 1998), pp. 231-237. Furthermore, see Analysis, of Current Event, year 7, no. 9 New York: Association for the Study of Nationalities-(Eastern Europe and ex-USSR), [May 1996]; Christos Ioannides, In Turkey's Image: The Transformation of Occupied Cyprus into a Turkish Province (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1991); Christos Ioannides, ed., Cyprus: Domestic Dynamics, External Constraints (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1992). See also Brendan O'Malley and Ian Craig, The Cyprus Conspiracy: America, Espionage and the Turkish Invasion (London, New York: I. B. Tauris and Co., Ltd., 1999).
9. See Van Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," pp. 13-20; Nadejda Alexandrova-Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," pp. 223-230; and Charalambos Papasoteriou, "Regional and International Conditions for a Viable Solution to the Cyprus Problem," in Andreas Theophanous, Andreas Ioannou and Nicos Peristianis, eds., The Cyprus Problem: Its Solution and the Day After (Nicosia: Research and Development Center-Intercollege, Conference Proceedings/1, 1998), pp. 231-237. Furthermore, see Analysis, of Current Event, year 7, no. 9 New York: Association for the Study of Nationalities-(Eastern Europe and ex-USSR), [May 1996]; Christos Ioannides, In Turkey's Image: The Transformation of Occupied Cyprus into a Turkish Province (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1991); Christos Ioannides, ed., Cyprus: Domestic Dynamics, External Constraints (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1992). See also Brendan O'Malley and Ian Craig, The Cyprus Conspiracy: America, Espionage and the Turkish Invasion (London, New York: I. B. Tauris and Co., Ltd., 1999).
10. See Van Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," pp. 13-20; Nadejda Alexandrova-Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," pp. 223-230; and Charalambos Papasoteriou, "Regional and International Conditions for a Viable Solution to the Cyprus Problem," in Andreas Theophanous, Andreas Ioannou and Nicos Peristianis, eds., The Cyprus Problem: Its Solution and the Day After (Nicosia: Research and Development Center-Intercollege, Conference Proceedings/1, 1998), pp. 231-237. Furthermore, see Analysis, of Current Event, year 7, no. 9 New York: Association for the Study of Nationalities-(Eastern Europe and ex-USSR), [May 1996]; Christos Ioannides, In Turkey's Image: The Transformation of Occupied Cyprus into a Turkish Province (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1991); Christos Ioannides, ed., Cyprus: Domestic Dynamics, External Constraints (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1992). See also Brendan O'Malley and Ian Craig, The Cyprus Conspiracy: America, Espionage and the Turkish Invasion (London, New York: I. B. Tauris and Co., Ltd., 1999).
11. See Van Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," pp. 13-20; Nadejda Alexandrova-Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," pp. 223-230; and Charalambos Papasoteriou, "Regional and International Conditions for a Viable Solution to the Cyprus Problem," in Andreas Theophanous, Andreas Ioannou and Nicos Peristianis, eds., The Cyprus Problem: Its Solution and the Day After (Nicosia: Research and Development Center-Intercollege, Conference Proceedings/1, 1998), pp. 231-237. Furthermore, see Analysis, of Current Event, year 7, no. 9 New York: Association for the Study of Nationalities-(Eastern Europe and ex-USSR), [May 1996]; Christos Ioannides, In Turkey's Image: The Transformation of Occupied Cyprus into a Turkish Province (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1991); Christos Ioannides, ed., Cyprus: Domestic Dynamics, External Constraints (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1992). See also Brendan O'Malley and Ian Craig, The Cyprus Conspiracy: America, Espionage and the Turkish Invasion (London, New York: I. B. Tauris and Co., Ltd., 1999).
12. See Van Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," pp. 13-20; Nadejda Alexandrova-Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," pp. 223-230; and Charalambos Papasoteriou, "Regional and International Conditions for a Viable Solution to the Cyprus Problem," in Andreas Theophanous, Andreas Ioannou and Nicos Peristianis, eds., The Cyprus Problem: Its Solution and the Day After (Nicosia: Research and Development Center-Intercollege, Conference Proceedings/1, 1998), pp. 231-237. Furthermore, see Analysis, of Current Event, year 7, no. 9 New York: Association for the Study of Nationalities-(Eastern Europe and ex-USSR), [May 1996]; Christos Ioannides, In Turkey's Image: The Transformation of Occupied Cyprus into a Turkish Province (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1991); Christos Ioannides, ed., Cyprus: Domestic Dynamics, External Constraints (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1992). See also Brendan O'Malley and Ian Craig, The Cyprus Conspiracy: America, Espionage and the Turkish Invasion (London, New York: I. B. Tauris and Co., Ltd., 1999).
13. See Andreas Theophanous, "Challenges and Opportunities in a Federal Cyprus," pp. 121-129; Nicos Peristianis "Socio-political Consideration for a Viable Solution to the Cyprus Problem," pp. 183-196; and Eric Neisser, "Individual and Communal Rights in the Constitutional Framework of a Federal Cyprus: Lessons from the American Experience," in Theophanous, Ioannou and Peristianis, The Cyprus Problem, pp. 87-98. Furthermore, see Andreas Theophanous, The Political Economy of a Federal Cyprus (Nicosia: Intercollge Press, 1996).
14. See Andreas Theophanous, "Challenges and Opportunities in a Federal Cyprus," pp. 121-129; Nicos Peristianis "Socio-political Consideration for a Viable Solution to the Cyprus Problem," pp. 183-196; and Eric Neisser, "Individual and Communal Rights in the Constitutional Framework of a Federal Cyprus: Lessons from the American Experience," in Theophanous, Ioannou and Peristianis, The Cyprus Problem, pp. 87-98. Furthermore, see Andreas Theophanous, The Political Economy of a Federal Cyprus (Nicosia: Intercollge Press, 1996).
15. See Andreas Theophanous, "Challenges and Opportunities in a Federal Cyprus," pp. 121-129; Nicos Peristianis "Socio-political Consideration for a Viable Solution to the Cyprus Problem," pp. 183-196; and Eric Neisser, "Individual and Communal Rights in the Constitutional Framework of a Federal Cyprus: Lessons from the American Experience," in Theophanous, Ioannou and Peristianis, The Cyprus Problem, pp. 87-98. Furthermore, see Andreas Theophanous, The Political Economy of a Federal Cyprus (Nicosia: Intercollge Press, 1996).
16. See Andreas Theophanous, "Challenges and Opportunities in a Federal Cyprus," pp. 121-129; Nicos Peristianis "Socio-political Consideration for a Viable Solution to the Cyprus Problem," pp. 183-196; and Eric Neisser, "Individual and Communal Rights in the Constitutional Framework of a Federal Cyprus: Lessons from the American Experience," in Theophanous, Ioannou and Peristianis, The Cyprus Problem, pp. 87-98. Furthermore, see Andreas Theophanous, The Political Economy of a Federal Cyprus (Nicosia: Intercollge Press, 1996).
17. See Miltiades Christodoulou, The Course of an Era: Greece, the Cypriot Leadership and the Cyprus Problem (in Greek), (Athens: Publishing and Trading Organization Ioannou Florou, 1987), p. 623; and Michael Dekleris. The Cyprus Problem 1972-1974: The last Opportunity (in Greek) (Athens: Hestia Publishing, 1981).
18. See Miltiades Christodoulou, The Course of an Era: Greece, the Cypriot Leadership and the Cyprus Problem (in Greek), (Athens: Publishing and Trading Organization Ioannou Florou, 1987), p. 623; and Michael Dekleris. The Cyprus Problem 1972-1974: The last Opportunity (in Greek) (Athens: Hestia Publishing, 1981).
19. See, for example, Daniel J. Elazar, Exploring Federalism (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 1987).
20. See Demetrios Christodoulou, Inside the Cyprus Miracle: The Labours of an Embattled Mini-Economy, Minnesota Mediterranean and East European Monographs, vol. 2 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Modern Greek Studies Program, 1992).
21. Ibid.; Andreas Theophanous, "Economic Growth and Development in Cyprus 1960-1984," Modern Greek Studies Yearbook, vol. 7 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Modern Greek Studies Program, 1991), pp. 105-132.
22. Christodoulou, Inside the Cyprus Miracle.
23. See Glafcos Clerides, My Deposition (in Greek), vol. 1 (Nicosia: Publications "Alithia," 1988), pp. 161-348
24. Glafcos Clerides, My Deposition (in Greek), vol. 2 (Nicosia: Publications "Alithia," 1989), pp. 220-261, 275-377; Glafcos Clerides, My Deposition (in Greek), vol. 3 (Nicosia: Publications "Alithia," 1990). pp. 39-106, 166-232, 289-307.
25. Glafcos Clerides, My Deposition (in Greek), vol. 2 (Nicosia: Publications "Alithia," 1989), pp. 220-261, 275-377; Glafcos Clerides, My Deposition (in Greek), vol. 3 (Nicosia: Publications "Alithia," 1990). pp. 39-106, 166-232, 289-307.
26. See footnote 7.
27. Prior to 1974, Turkey threatened to invade Cyprus on at least two other occasions, during the 1963-1964 crisis and in 1967. It should also be remembered that in August 1964 Turkey bombed Cyprus. For an in-depth discussion of these events, see Nicos Kranidiotis, Undefended State. Cyprus 1960-1974 (in Greek), vol. I (Athens: Hestia Press, 1985), pp. 97-110, 149-154, 176-196, 239-249, 454-479; and Thomas Ehrlich, Cyprus 1958-1967: International Crises and the Role of Law (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1974).
28. Prior to 1974, Turkey threatened to invade Cyprus on at least two other occasions, during the 1963-1964 crisis and in 1967. It should also be remembered that in August 1964 Turkey bombed Cyprus. For an in-depth discussion of these events, see Nicos Kranidiotis, Undefended State. Cyprus 1960-1974 (in Greek), vol. I (Athens: Hestia Press, 1985), pp. 97-110, 149-154, 176-196, 239-249, 454-479; and Thomas Ehrlich, Cyprus 1958-1967: International Crises and the Role of Law (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1974).
29. See Andreas Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU, and the Implications for Security in the Eastern Mediterranean," Defensor Pacis 4 (January 2000): 113-125; and Constantine P. Arvanitopoulos, "Greek Defense Policy and the Doctrine of Extended Deterrence," Security and Cooperation in the Eastern Mediterranean, eds. Andreas Theophanous and Van Coufoudakis (Nicosia: Intercollege Press, 1997), pp. 153-164.
30. See Andreas Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU, and the Implications for Security in the Eastern Mediterranean," Defensor Pacis 4 (January 2000): 113-125; and Constantine P. Arvanitopoulos, "Greek Defense Policy and the Doctrine of Extended Deterrence," Security and Cooperation in the Eastern Mediterranean, eds. Andreas Theophanous and Van Coufoudakis (Nicosia: Intercollege Press, 1997), pp. 153-164.
31. Some observers estimate that the settlers now constitute 40% of the population of the TRNC. See Tozun Bahcheli and Nicholas X. Rizopoulos. "The Cyprus Impasse: What Next?" World Policy Journal XIII (Winter 1996/97): 7-39. (Recent estimates put the percentage of settlers at 60 percent.)
32. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, pp. 1-48. See also Gregory R. Copley, "Turkey, so Close to the Promise of Ataturk, Sees its Strategic Options Withering," in Defense and Foreign Affairs Strategic Policy vol. XXVII, no. 7 (Alexandria, VA: International Strategic Studies Association, 1999), pp. 4-10.
33. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, pp. 1-48. See also Gregory R. Copley, "Turkey, so Close to the Promise of Ataturk, Sees its Strategic Options Withering," in Defense and Foreign Affairs Strategic Policy vol. XXVII, no. 7 (Alexandria, VA: International Strategic Studies Association, 1999), pp. 4-10.
34. Glafcos Clerides, My Deposition (in Greek), vol. 4 (Nicosia: Publications "Alithia," 1991), pp. 17-163; Andreas Theophanous, "Anatomy of the Economic Miracle 1974-1994" (in Greek), in Nicos Peristianis and George Tsangaras, eds., Anatomy of a Metamorphosis: Cyprus After 1974 (Nicosia: Intercollege Press, 1995), pp. 13-33.
35. Glafcos Clerides, My Deposition (in Greek), vol. 4 (Nicosia: Publications "Alithia," 1991), pp. 17-163; Andreas Theophanous, "Anatomy of the Economic Miracle 1974-1994" (in Greek), in Nicos Peristianis and George Tsangaras, eds., Anatomy of a Metamorphosis: Cyprus After 1974 (Nicosia: Intercollege Press, 1995), pp. 13-33.
36. Theophanous, The Political Economy of a Federal Cyprus, pp. 13-15.
37. See Commission of the European Communities, Commission Opinion on the Application by the Republic of Cyprus for Membership.
38. European Council, SN 1661/95.
39. The European Union acknowledges that the Cypriot economy can face the challenges posed by adopting the acquis communautaire. See Commission of the European Communities, Periodic Report 1999 of the Committee for Cyprus' Advance toward Accession (Greek translation) (Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, 13 October 1999), COM (1999) 502 finals pp. 17, 68.
40. See Helsinki European Council, Presidency, Conclusions, 10 and 11 December 1999, news section, paragraph 9b; http://presidency.finland.fi/frame.asp, (11 December 1999).
41. See Helsinki European Council, Presidency, Conclusions, 10 and 11 December 1999, news section, paragraph 9b; http://presidency.finland.fi/frame.asp, (11 December 1999).
42. Sec "The Turkish Cypriots will reach 30 percent," Phileleftheros (Greek Cypriot newspaper), 29 November 1999, p.1.
43. On how the Turkish Cypriots view the presence of the settlers, see Tozun Bahcheli, "Turkish Cypriots, the EU Option, and Resolving Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus," Cyprus and the European Union, eds. Andreas Theophanous, Nicos Peristianis and Andreas Ioannou (Nicosia: Intercollege Press, 1999), pp. 115-116.
44. Since 1974, more than 40,000 Turkish Cypriots have emigrated-most of them to England. See Ioannides, In Turkey's Image; and Bahcheli, "Turkish Cypriots, the EU Option, and Resolving Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus," pp. 115-116.
45. Since 1974, more than 40,000 Turkish Cypriots have emigrated-most of them to England. See Ioannides, In Turkey's Image; and Bahcheli, "Turkish Cypriots, the EU Option, and Resolving Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus," pp. 115-116.
46. Christopher Hitchens, Hostage to History: Cyprus from the Ottomans to Kissinger, 2nd ed. (New York: The Noonday Press, 1989), p. 7.
47. Time and again expectations were raised when several countries-especially the U.S.-were undertaking an initiative. During 1977-1979 and 1989-1992, expectations were raised very much and frustrated thereafter.
48. See Theophanous, The Political Economy of a Federal Cyprus, pp. xi-xiv, 167-177. Among other things, it is noted that: "Focusing exclusively on the intercommunal aspect of the conflict would be misleading. Indeed, a better grasp of the Cyprus problem can be acquired if four additional dimensions of the conflict are taken into serious consideration:
49. (a) It is a problem of invasion and ongoing occupation of a sizable portion of a small country by a very strong neighbor. Thus, it is an international problem. Obviously, the resolution of this conflict has potential repercussions beyond Cyprus. In addition to influencing relations between Greece and Turkey, and because the resolution of the problem itself will set a precedent, there are practical implications for the UN and international law.
50. (b) The Cyprus question is also a major problem between Greece and Turkey. Although Cyprus has never been part of modern Greece, culturally and historically it has a Hellenic identity. Based on its perceived strategic interests, Turkey vehemently opposed the idea of enosis (union) of the entire island or part of it with Greece and/or the creation of a second independent Greek state in Cyprus. Simultaneously, Turkey has not abandoned expansionist designs against Cyprus. Turkish expansionism in Cyprus is unacceptable to Greece. The Cyprus problem constitutes a very serious source of conflict between Greece and Turkey and unless it is resolved in a manner which is mutually acceptable, a normalization of relations between the two countries is not likely to occur.
51. It is a European issue as well. The independence and territorial integrity of Cyprus was guaranteed by Britain, Greece and Turkey in 1960. All three countries belong to NATO. Britain and Greece are also members of the European Union, while Turkey has good relations with the European Union and aspires to join. In December 1995, Turkey signed a Customs Union Treaty with the European Union, which became effective on 1 January 1996. Cyprus signed a Customs Union Treaty with the European Community in 1987, which became effective on 1 January 1988. In July 1990, Cyprus applied for membership. Accession talks began on 30 March 1998, six months after the end of the Intergovernmental Conference (which was completed by the Treaty of Amsterdam on 2 October 1997).
52. It is also essential to stress that the Cyprus problem preoccupies the USA. One of the major objectives of traditional USA policy in the area has been the preservation of the cohesion of the southeastern flank of NATO, which consists of Turkey and Greece. The USA is concerned about the Cyprus question as it constitutes one of the dimensions of the broader Greco-Turkish antagonism and also because it is an important factor for stability, or the lack of it, in the Eastern Mediterranean." Some important developments in EU-Turkish relations and in Cyprus' accession process that have in the meantime taken place are outlined in this article. Turkey has been granted the status of candidate for membership of the EU and the EU has accepted that a solution of the Cyprus problem should not be a precondinon to Cyprus' membership of the Union. See Helsinki European Council Presidency Conclusions, paragraphs 4, 9, and 12. See also Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU."
53. It is also essential to stress that the Cyprus problem preoccupies the USA. One of the major objectives of traditional USA policy in the area has been the preservation of the cohesion of the southeastern flank of NATO, which consists of Turkey and Greece. The USA is concerned about the Cyprus question as it constitutes one of the dimensions of the broader Greco-Turkish antagonism and also because it is an important factor for stability, or the lack of it, in the Eastern Mediterranean." Some important developments in EU-Turkish relations and in Cyprus' accession process that have in the meantime taken place are outlined in this article. Turkey has been granted the status of candidate for membership of the EU and the EU has accepted that a solution of the Cyprus problem should not be a precondinon to Cyprus' membership of the Union. See Helsinki European Council Presidency Conclusions, paragraphs 4, 9, and 12. See also Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU."
54. Stephen G. Xydis, Cyprus: Reluctant Republic (The Hague: Mouton & Co. N.V. Publishers, 1973).
55. Stanley Kyriakides, Cyprus: Constitutionalism and Crisis Government (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968), pp. 1-52;
56. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, pp. 49-73.
57. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, Ioannides, Cyprus.
58. See Ibrahim Hasan Aziz and Nurettin Mehmet Seferghou, Victims of Fascist Terrorism-They fell on the Altar of Greco-Turkish Friendship and Cooperation in Cyprus (in Greek), (Nicosia: AKEL Office, 1965).
59. O'Malley and Craig, The Cyprus Conspiracy, pp. 77-93.
60. Clerides, My Deposition, vol. 1; Clerides, My Deposition, vol. 2; Kyriakides, Cyprus, p. 169.
61. Clerides, My Deposition, vol. 1; Clerides, My Deposition, vol. 2; Kyriakides, Cyprus, p. 169.
62. Clerides, My Deposition, vol. 1; Clerides, My Deposition, vol. 2; Kyriakides, Cyprus, p. 169.
63. See Clerides, My Deposition, vol. 1, pp. 236-237.
64. For interesting reading on the relations between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, especially in the period 1963-1974, see Paschalis M. Kitromilides, "From Coexistence to Confrontation: The Dynamics of Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus," and Michael A. Attalides, "The Turkish Cypriots: Their Relations to the Greek Cypriots in Perspective," Cyprus Reviewed, ed. Michael A. Attalides (Nicosia: The Jus Cypri Association and the Coordinating Committee of Scientific and Cultural Organisations 1977) pp 35-97 See also Peter Loizos, "How Might Turkish and Greek Cypriots See Each Other More Clearly?" and Vamik D. Volkan, "Turks and Greeks of Cyprus: Psychopolitical Considerations," Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998) pp. 35-51, 277-284.
65. For interesting reading on the relations between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, especially in the period 1963-1974, see Paschalis M. Kitromilides, "From Coexistence to Confrontation: The Dynamics of Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus," and Michael A. Attalides, "The Turkish Cypriots: Their Relations to the Greek Cypriots in Perspective," Cyprus Reviewed, ed. Michael A. Attalides (Nicosia: The Jus Cypri Association and the Coordinating Committee of Scientific and Cultural Organisations 1977) pp 35-97 See also Peter Loizos, "How Might Turkish and Greek Cypriots See Each Other More Clearly?" and Vamik D. Volkan, "Turks and Greeks of Cyprus: Psychopolitical Considerations," Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998) pp. 35-51, 277-284.
66. For interesting reading on the relations between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, especially in the period 1963-1974, see Paschalis M. Kitromilides, "From Coexistence to Confrontation: The Dynamics of Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus," and Michael A. Attalides, "The Turkish Cypriots: Their Relations to the Greek Cypriots in Perspective," Cyprus Reviewed, ed. Michael A. Attalides (Nicosia: The Jus Cypri Association and the Coordinating Committee of Scientific and Cultural Organisations 1977) pp 35-97 See also Peter Loizos, "How Might Turkish and Greek Cypriots See Each Other More Clearly?" and Vamik D. Volkan, "Turks and Greeks of Cyprus: Psychopolitical Considerations," Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998) pp. 35-51, 277-284.
67. For interesting reading on the relations between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, especially in the period 1963-1974, see Paschalis M. Kitromilides, "From Coexistence to Confrontation: The Dynamics of Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus," and Michael A. Attalides, "The Turkish Cypriots: Their Relations to the Greek Cypriots in Perspective," Cyprus Reviewed, ed. Michael A. Attalides (Nicosia: The Jus Cypri Association and the Coordinating Committee of Scientific and Cultural Organisations 1977) pp 35-97 See also Peter Loizos, "How Might Turkish and Greek Cypriots See Each Other More Clearly?" and Vamik D. Volkan, "Turks and Greeks of Cyprus: Psychopolitical Considerations," Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998) pp. 35-51, 277-284.
68. See Clerides, My Deposition, vol. 2, pp. 220-261, 275-377.
69. See Kyriakides, Cyprus, p. 169, from which the following quotation is taken: "Federation, proposed by the Turkish Cypriot community, and supported by Turkey, must also be excluded as a solution. Federation is totally unacceptable to the Greek Cypriot majority, and thereby it too is unrealistic as a basis for communal cooperation. The Greek Cypriots have displayed the same degree of hostility toward a federal solution as the Turkish Cypriots have toward Enosis. Federation, furthermore, is inapplicable in Cyprus, except by force, for there is no territorial basis on which a federal system of government could be established. "Turkish Cypriot proposals encouraged by Turkey stipulating the movement of more than 10,000 families from each community, in order to create a territorial division, would result in forced human displacement and would also create a permanent border of friction. In an island of less than 600,000 people, proposals to move more than 100,000 of its people in order to secure territorial separation would have negative effects; it would create more tension and unrest than it professes to solve."
70. Ibid.
71. As Bahcheli points out "In effect. . . even though successive Turkish governments have backed the UN negotiations between the two Cypriot communities on the basis of a bizonal, bicommunal federation, they have supported the Turkish Cypriot demand for a loose federation (or confederation) of two equal Cypriot states: a Turkish Cypriot state in the north and a Greek Cypriot state in the south." See Bahcheli, "Turkish Cypriots, the EU Option, and Resolving Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus," p. 119.
72. See Bahcheli, "Turkish Cypriots, the EU Option, and Resolving Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus," which inches these and other references toTurkish Cypriot concerns and objectives.
73. UN Secretary-General, Report S/24472, 21 April 1992; Hitchens, Hostage to History, p. 7.
74. UN Secretary-General, Report S/24472, 21 April 1992; Hitchens, Hostage to History, p. 7.
75. Republic of Cyprus, Press and Information Office, "Outline Proposals for the Establishment of a Federal Republic and for the Solution of the Cyprus Problem," Cyprus Bulletin, special issue (Nicosia: Government Printing Office, February 1989).
76. Hitchens, Hostage to History, p.7.
77. Bahcheli, "Turkish Cypriots, the EU Option, and Resolving Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus," p. 114.
78. Van Coufoudakis, ed., Essays on the Cyprus Conflict (New York: Pella Publishing Company, 1976); Hitchens, Hostage to History. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, Ioannides, Cyprus. See also Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," and Keith Kyle "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem: Implications for British Interests and for Mediterranean Security and Cooperation," The Cyprus Problem, eds. Theophanous, Ioannou, and Peristianis, pp. 13-20, 217-230. See also Tozun Bahcheli, "Cyprus in the Post-Cold War Environment" Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 105-119: Andreas Theophanous, "EU Enlargement in the Mediterranean: Challenges and Opportunities," The Southeast European Yearbook - 1998-99, eds. Theodoros A. Couloumbis, Thanos M. Veremis and Dimitrios C. Triantaphyllou (Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy-ELIAMEP, 1999), pp. 373-382; Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU"; Theophanous, Peristianis, and Ioannou, Cyprus and the European Union.
79. Van Coufoudakis, ed., Essays on the Cyprus Conflict (New York: Pella Publishing Company, 1976); Hitchens, Hostage to History. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, Ioannides, Cyprus. See also Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," and Keith Kyle "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem: Implications for British Interests and for Mediterranean Security and Cooperation," The Cyprus Problem, eds. Theophanous, Ioannou, and Peristianis, pp. 13-20, 217-230. See also Tozun Bahcheli, "Cyprus in the Post-Cold War Environment" Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 105-119: Andreas Theophanous, "EU Enlargement in the Mediterranean: Challenges and Opportunities," The Southeast European Yearbook - 1998-99, eds. Theodoros A. Couloumbis, Thanos M. Veremis and Dimitrios C. Triantaphyllou (Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy-ELIAMEP, 1999), pp. 373-382; Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU"; Theophanous, Peristianis, and Ioannou, Cyprus and the European Union.
80. Van Coufoudakis, ed., Essays on the Cyprus Conflict (New York: Pella Publishing Company, 1976); Hitchens, Hostage to History. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, Ioannides, Cyprus. See also Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," and Keith Kyle "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem: Implications for British Interests and for Mediterranean Security and Cooperation," The Cyprus Problem, eds. Theophanous, Ioannou, and Peristianis, pp. 13-20, 217-230. See also Tozun Bahcheli, "Cyprus in the Post-Cold War Environment" Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 105-119: Andreas Theophanous, "EU Enlargement in the Mediterranean: Challenges and Opportunities," The Southeast European Yearbook - 1998-99, eds. Theodoros A. Couloumbis, Thanos M. Veremis and Dimitrios C. Triantaphyllou (Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy-ELIAMEP, 1999), pp. 373-382; Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU"; Theophanous, Peristianis, and Ioannou, Cyprus and the European Union.
81. Van Coufoudakis, ed., Essays on the Cyprus Conflict (New York: Pella Publishing Company, 1976); Hitchens, Hostage to History. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, Ioannides, Cyprus. See also Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," and Keith Kyle "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem: Implications for British Interests and for Mediterranean Security and Cooperation," The Cyprus Problem, eds. Theophanous, Ioannou, and Peristianis, pp. 13-20, 217-230. See also Tozun Bahcheli, "Cyprus in the Post-Cold War Environment" Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 105-119: Andreas Theophanous, "EU Enlargement in the Mediterranean: Challenges and Opportunities," The Southeast European Yearbook - 1998-99, eds. Theodoros A. Couloumbis, Thanos M. Veremis and Dimitrios C. Triantaphyllou (Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy-ELIAMEP, 1999), pp. 373-382; Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU"; Theophanous, Peristianis, and Ioannou, Cyprus and the European Union.
82. Van Coufoudakis, ed., Essays on the Cyprus Conflict (New York: Pella Publishing Company, 1976); Hitchens, Hostage to History. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, Ioannides, Cyprus. See also Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," and Keith Kyle "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem: Implications for British Interests and for Mediterranean Security and Cooperation," The Cyprus Problem, eds. Theophanous, Ioannou, and Peristianis, pp. 13-20, 217-230. See also Tozun Bahcheli, "Cyprus in the Post-Cold War Environment" Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 105-119: Andreas Theophanous, "EU Enlargement in the Mediterranean: Challenges and Opportunities," The Southeast European Yearbook - 1998-99, eds. Theodoros A. Couloumbis, Thanos M. Veremis and Dimitrios C. Triantaphyllou (Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy-ELIAMEP, 1999), pp. 373-382; Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU"; Theophanous, Peristianis, and Ioannou, Cyprus and the European Union.
83. Van Coufoudakis, ed., Essays on the Cyprus Conflict (New York: Pella Publishing Company, 1976); Hitchens, Hostage to History. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, Ioannides, Cyprus. See also Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," and Keith Kyle "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem: Implications for British Interests and for Mediterranean Security and Cooperation," The Cyprus Problem, eds. Theophanous, Ioannou, and Peristianis, pp. 13-20, 217-230. See also Tozun Bahcheli, "Cyprus in the Post-Cold War Environment" Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 105-119: Andreas Theophanous, "EU Enlargement in the Mediterranean: Challenges and Opportunities," The Southeast European Yearbook - 1998-99, eds. Theodoros A. Couloumbis, Thanos M. Veremis and Dimitrios C. Triantaphyllou (Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy-ELIAMEP, 1999), pp. 373-382; Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU"; Theophanous, Peristianis, and Ioannou, Cyprus and the European Union.
84. Van Coufoudakis, ed., Essays on the Cyprus Conflict (New York: Pella Publishing Company, 1976); Hitchens, Hostage to History. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, Ioannides, Cyprus. See also Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," and Keith Kyle "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem: Implications for British Interests and for Mediterranean Security and Cooperation," The Cyprus Problem, eds. Theophanous, Ioannou, and Peristianis, pp. 13-20, 217-230. See also Tozun Bahcheli, "Cyprus in the Post-Cold War Environment" Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 105-119: Andreas Theophanous, "EU Enlargement in the Mediterranean: Challenges and Opportunities," The Southeast European Yearbook - 1998-99, eds. Theodoros A. Couloumbis, Thanos M. Veremis and Dimitrios C. Triantaphyllou (Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy-ELIAMEP, 1999), pp. 373-382; Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU"; Theophanous, Peristianis, and Ioannou, Cyprus and the European Union.
85. Van Coufoudakis, ed., Essays on the Cyprus Conflict (New York: Pella Publishing Company, 1976); Hitchens, Hostage to History. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, Ioannides, Cyprus. See also Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," and Keith Kyle "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem: Implications for British Interests and for Mediterranean Security and Cooperation," The Cyprus Problem, eds. Theophanous, Ioannou, and Peristianis, pp. 13-20, 217-230. See also Tozun Bahcheli, "Cyprus in the Post-Cold War Environment" Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 105-119: Andreas Theophanous, "EU Enlargement in the Mediterranean: Challenges and Opportunities," The Southeast European Yearbook - 1998-99, eds. Theodoros A. Couloumbis, Thanos M. Veremis and Dimitrios C. Triantaphyllou (Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy-ELIAMEP, 1999), pp. 373-382; Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU"; Theophanous, Peristianis, and Ioannou, Cyprus and the European Union.
86. Van Coufoudakis, ed., Essays on the Cyprus Conflict (New York: Pella Publishing Company, 1976); Hitchens, Hostage to History. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, Ioannides, Cyprus. See also Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," and Keith Kyle "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem: Implications for British Interests and for Mediterranean Security and Cooperation," The Cyprus Problem, eds. Theophanous, Ioannou, and Peristianis, pp. 13-20, 217-230. See also Tozun Bahcheli, "Cyprus in the Post-Cold War Environment" Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 105-119: Andreas Theophanous, "EU Enlargement in the Mediterranean: Challenges and Opportunities," The Southeast European Yearbook -1998-99, eds. Theodoros A. Couloumbis, Thanos M. Veremis and Dimitrios C. Triantaphyllou (Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy-ELIAMEP, 1999), pp. 373-382; Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU"; Theophanous, Peristianis, and Ioannou, Cyprus and the European Union.
87. Van Coufoudakis, ed., Essays on the Cyprus Conflict (New York: Pella Publishing Company, 1976); Hitchens, Hostage to History. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, Ioannides, Cyprus. See also Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," and Keith Kyle "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem: Implications for British Interests and for Mediterranean Security and Cooperation," The Cyprus Problem, eds. Theophanous, Ioannou, and Peristianis, pp. 13-20, 217-230. See also Tozun Bahcheli, "Cyprus in the Post-Cold War Environment" Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 105-119: Andreas Theophanous, "EU Enlargement in the Mediterranean: Challenges and Opportunities," The Southeast European Yearbook - 1998-99, eds. Theodoros A. Couloumbis, Thanos M. Veremis and Dimitrios C. Triantaphyllou (Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy-ELIAMEP, 1999), pp. 373-382; Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU"; Theophanous, Peristianis, and Ioannou, Cyprus and the European Union.
88. Van Coufoudakis, ed., Essays on the Cyprus Conflict (New York: Pella Publishing Company, 1976); Hitchens, Hostage to History. Ioannides, In Turkey's Image, Ioannides, Cyprus. See also Coufoudakis, "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem and its Security Implications for the United States and Europe," Arbatova, "Regional and International Implications of a Solution to the Cyprus Problem: Russian Concerns and Policy Objectives," and Keith Kyle "The Solution of the Cyprus Problem: Implications for British Interests and for Mediterranean Security and Cooperation," The Cyprus Problem, eds. Theophanous, Ioannou, and Peristianis, pp. 13-20, 217-230. See also Tozun Bahcheli, "Cyprus in the Post-Cold War Environment" Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, ed. Vangelis Calotychos (Colorado, U.S. and Oxford, U.K.: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 105-119: Andreas Theophanous, "EU Enlargement in the Mediterranean: Challenges and Opportunities," The Southeast European Yearbook - 1998-99, eds. Theodoros A. Couloumbis, Thanos M. Veremis and Dimitrios C. Triantaphyllou (Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy-ELIAMEP, 1999), pp. 373-382; Theophanous, "The Prospective Accession of Cyprus to the EU"; Theophanous, Peristianis, and Ioannou, Cyprus and the European Union.
89. Elazar, Exploring Federalism, p. 5.
90. Ibid, p. 93.
91. From the next of the proposals made by Rauf Denktash on 31 August 1998. For sources, see footnote 4.
92. According to Andreas Loverdos, a constitutional expert from Panteion University, in Athens, there is no intermediate solution between federation and confederation. (Speech at the event "The Cyprus Problem and Greco-Turkish Relations After Helsinki and New York," co-organized by the Research and Development Center - Intercollege and the Center for Turkish Studies of Panteion University, Nicosia, 9 February 2000.)
93. UN Security Council, Resolution 353, 20 July 1974; UN General Assembly, Resolution 3212 (XXIX), 1 November 1974 and Resolution 3395 (XXX), 20 November 1975.
94. UN Security Council, Resolution 353, 20 July 1974; UN General Assembly, Resolution 3212 (XXIX), 1 November 1974 and Resolution 3395 (XXX), 20 November 1975.
95. UN Security Council, Resolution 353, 20 July 1974; UN General Assembly, Resolution 3212 (XXIX), 1 November 1974 and Resolution 3395 (XXX), 20 November 1975.
96. Hitchens, Hostage to History, O'Malley and Craig, The Cyprus Conspiracy.
97. Hitchens, Hostage to History, O'Malley and Craig, The Cyprus Conspiracy.
98. Hitchens, Hostage to History, p. 7; Cengiz Okman, "The Cyprus Phenomenon: a Turkish View," Analysis of Current Events, year 7, no. 9 bis (New York: Association for the Study of Nationalities-Eastern Europe and ex-USSR, May 1996).
99. Hitchens, Hostage to History, p. 7; Cengiz Okman, "The Cyprus Phenomenon: a Turkish View," Analysis of Current Events, year 7, no. 9 bis (New York: Association for the Study of Nationalities-Eastern Europe and ex-USSR, May 1996).
100. Elazar, Exploring Federalism, p. 247, 240.
101. Ivo D. Duchacek, "Dyadic Federations and Confederation," Publius: The Journal of Federalism 18 (Spring 1988): 5-32.
102. In Cyprus, in addition to the two major ethnic communities (Greek and Turkish) 2 percent of the population are Armenians, Maronites, and Latins. In accordance with the 1960 constitution and given its bicommunal character, Armenians, Maronites, and Latins had to choose the major community in which they were supposed to identify with for political reasons. All chose the Greek community.
103. Eric Neisser, "A Federalism Process for Cyprus: An American Constitutional Perspective on the Cyprus Problem," The Cyprus Review 8 (Fall 1996): 7-23; Neisser, "Individual and Communal Rights in the Constitutional Framework of a Federal Cyprus: Lessons from the American Experience," The Cyprus Problem, eds. Theophanous, Ioannou and Peristianis, pp. 87-98.
104. Eric Neisser, "A Federalism Process for Cyprus: An American Constitutional Perspective on the Cyprus Problem," The Cyprus Review 8 (Fall 1996): 7-23; Neisser, "Individual and Communal Rights in the Constitutional Framework of a Federal Cyprus: Lessons from the American Experience," The Cyprus Problem, eds. Theophanous, Ioannou and Peristianis, pp. 87-98.
105. Council of Europe, Case of Loizidou v. Turkey (Strasbourg: European Court of Human Rights, 28 July 1998), Article 50, Judgment 40/1193/435/514.
106. High Court of Justice (Queen's Bench Division), The Queen v. Minister of Agriculture Fisheries and food, ex parte S.P. Anastasiou (Pissouri) Ltd. and Others (Luxembourg: 5 July 1994), Case C-432/92.
107. This is a much more complicated issue. See Spyridon Sfetas, "Kosovo: The Beginning and the End of the Yugoslav Crisis," Defensor Pacis 4 (January 2000): 69-90.
108. For example, the decision-making mechanisms have a serious impact on policy itself as well as on implementation.
109. It is no coincidence that the ideological differences on economic affairs between the Social Democratic parties and the Christian Democratic parties are now smaller than they were during the Cold War.
110. Ronald D. Asmus, F. Stephen Larrabee, and Ian O. Lesser, "Mediterranean Security: New Challenges, New Tasks," NATO Review 3 (May 1996): 25-31.
111. Bahcheli, "Turkish Cypriots, the EU Option, and Resolving Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus," p. 115.