Obligatory amateurs: Annie Maunder (1868-1947) and British women astronomers at the dawn of professional astronomy

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 33, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 67-84

  Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0039843566     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0007087499003878     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. A selection of relevant works not noted elsewhere in this paper include R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, 'Separate spheres and public places: reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture', History of Science (1994), 237-67; D. E. Allen, 'The early professionals in British natural history', in From Linnaeus to Darwin: Commentaries on the History of Biology and Geology. Papers from the Fifth Easter Meeting of the Society for the History of Natural History (ed. A. Wheeler and J. H. Price), London, 1983; S. Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930, Oxford, 1991; D. S. L. Cardwell, The Organisation of Science in England. A Retrospective, London, 1957; M. Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25; P. L. Farber, The Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientific Discipline, 1760-1850, Dordrecht, Holland, 1982; A. B. Shteir, 'Botany in the breakfast room: women and early nineteenth-century British plant study', in Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979 (ed. P. Abir-Am and D. Outram), New Brunswick, CT, 1987, 31-43; J. Lankford, 'Amateurs versus professionals: the controversy over telescope size in late Victorian science', Isis (1981), 72, 11-28 (12); M. W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940, Baltimore, 1982 (p. xv). Alex Soojung-Kim Pang's work is especially relevant. He described ways in which culture and national scientific styles depict the types of opportunities available to women. By using three astronomers as examples, two Americans (Elizabeth Campbell and Mabel Loomis Todd) and one British (Annie Maunder), he defined the range of opportunities available for women to participate in eclipse expeditions. A. Pang, 'Gender, culture, and astrophysical fieldwork: Elizabeth Campbell and the Lick observatory - Crocker eclipse expeditions', Osiris (1996), 11, 15-43. See also Pang, 'The social event of the season: solar eclipse expeditions and Victorian culture', Isis (1993), 84, 252-77.
2. A selection of relevant works not noted elsewhere in this paper include R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, 'Separate spheres and public places: reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture', History of Science (1994), 237-67; D. E. Allen, 'The early professionals in British natural history', in From Linnaeus to Darwin: Commentaries on the History of Biology and Geology. Papers from the Fifth Easter Meeting of the Society for the History of Natural History (ed. A. Wheeler and J. H. Price), London, 1983; S. Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930, Oxford, 1991; D. S. L. Cardwell, The Organisation of Science in England. A Retrospective, London, 1957; M. Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25; P. L. Farber, The Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientific Discipline, 1760-1850, Dordrecht, Holland, 1982; A. B. Shteir, 'Botany in the breakfast room: women and early nineteenth-century British plant study', in Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979 (ed. P. Abir-Am and D. Outram), New Brunswick, CT, 1987, 31-43; J. Lankford, 'Amateurs versus professionals: the controversy over telescope size in late Victorian science', Isis (1981), 72, 11-28 (12); M. W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940, Baltimore, 1982 (p. xv). Alex Soojung-Kim Pang's work is especially relevant. He described ways in which culture and national scientific styles depict the types of opportunities available to women. By using three astronomers as examples, two Americans (Elizabeth Campbell and Mabel Loomis Todd) and one British (Annie Maunder), he defined the range of opportunities available for women to participate in eclipse expeditions. A. Pang, 'Gender, culture, and astrophysical fieldwork: Elizabeth Campbell and the Lick observatory - Crocker eclipse expeditions', Osiris (1996), 11, 15-43. See also Pang, 'The social event of the season: solar eclipse expeditions and Victorian culture', Isis (1993), 84, 252-77.
3. A selection of relevant works not noted elsewhere in this paper include R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, 'Separate spheres and public places: reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture', History of Science (1994), 237-67; D. E. Allen, 'The early professionals in British natural history', in From Linnaeus to Darwin: Commentaries on the History of Biology and Geology. Papers from the Fifth Easter Meeting of the Society for the History of Natural History (ed. A. Wheeler and J. H. Price), London, 1983; S. Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930, Oxford, 1991; D. S. L. Cardwell, The Organisation of Science in England. A Retrospective, London, 1957; M. Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25; P. L. Farber, The Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientific Discipline, 1760-1850, Dordrecht, Holland, 1982; A. B. Shteir, 'Botany in the breakfast room: women and early nineteenth-century British plant study', in Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979 (ed. P. Abir-Am and D. Outram), New Brunswick, CT, 1987, 31-43; J. Lankford, 'Amateurs versus professionals: the controversy over telescope size in late Victorian science', Isis (1981), 72, 11-28 (12); M. W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940, Baltimore, 1982 (p. xv). Alex Soojung-Kim Pang's work is especially relevant. He described ways in which culture and national scientific styles depict the types of opportunities available to women. By using three astronomers as examples, two Americans (Elizabeth Campbell and Mabel Loomis Todd) and one British (Annie Maunder), he defined the range of opportunities available for women to participate in eclipse expeditions. A. Pang, 'Gender, culture, and astrophysical fieldwork: Elizabeth Campbell and the Lick observatory - Crocker eclipse expeditions', Osiris (1996), 11, 15-43. See also Pang, 'The social event of the season: solar eclipse expeditions and Victorian culture', Isis (1993), 84, 252-77.
4. A selection of relevant works not noted elsewhere in this paper include R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, 'Separate spheres and public places: reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture', History of Science (1994), 237-67; D. E. Allen, 'The early professionals in British natural history', in From Linnaeus to Darwin: Commentaries on the History of Biology and Geology. Papers from the Fifth Easter Meeting of the Society for the History of Natural History (ed. A. Wheeler and J. H. Price), London, 1983; S. Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930, Oxford, 1991; D. S. L. Cardwell, The Organisation of Science in England. A Retrospective, London, 1957; M. Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25; P. L. Farber, The Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientific Discipline, 1760-1850, Dordrecht, Holland, 1982; A. B. Shteir, 'Botany in the breakfast room: women and early nineteenth-century British plant study', in Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979 (ed. P. Abir-Am and D. Outram), New Brunswick, CT, 1987, 31-43; J. Lankford, 'Amateurs versus professionals: the controversy over telescope size in late Victorian science', Isis (1981), 72, 11-28 (12); M. W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940, Baltimore, 1982 (p. xv). Alex Soojung-Kim Pang's work is especially relevant. He described ways in which culture and national scientific styles depict the types of opportunities available to women. By using three astronomers as examples, two Americans (Elizabeth Campbell and Mabel Loomis Todd) and one British (Annie Maunder), he defined the range of opportunities available for women to participate in eclipse expeditions. A. Pang, 'Gender, culture, and astrophysical fieldwork: Elizabeth Campbell and the Lick observatory - Crocker eclipse expeditions', Osiris (1996), 11, 15-43. See also Pang, 'The social event of the season: solar eclipse expeditions and Victorian culture', Isis (1993), 84, 252-77.
5. A selection of relevant works not noted elsewhere in this paper include R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, 'Separate spheres and public places: reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture', History of Science (1994), 237-67; D. E. Allen, 'The early professionals in British natural history', in From Linnaeus to Darwin: Commentaries on the History of Biology and Geology. Papers from the Fifth Easter Meeting of the Society for the History of Natural History (ed. A. Wheeler and J. H. Price), London, 1983; S. Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930, Oxford, 1991; D. S. L. Cardwell, The Organisation of Science in England. A Retrospective, London, 1957; M. Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25; P. L. Farber, The Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientific Discipline, 1760-1850, Dordrecht, Holland, 1982; A. B. Shteir, 'Botany in the breakfast room: women and early nineteenth-century British plant study', in Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979 (ed. P. Abir-Am and D. Outram), New Brunswick, CT, 1987, 31-43; J. Lankford, 'Amateurs versus professionals: the controversy over telescope size in late Victorian science', Isis (1981), 72, 11-28 (12); M. W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940, Baltimore, 1982 (p. xv). Alex Soojung-Kim Pang's work is especially relevant. He described ways in which culture and national scientific styles depict the types of opportunities available to women. By using three astronomers as examples, two Americans (Elizabeth Campbell and Mabel Loomis Todd) and one British (Annie Maunder), he defined the range of opportunities available for women to participate in eclipse expeditions. A. Pang, 'Gender, culture, and astrophysical fieldwork: Elizabeth Campbell and the Lick observatory - Crocker eclipse expeditions', Osiris (1996), 11, 15-43. See also Pang, 'The social event of the season: solar eclipse expeditions and Victorian culture', Isis (1993), 84, 252-77.
6. A selection of relevant works not noted elsewhere in this paper include R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, 'Separate spheres and public places: reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture', History of Science (1994), 237-67; D. E. Allen, 'The early professionals in British natural history', in From Linnaeus to Darwin: Commentaries on the History of Biology and Geology. Papers from the Fifth Easter Meeting of the Society for the History of Natural History (ed. A. Wheeler and J. H. Price), London, 1983; S. Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930, Oxford, 1991; D. S. L. Cardwell, The Organisation of Science in England. A Retrospective, London, 1957; M. Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25; P. L. Farber, The Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientific Discipline, 1760-1850, Dordrecht, Holland, 1982; A. B. Shteir, 'Botany in the breakfast room: women and early nineteenth-century British plant study', in Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979 (ed. P. Abir-Am and D. Outram), New Brunswick, CT, 1987, 31-43; J. Lankford, 'Amateurs versus professionals: the controversy over telescope size in late Victorian science', Isis (1981), 72, 11-28 (12); M. W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940, Baltimore, 1982 (p. xv). Alex Soojung-Kim Pang's work is especially relevant. He described ways in which culture and national scientific styles depict the types of opportunities available to women. By using three astronomers as examples, two Americans (Elizabeth Campbell and Mabel Loomis Todd) and one British (Annie Maunder), he defined the range of opportunities available for women to participate in eclipse expeditions. A. Pang, 'Gender, culture, and astrophysical fieldwork: Elizabeth Campbell and the Lick observatory - Crocker eclipse expeditions', Osiris (1996), 11, 15-43. See also Pang, 'The social event of the season: solar eclipse expeditions and Victorian culture', Isis (1993), 84, 252-77.
7. A selection of relevant works not noted elsewhere in this paper include R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, 'Separate spheres and public places: reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture', History of Science (1994), 237-67; D. E. Allen, 'The early professionals in British natural history', in From Linnaeus to Darwin: Commentaries on the History of Biology and Geology. Papers from the Fifth Easter Meeting of the Society for the History of Natural History (ed. A. Wheeler and J. H. Price), London, 1983; S. Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930, Oxford, 1991; D. S. L. Cardwell, The Organisation of Science in England. A Retrospective, London, 1957; M. Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25; P. L. Farber, The Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientific Discipline, 1760-1850, Dordrecht, Holland, 1982; A. B. Shteir, 'Botany in the breakfast room: women and early nineteenth-century British plant study', in Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979 (ed. P. Abir-Am and D. Outram), New Brunswick, CT, 1987, 31-43; J. Lankford, 'Amateurs versus professionals: the controversy over telescope size in late Victorian science', Isis (1981), 72, 11-28 (12); M. W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940, Baltimore, 1982 (p. xv). Alex Soojung-Kim Pang's work is especially relevant. He described ways in which culture and national scientific styles depict the types of opportunities available to women. By using three astronomers as examples, two Americans (Elizabeth Campbell and Mabel Loomis Todd) and one British (Annie Maunder), he defined the range of opportunities available for women to participate in eclipse expeditions. A. Pang, 'Gender, culture, and astrophysical fieldwork: Elizabeth Campbell and the Lick observatory - Crocker eclipse expeditions', Osiris (1996), 11, 15-43. See also Pang, 'The social event of the season: solar eclipse expeditions and Victorian culture', Isis (1993), 84, 252-77.
8. A selection of relevant works not noted elsewhere in this paper include R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, 'Separate spheres and public places: reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture', History of Science (1994), 237-67; D. E. Allen, 'The early professionals in British natural history', in From Linnaeus to Darwin: Commentaries on the History of Biology and Geology. Papers from the Fifth Easter Meeting of the Society for the History of Natural History (ed. A. Wheeler and J. H. Price), London, 1983; S. Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930, Oxford, 1991; D. S. L. Cardwell, The Organisation of Science in England. A Retrospective, London, 1957; M. Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25; P. L. Farber, The Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientific Discipline, 1760-1850, Dordrecht, Holland, 1982; A. B. Shteir, 'Botany in the breakfast room: women and early nineteenth-century British plant study', in Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979 (ed. P. Abir-Am and D. Outram), New Brunswick, CT, 1987, 31-43; J. Lankford, 'Amateurs versus professionals: the controversy over telescope size in late Victorian science', Isis (1981), 72, 11-28 (12); M. W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940, Baltimore, 1982 (p. xv). Alex Soojung-Kim Pang's work is especially relevant. He described ways in which culture and national scientific styles depict the types of opportunities available to women. By using three astronomers as examples, two Americans (Elizabeth Campbell and Mabel Loomis Todd) and one British (Annie Maunder), he defined the range of opportunities available for women to participate in eclipse expeditions. A. Pang, 'Gender, culture, and astrophysical fieldwork: Elizabeth Campbell and the Lick observatory - Crocker eclipse expeditions', Osiris (1996), 11, 15-43. See also Pang, 'The social event of the season: solar eclipse expeditions and Victorian culture', Isis (1993), 84, 252-77.
9. A selection of relevant works not noted elsewhere in this paper include R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, 'Separate spheres and public places: reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture', History of Science (1994), 237-67; D. E. Allen, 'The early professionals in British natural history', in From Linnaeus to Darwin: Commentaries on the History of Biology and Geology. Papers from the Fifth Easter Meeting of the Society for the History of Natural History (ed. A. Wheeler and J. H. Price), London, 1983; S. Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930, Oxford, 1991; D. S. L. Cardwell, The Organisation of Science in England. A Retrospective, London, 1957; M. Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25; P. L. Farber, The Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientific Discipline, 1760-1850, Dordrecht, Holland, 1982; A. B. Shteir, 'Botany in the breakfast room: women and early nineteenth-century British plant study', in Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979 (ed. P. Abir-Am and D. Outram), New Brunswick, CT, 1987, 31-43; J. Lankford, 'Amateurs versus professionals: the controversy over telescope size in late Victorian science', Isis (1981), 72, 11-28 (12); M. W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940, Baltimore, 1982 (p. xv). Alex Soojung-Kim Pang's work is especially relevant. He described ways in which culture and national scientific styles depict the types of opportunities available to women. By using three astronomers as examples, two Americans (Elizabeth Campbell and Mabel Loomis Todd) and one British (Annie Maunder), he defined the range of opportunities available for women to participate in eclipse expeditions. A. Pang, 'Gender, culture, and astrophysical fieldwork: Elizabeth Campbell and the Lick observatory - Crocker eclipse expeditions', Osiris (1996), 11, 15-43. See also Pang, 'The social event of the season: solar eclipse expeditions and Victorian culture', Isis (1993), 84, 252-77.
10. A selection of relevant works not noted elsewhere in this paper include R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, 'Separate spheres and public places: reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture', History of Science (1994), 237-67; D. E. Allen, 'The early professionals in British natural history', in From Linnaeus to Darwin: Commentaries on the History of Biology and Geology. Papers from the Fifth Easter Meeting of the Society for the History of Natural History (ed. A. Wheeler and J. H. Price), London, 1983; S. Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930, Oxford, 1991; D. S. L. Cardwell, The Organisation of Science in England. A Retrospective, London, 1957; M. Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25; P. L. Farber, The Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientific Discipline, 1760-1850, Dordrecht, Holland, 1982; A. B. Shteir, 'Botany in the breakfast room: women and early nineteenth-century British plant study', in Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979 (ed. P. Abir-Am and D. Outram), New Brunswick, CT, 1987, 31-43; J. Lankford, 'Amateurs versus professionals: the controversy over telescope size in late Victorian science', Isis (1981), 72, 11-28 (12); M. W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940, Baltimore, 1982 (p. xv). Alex Soojung-Kim Pang's work is especially relevant. He described ways in which culture and national scientific styles depict the types of opportunities available to women. By using three astronomers as examples, two Americans (Elizabeth Campbell and Mabel Loomis Todd) and one British (Annie Maunder), he defined the range of opportunities available for women to participate in eclipse expeditions. A. Pang, 'Gender, culture, and astrophysical fieldwork: Elizabeth Campbell and the Lick observatory - Crocker eclipse expeditions', Osiris (1996), 11, 15-43. See also Pang, 'The social event of the season: solar eclipse expeditions and Victorian culture', Isis (1993), 84, 252-77.
11. A selection of relevant works not noted elsewhere in this paper include R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, 'Separate spheres and public places: reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture', History of Science (1994), 237-67; D. E. Allen, 'The early professionals in British natural history', in From Linnaeus to Darwin: Commentaries on the History of Biology and Geology. Papers from the Fifth Easter Meeting of the Society for the History of Natural History (ed. A. Wheeler and J. H. Price), London, 1983; S. Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930, Oxford, 1991; D. S. L. Cardwell, The Organisation of Science in England. A Retrospective, London, 1957; M. Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25; P. L. Farber, The Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientific Discipline, 1760-1850, Dordrecht, Holland, 1982; A. B. Shteir, 'Botany in the breakfast room: women and early nineteenth-century British plant study', in Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979 (ed. P. Abir-Am and D. Outram), New Brunswick, CT, 1987, 31-43; J. Lankford, 'Amateurs versus professionals: the controversy over telescope size in late Victorian science', Isis (1981), 72, 11-28 (12); M. W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940, Baltimore, 1982 (p. xv). Alex Soojung-Kim Pang's work is especially relevant. He described ways in which culture and national scientific styles depict the types of opportunities available to women. By using three astronomers as examples, two Americans (Elizabeth Campbell and Mabel Loomis Todd) and one British (Annie Maunder), he defined the range of opportunities available for women to participate in eclipse expeditions. A. Pang, 'Gender, culture, and astrophysical fieldwork: Elizabeth Campbell and the Lick observatory - Crocker eclipse expeditions', Osiris (1996), 11, 15-43. See also Pang, 'The social event of the season: solar eclipse expeditions and Victorian culture', Isis (1993), 84, 252-77.
12. S. Shapin and A. Thackray, 'Prosopography as a research tool in history of science: the British scientific community 1700-1900', History of Science (1974), 12, 1-28, (12-13). For additional works on professionalization, see A. Thackray, 'Natural knowledge in cultural context: the Manchester model', The American Historical Review (1974), 79, 672-709; N. Reingold, 'Definitions and speculations: the professionalisation of science in America in the nineteenth century', in The Pursuit of Knowledge in the Early American Republic: American Scientific and Learned Societies to the Civil War (ed. A. Oleson and S. C. Grown), Baltimore, 1976, 33-69; M. Crosland, 'The development of a professional career in science in France', in The Emergence of Science in Western Europe (ed. M. Crosland), New York, 1976; J. Ben-David, The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971.
13. S. Shapin and A. Thackray, 'Prosopography as a research tool in history of science: the British scientific community 1700-1900', History of Science (1974), 12, 1-28, (12-13). For additional works on professionalization, see A. Thackray, 'Natural knowledge in cultural context: the Manchester model', The American Historical Review (1974), 79, 672-709; N. Reingold, 'Definitions and speculations: the professionalisation of science in America in the nineteenth century', in The Pursuit of Knowledge in the Early American Republic: American Scientific and Learned Societies to the Civil War (ed. A. Oleson and S. C. Grown), Baltimore, 1976, 33-69; M. Crosland, 'The development of a professional career in science in France', in The Emergence of Science in Western Europe (ed. M. Crosland), New York, 1976; J. Ben-David, The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971.
14. S. Shapin and A. Thackray, 'Prosopography as a research tool in history of science: the British scientific community 1700-1900', History of Science (1974), 12, 1-28, (12-13). For additional works on professionalization, see A. Thackray, 'Natural knowledge in cultural context: the Manchester model', The American Historical Review (1974), 79, 672-709; N. Reingold, 'Definitions and speculations: the professionalisation of science in America in the nineteenth century', in The Pursuit of Knowledge in the Early American Republic: American Scientific and Learned Societies to the Civil War (ed. A. Oleson and S. C. Grown), Baltimore, 1976, 33-69; M. Crosland, 'The development of a professional career in science in France', in The Emergence of Science in Western Europe (ed. M. Crosland), New York, 1976; J. Ben-David, The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971.
15. S. Shapin and A. Thackray, 'Prosopography as a research tool in history of science: the British scientific community 1700-1900', History of Science (1974), 12, 1-28, (12-13). For additional works on professionalization, see A. Thackray, 'Natural knowledge in cultural context: the Manchester model', The American Historical Review (1974), 79, 672-709; N. Reingold, 'Definitions and speculations: the professionalisation of science in America in the nineteenth century', in The Pursuit of Knowledge in the Early American Republic: American Scientific and Learned Societies to the Civil War (ed. A. Oleson and S. C. Grown), Baltimore, 1976, 33-69; M. Crosland, 'The development of a professional career in science in France', in The Emergence of Science in Western Europe (ed. M. Crosland), New York, 1976; J. Ben-David, The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971.
16. S. Shapin and A. Thackray, 'Prosopography as a research tool in history of science: the British scientific community 1700-1900', History of Science (1974), 12, 1-28, (12-13). For additional works on professionalization, see A. Thackray, 'Natural knowledge in cultural context: the Manchester model', The American Historical Review (1974), 79, 672-709; N. Reingold, 'Definitions and speculations: the professionalisation of science in America in the nineteenth century', in The Pursuit of Knowledge in the Early American Republic: American Scientific and Learned Societies to the Civil War (ed. A. Oleson and S. C. Grown), Baltimore, 1976, 33-69; M. Crosland, 'The development of a professional career in science in France', in The Emergence of Science in Western Europe (ed. M. Crosland), New York, 1976; J. Ben-David, The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971.
17. A. M. Clerke, A Popular History of Astronomy During the Nineteenth Century, 4th edn., London, 1908, 5.
18. See Clerke's articles on the history of astronomy in the 11th edn. of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Cambridge, 1910.
19. Consider the discovery of comet Shoemaker-Levy, for example.
20. Popular astronomy had many faces. Although most work by amateurs was observational, certain theoretical topics attracted popular treatment. See, for example, M. J. Crowe, The Extraterrestrial Life Debate, 1750-1900: The Idea of a Plurality of Worlds from Kant to Lowell, Cambridge, 1988.
21. For biographical details see M. B. Ogilvie, Women in Science: Antiquity through the Nineteenth Century: A Biographical Dictionary with Annotated Bibliography, Cambridge, MA, 1986. See also Mary Brück, 'Companions in astronomy: Margaret Lindsay Huggins and Agnes Mary Clerke', The Irish Astronomical Journal (1985), 20, 70-7. Barbara Becker is completing a comprehensive study on Margaret Huggins, and Bernard Lightman is working on Agnes Clerke.
22. For biographical details see M. B. Ogilvie, Women in Science: Antiquity through the Nineteenth Century: A Biographical Dictionary with Annotated Bibliography, Cambridge, MA, 1986. See also Mary Brück, 'Companions in astronomy: Margaret Lindsay Huggins and Agnes Mary Clerke', The Irish Astronomical Journal (1985), 20, 70-7. Barbara Becker is completing a comprehensive study on Margaret Huggins, and Bernard Lightman is working on Agnes Clerke.
23. College Register, Girton College, 1869-1946, Cambridge, 1948, 1886. Although much information is available on Walter Maunder acting as Annie's mentor, little is known about het brother J. Dill Russell acting in the same fashion.
24. M. T. Brück, in 'Alice Everett and Annie Russell Maunder: torch-bearing women astronomers', Irish Astronomical Journal (1993-4), 21, 281-90, 281-2, notes that Russell, after leaving this school, did not go on for an Irish university degree. Instead, she sat for the Girton open entrance examination after having won a prize in the public Irish Intermediate examination in 1886. She was awarded an annual scholarship for three years.
25. Recommendation, W. H. Young, Esq., MA Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives 7/14. Hereafter cited as RGO.
26. 'Life at Girton, 1888', King's High School Warwick, 1879-1979, 25-7. Girton College Archives.
27. B. Stephens, Girton College, 1869-1932, Cambridge, 1933, 111, 118, 130.
28. Russell's position was described as senior optime (between brackets 41 and 43). Girton Review, July 1889, Examination Lists, 8. In the Cambridge University Reporter for 1889, the male degree recipients were listed. In the list of senior optimes, two men were bracketed in place 42 and four in place 43. Cambridge University Reporter, Mathematical Tripos, Part I (1889), 826. Girton College Archives.
29. Russell's position was described as senior optime (between brackets 41 and 43). Girton Review, July 1889, Examination Lists, 8. In the Cambridge University Reporter for 1889, the male degree recipients were listed. In the list of senior optimes, two men were bracketed in place 42 and four in place 43. Cambridge University Reporter, Mathematical Tripos, Part I (1889), 826. Girton College Archives.
30. Russell's position was described as senior optime (between brackets 41 and 43). Girton Review, July 1889, Examination Lists, 8. In the Cambridge University Reporter for 1889, the male degree recipients were listed. In the list of senior optimes, two men were bracketed in place 42 and four in place 43. Cambridge University Reporter, Mathematical Tripos, Part I (1889), 826. Girton College Archives.
31. See P. A. Kidwell, 'Women astronomers in Britain, 1780-1930', Isis (1984), 75, 534-46 for a discussion of the education of would-be astronomers.
32. Cambridge University Reporter, June 8, 1889, 827.
33. Kidwell, op. cit. (14), 536-7; Annie Scott Dill Russell (Maunder) to H. H. Turner, Secretary, Royal Greenwich Observatory, n.d. [1891]. RGO 7.
34. Brück, op. cit. (9), 282.
35. A. J. Meadows, Greenwich Observatory. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich and Herstmonceux, 1675-1975, 3 vols., London, 1975, ii, 14.
36. H. H. Turner to Miss C. Elder, 22 December 1891. RGO 7.
37. Russell (Maunder) to Turner, 13 January 1890. RGO 7.
38. Turner to Russell (Maunder), 31 January 1891. RGO 7.
39. Robert Ball, FRS, to W. E. Christie, 29 July 1891. RGO 7.
40. Russell (Maunder) to Turner, n.d. RGO 7.
41. Turner to Russell (Maunder), 28 July 1891. RGO 7.
42. Russell (Maunder) to Turner, 30 July 1891. RGO 7.
43. B. Z. Jones and L. G. Boyd, The Harvard College Observtory; The First Four Directorships, 1839-1919, Cambridge, MA, 1971, 386.
44. A. Molander to Turner, 23 June 1909. RGO 7.
45. Memo from G. B. Airy, 30 April 1875. RGO 6.
46. E. W. Maunder to Sir David Gill, 2 April 1896. RGO 15.
47. A. S. D. Maunder, 'An apparent influence of the Earth on the numbers and areas of sun-spots in the cycle 1889-1901', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1907), 67, 451-75; M. A. Evershed, 'Mrs. Walter Maunder', The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1946-7), 57, 238.
48. A. S. D. Maunder, 'An apparent influence of the Earth on the numbers and areas of sun-spots in the cycle 1889-1901', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1907), 67, 451-75; M. A. Evershed, 'Mrs. Walter Maunder', The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1946-7), 57, 238.
49. 'Die Literatur des Jahres 1907', Astronomischer Jahresbericht, Berlin, 1908, 370-1.
50. M. Waldmeier, Ergebnisse und Probleme der Sonnenforschung, Leipzig, 1955, 160.
51. Stephens, op. cit. (12). There is no evidence as to why Maunder chose the Milky Way as the subject of her project.
52. A. S. D. Maunder, 'Eclipses I have seen', Chaldean (1927), 7, 4-16.
53. H. M. Pycior, N. G. Slack, and P. G. Abir-Am (eds.), Creative Couples in the Sciences, New Brunswick, NJ, 1996.
54. Herschel was not educated as an astronomer, but what began as a hobby soon occupied so much of his time that he could almost be considered a professional.
55. J. L. E. Dreyer, History of the Royal Astronomical Society: 1820-1920, London, 1923, 1-3.
56. M. B. Ogilvie, 'Robert Chambers and the nebular hypothesis', British Journal for the History of Science (1975), 8, 214-32, 218. See also William Parsons, third Earl of Rosse, 'On the construction of large reflecting telescopes', Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (1844), 79-82; and 'Observations on some of the nebulae', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1844), 134, 321-4.
57. M. B. Ogilvie, 'Robert Chambers and the nebular hypothesis', British Journal for the History of Science (1975), 8, 214-32, 218. See also William Parsons, third Earl of Rosse, 'On the construction of large reflecting telescopes', Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (1844), 79-82; and 'Observations on some of the nebulae', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1844), 134, 321-4.
58. M. B. Ogilvie, 'Robert Chambers and the nebular hypothesis', British Journal for the History of Science (1975), 8, 214-32, 218. See also William Parsons, third Earl of Rosse, 'On the construction of large reflecting telescopes', Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (1844), 79-82; and 'Observations on some of the nebulae', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1844), 134, 321-4.
59. Parsons, op. cit. (38).
60. R. McKim (ed.), The History of the British Astronomical Association: The first Fifty Years, 2nd edn., London, 1989, 7.
61. English Mechanic and World of Science (18 July 1890), 445-6; (25 July 1890), 462-3; (1 August 1890), 487-8; (8 August 1890), 512-13; (15 August 1890), 527-8, Archives, British Astronomical Association, hereafter BAA Archives. The following sections were headed by experienced observers: Solar, Solar Spectroscopic, Lunar, Mercury and Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Comet, Meteor, Photographic, Aurora and Zodiacal Light, Variable Star, Double Star, Star Colour, Methods of Observation, Computing, Historical, and Library. See McKim, op. cit. (40), 238.
62. English Mechanic and World of Science (18 July 1890), 445-6; (25 July 1890), 462-3; (1 August 1890), 487-8; (8 August 1890), 512-13; (15 August 1890), 527-8, Archives, British Astronomical Association, hereafter BAA Archives. The following sections were headed by experienced observers: Solar, Solar Spectroscopic, Lunar, Mercury and Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Comet, Meteor, Photographic, Aurora and Zodiacal Light, Variable Star, Double Star, Star Colour, Methods of Observation, Computing, Historical, and Library. See McKim, op. cit. (40), 238.
63. Deborah Jean Warner, 'Edward Walter Maunder', Dictionary of Scientific Biography 9, 183-5, 184.
64. Evershed, op. cit. (30), 238.
65. The secretaries in the later years had specific functions - for business, papers and meetings.
66. McKim, op. cit. (40), 131 and idem, The History of the British Astronomical Association. The Second Fifty Years, London, n.d., 119-21.
67. McKim, op. cit. (40), 131 and idem, The History of the British Astronomical Association. The Second Fifty Years, London, n.d., 119-21.
68. McKim, op. cit. (40), 65, 125.
69. For example, Annie Jump Cannon of the Harvard Observatory gave several lectures at the BAA. In 1909, she spoke on spectral types and variable stars. She returned in 1925 when she spoke to the International Astronomical Union describing work done on the Henry Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra. McKim, op. cit. (40), 19, 35-6. Mary Proctor spoke in 1914 about a proposed solar observatory in New Zealand. McKim, op. cit. (40), 21. In 1933, Cecilia Payne of Harvard College Observatory gave an account of her work on Wolf-Rayet stars. McKim, op. cit. (40), 39.
70. For example, Annie Jump Cannon of the Harvard Observatory gave several lectures at the BAA. In 1909, she spoke on spectral types and variable stars. She returned in 1925 when she spoke to the International Astronomical Union describing work done on the Henry Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra. McKim, op. cit. (40), 19, 35-6. Mary Proctor spoke in 1914 about a proposed solar observatory in New Zealand. McKim, op. cit. (40), 21. In 1933, Cecilia Payne of Harvard College Observatory gave an account of her work on Wolf-Rayet stars. McKim, op. cit. (40), 39.
71. For example, Annie Jump Cannon of the Harvard Observatory gave several lectures at the BAA. In 1909, she spoke on spectral types and variable stars. She returned in 1925 when she spoke to the International Astronomical Union describing work done on the Henry Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra. McKim, op. cit. (40), 19, 35-6. Mary Proctor spoke in 1914 about a proposed solar observatory in New Zealand. McKim, op. cit. (40), 21. In 1933, Cecilia Payne of Harvard College Observatory gave an account of her work on Wolf-Rayet stars. McKim, op. cit. (40), 39.
72. A. S. D. Maunder to Captain Molesworth, 14 September 1900. Archives of the Royal Astronomical Society. Hereafter RAS Archives. Molesworth 1, folio 2, letter 4.
73. E. W. Maunder, 'Expedition for the observation of the total solar eclipse, August 9th 1896', Memoirs of the British Astronomical Association, Reports of the observing sections, (1898), 6, 1-20; idem (ed.) The Indian Eclipse, 1898. Report of the expeditions organized by the British Astronomical Association to Observe the Total Solar Eclipse of 1898, January 22', London, 1898, 1.
74. E. W. Maunder, 'Expedition for the observation of the total solar eclipse, August 9th 1896', Memoirs of the British Astronomical Association, Reports of the observing sections, (1898), 6, 1-20; idem (ed.) The Indian Eclipse, 1898. Report of the expeditions organized by the British Astronomical Association to Observe the Total Solar Eclipse of 1898, January 22', London, 1898, 1.
75. Maunder, Indian Eclipse, op. cit. (49), 1.
76. Maunder, Indian Eclipse, op. cit. (49), 1.
77. She also served as a role model for women. Young women who were interested in astronomy had Maunder's accounts in journals available. She encouraged her stepchildren to go on eclipse expeditions. These expeditions were attended by people of all ages, and it is highly probable that Annie Maunder encouraged young girls to attend.
78. The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1898), 8, 263.
79. 'Photographs of the corona, A. S. D. Maunder', in Maunder, Indian Eclipse, op. cit. (49), 107; ibid., 1.
80. 'Photographs of the corona, A. S. D. Maunder', in Maunder, Indian Eclipse, op. cit. (49), 107; ibid., 1.
81. E. W. Maunder (ed.), 'The total solar eclipse: 1900', in Report of the Expeditions Organized by the British Astronomical Association to Observe the Total Solar Eclipse of 1900, May 28. RAS Archives.
82. A. S. D. Maunder to Molesworth, Folio 2, Letters 1, 2, and 3. RAS Archives.
83. McKim, op. cit. (40); BAA, Memoirs of the British Astronomical Association (1889), 42, part 1, 53.
84. McKim, op. cit. (40); BAA, Memoirs of the British Astronomical Association (1889), 42, part 1, 53.
85. A. S. D. Maunder to Molesworth, 14 September 1900, folio 2, letter 4. RAS Archives.
86. A. S. D. Maunder to Molesworth, 14 September 1900, folio 2, letter 4. RAS Archives.
87. A. S. D. Maunder to Molesworth, 28 December 1900, folio 2, letter 5. RAS Archives.
88. A. S. D. Maunder to Molesworth, 28 December 1900, folio 2, letters 5 and 6. RAS Archives.
89. McKim, op. cit. (40), 54.
90. E. H. Hills to E. W. Maunder, 20 November 1898. Letter 151, Correspondence of the Joint Permanent Eclipse Committee. RAS Archives.
91. Pang, 'Social event', op. cit. (1), 258-9.
92. Pang, 'Social event', op. cit. (1), 272-3.
93. E. W. Maunder to Hills, 4 February 1901, Letter 97; Hills to E. W. Maunder, 5 February 1901, Letter 98. Correspondence of the Joint Permanent Eclipse Committee. Box 55.2 (81-100). RAS Archives.
94. A. S. D. Maunder to Hills, 6 February 1901, Letter 99, Correspondence of the Joint Permanent Eclipse Committee. Box 55.2. RAS Archives.
95. A. S. D. Maunder to Hills, 18 February 1901. Letter 104, Correspondence of the Joint Permanent Eclipse Committee. Box 55.2 (101-120). RAS Archives.
96. Hills to A. S. D. Maunder, 10 February 1901. Letter 105, Correspondence of the Joint Permanent Eclipse Committee. Box 55.2 (101-120). RAS Archives.
97. A. S. D. Maunder to Hills, 20 February 1901. Letter 106, Correspondence of the Joint Permanent Eclipse Committee. Box 55.2 (101-120), RAS Archives.
98. A. A. D. Maunder to Hills, 21 October 1901. Letter. 116, Correspondence of the Joint Permanent Eclipse Committee. Box 55.2 (101-120), RAS Archives.
99. Robert Harrison, Assistant Secretary, Royal Society to Hills, 8 November 1901. Letter 122, Correspondence of the Joint Permanent Eclipse Committee. Box 55.2 (121-140), RAS Archives.
100. Hills to Harrison, 10 November 1901. Letter 123, Correspondence of the Joint Permanent Eclipse Committee. Box 55.2 (121-140). RAS Archives.
101. Although amateurs have played important roles in the Royal Astronomical Society since its inception, the Maunders certainly perceived discrimination within the Society. Even though women were admitted as honorary Fellows from 1835, they were excluded from regular membership until 1915, when Mary Blagg, Fiammetta Wilson, Ella K. Church, A. Grace Cook and Margaret T. Meyer were elected Fellows. Kidwell noted that three-quarters of the British women astronomers in her sample were members of the BAA, and that these women published more frequently than did women Fellows of the RAS. See Kidwell, op. cit. (14).
102. For Maunder's work on Mars see, for example, A. S. D. Maunder, 'Report of the meeting of the British Astronomical Association', The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1922), 32, 217-21; E. W. Maunder and A. S. D. Maunder, 'Some experiments on the limits of vision for lines and spots as applicable to the question of the actuality of the canals on Mars', ibid., 13 (1903), 344-51 and A. S. D. Maunder, 'The highways and the waterways of Mars', Knowledge, new series, 4 (August 1907), 169-71. For her work on meteors and the aurora, see A. S. D. Maunder, 'The meteor and aurora observing sections and the upper atmosphere', The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1924), 34, 23-8.
103. For Maunder's work on Mars see, for example, A. S. D. Maunder, 'Report of the meeting of the British Astronomical Association', The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1922), 32, 217-21; E. W. Maunder and A. S. D. Maunder, 'Some experiments on the limits of vision for lines and spots as applicable to the question of the actuality of the canals on Mars', ibid., 13 (1903), 344-51 and A. S. D. Maunder, 'The highways and the waterways of Mars', Knowledge, new series, 4 (August 1907), 169-71. For her work on meteors and the aurora, see A. S. D. Maunder, 'The meteor and aurora observing sections and the upper atmosphere', The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1924), 34, 23-8.
104. For Maunder's work on Mars see, for example, A. S. D. Maunder, 'Report of the meeting of the British Astronomical Association', The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1922), 32, 217-21; E. W. Maunder and A. S. D. Maunder, 'Some experiments on the limits of vision for lines and spots as applicable to the question of the actuality of the canals on Mars', ibid., 13 (1903), 344-51 and A. S. D. Maunder, 'The highways and the waterways of Mars', Knowledge, new series, 4 (August 1907), 169-71. For her work on meteors and the aurora, see A. S. D. Maunder, 'The meteor and aurora observing sections and the upper atmosphere', The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1924), 34, 23-8.
105. For Maunder's work on Mars see, for example, A. S. D. Maunder, 'Report of the meeting of the British Astronomical Association', The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1922), 32, 217-21; E. W. Maunder and A. S. D. Maunder, 'Some experiments on the limits of vision for lines and spots as applicable to the question of the actuality of the canals on Mars', ibid., 13 (1903), 344-51 and A. S. D. Maunder, 'The highways and the waterways of Mars', Knowledge, new series, 4 (August 1907), 169-71. For her work on meteors and the aurora, see A. S. D. Maunder, 'The meteor and aurora observing sections and the upper atmosphere', The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1924), 34, 23-8.
106. See, for example, A. S. D. Maunder, 'Iranian migrations before history', Scientia (1916), 19, 115-24; 'Astronomical allusions in sacred books of the East, being a paper read before the Victoria institute at the 567th Meeting, held April 12th, 1915', Girton College Archives; 'When the snow-white bull with gilded horns ushers in the year', The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1931), 41, 127-33; and 'The four star champions of Iran', ibid., (1931), 41, 425-9.
107. See, for example, A. S. D. Maunder, 'Iranian migrations before history', Scientia (1916), 19, 115-24; 'Astronomical allusions in sacred books of the East, being a paper read before the Victoria institute at the 567th Meeting, held April 12th, 1915', Girton College Archives; 'When the snow-white bull with gilded horns ushers in the year', The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1931), 41, 127-33; and 'The four star champions of Iran', ibid., (1931), 41, 425-9.
108. See, for example, A. S. D. Maunder, 'Iranian migrations before history', Scientia (1916), 19, 115-24; 'Astronomical allusions in sacred books of the East, being a paper read before the Victoria institute at the 567th Meeting, held April 12th, 1915', Girton College Archives; 'When the snow-white bull with gilded horns ushers in the year', The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1931), 41, 127-33; and 'The four star champions of Iran', ibid., (1931), 41, 425-9.
109. E. W. Maunder. Guide to the Constellations, and Introduction to the Study of the Heavens with the Unassisted Sight, London, 1904, p. iii.
110. A. S. D. Maunder and E. W. Maunder, The Heavens and Their Story; London, 1908, preface.
111. 'New books and memoirs', review of Maunder and Maunder, op. cit. (78), The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1909), 19, 357-8.
112. 'New books and memoirs', review of Maunder and Maunder, op. cit. (78), The Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1909), 19, 357-8.