'Novice' or 'heaven-born' diplomat? Lord Dufferin's plan for a 'province of Syria': Beirut, 1860-61

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 36, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 160-176

  Zachs, Fruma ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0039838818     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00263200008701322     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. See Norman Rose (ed.), from Palmerston to Balfour: Collected Essays of Mayir Vereté (London, 1992), pp.166-7. Vereté quotes from the Palmerston-Granville correspondence (Granville papers in the PRO); for Palmerston's suspicions of French relations with Muhammad Ali, see p.171. n. 37; for further details on Palmerston and his foreign policy, see also: Charles Webster, The Foreign Policy of Palmerston 1830-1841, Vol.1 (London, 1969), Vol.1, pp.82-6; Jasper Ridley, Lord Palmerston (New York, 1970), pp.535-7; E.D. Steele, Palmerston and Liberalism 1855-1865 (Cambridge, 1991), pp.246-7.
2. See Norman Rose (ed.), from Palmerston to Balfour: Collected Essays of Mayir Vereté (London, 1992), pp.166-7. Vereté quotes from the Palmerston-Granville correspondence (Granville papers in the PRO); for Palmerston's suspicions of French relations with Muhammad Ali, see p.171. n. 37; for further details on Palmerston and his foreign policy, see also: Charles Webster, The Foreign Policy of Palmerston 1830-1841, Vol.1 (London, 1969), Vol.1, pp.82-6; Jasper Ridley, Lord Palmerston (New York, 1970), pp.535-7; E.D. Steele, Palmerston and Liberalism 1855-1865 (Cambridge, 1991), pp.246-7.
3. See Norman Rose (ed.), from Palmerston to Balfour: Collected Essays of Mayir Vereté (London, 1992), pp.166-7. Vereté quotes from the Palmerston-Granville correspondence (Granville papers in the PRO); for Palmerston's suspicions of French relations with Muhammad Ali, see p.171. n. 37; for further details on Palmerston and his foreign policy, see also: Charles Webster, The Foreign Policy of Palmerston 1830-1841, Vol.1 (London, 1969), Vol.1, pp.82-6; Jasper Ridley, Lord Palmerston (New York, 1970), pp.535-7; E.D. Steele, Palmerston and Liberalism 1855-1865 (Cambridge, 1991), pp.246-7.
4. See Norman Rose (ed.), from Palmerston to Balfour: Collected Essays of Mayir Vereté (London, 1992), pp.166-7. Vereté quotes from the Palmerston-Granville correspondence (Granville papers in the PRO); for Palmerston's suspicions of French relations with Muhammad Ali, see p.171. n. 37; for further details on Palmerston and his foreign policy, see also: Charles Webster, The Foreign Policy of Palmerston 1830-1841, Vol.1 (London, 1969), Vol.1, pp.82-6; Jasper Ridley, Lord Palmerston (New York, 1970), pp.535-7; E.D. Steele, Palmerston and Liberalism 1855-1865 (Cambridge, 1991), pp.246-7.
5. See Norman Rose (ed.), from Palmerston to Balfour: Collected Essays of Mayir Vereté (London, 1992), pp.166-7. Vereté quotes from the Palmerston-Granville correspondence (Granville papers in the PRO); for Palmerston's suspicions of French relations with Muhammad Ali, see p.171. n. 37; for further details on Palmerston and his foreign policy, see also: Charles Webster, The Foreign Policy of Palmerston 1830-1841, Vol.1 (London, 1969), Vol.1, pp.82-6; Jasper Ridley, Lord Palmerston (New York, 1970), pp.535-7; E.D. Steele, Palmerston and Liberalism 1855-1865 (Cambridge, 1991), pp.246-7.
6. For example, see Leila Fawaz, An Occasion for War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860 (London, 1994), pp.193-217; J. Spagnolo, France and Ottoman Lebanon, 1861-1914, pp.29-52; Engin D. Akarli, The Long Peace - Ottoman Lebanon, 1861-1920 (London, 1993), pp.6-33.
7. For example, see Leila Fawaz, An Occasion for War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860 (London, 1994), pp.193-217; J. Spagnolo, France and Ottoman Lebanon, 1861-1914, pp.29-52; Engin D. Akarli, The Long Peace - Ottoman Lebanon, 1861-1920 (London, 1993), pp.6-33.
8. For example, see Leila Fawaz, An Occasion for War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860 (London, 1994), pp.193-217; J. Spagnolo, France and Ottoman Lebanon, 1861-1914, pp.29-52; Engin D. Akarli, The Long Peace - Ottoman Lebanon, 1861-1920 (London, 1993), pp.6-33.
9. In this case of Dufferin's protecting the Druzes, she writes: 'He had become personally involved with the Druzes' fate, partly because he was inclined on occasion to adopt lost causes. Although he was ruthless landlord in Ireland, he could show concern for the disinherited in other places. The novelty of his task may also have had something of the commitment of the novice diplomat in it.' Fawaz, An Occasion for War, p.197.
10. For example, this was how James Graham described him. See Belfast Public Office (BPO), MD&A, mic. 22, reel 5, Vol.12, James Graham to Dufferin, 3 Aug. 1860.
11. On the Civil War and the events leading up to it, see J.F. Scheltema, The Lebanon in Turmoil-Syria and the Powers in 1860 (New Haven, 1920); Fawaz, pp.8-100; Linda S. Schilcher, 'The July 1860 Riots in Damascus' in her Families in Politics: Damascene Factions and Estates of the 18th and 19th Centuries (Stuttgart, 1985), pp.87-106. also Moshe Ma'oz, Ottoman Reform in Syria and Palestine 1840-1861 (Oxford, 1968), pp.186-240, and Kais M. Firro, A History of the Druzes (Leiden, 1992), pp.119-26.
12. On the Civil War and the events leading up to it, see J.F. Scheltema, The Lebanon in Turmoil-Syria and the Powers in 1860 (New Haven, 1920); Fawaz, pp.8-100; Linda S. Schilcher, 'The July 1860 Riots in Damascus' in her Families in Politics: Damascene Factions and Estates of the 18th and 19th Centuries (Stuttgart, 1985), pp.87-106. also Moshe Ma'oz, Ottoman Reform in Syria and Palestine 1840-1861 (Oxford, 1968), pp.186-240, and Kais M. Firro, A History of the Druzes (Leiden, 1992), pp.119-26.
13. On the Civil War and the events leading up to it, see J.F. Scheltema, The Lebanon in Turmoil-Syria and the Powers in 1860 (New Haven, 1920); Fawaz, pp.8-100; Linda S. Schilcher, 'The July 1860 Riots in Damascus' in her Families in Politics: Damascene Factions and Estates of the 18th and 19th Centuries (Stuttgart, 1985), pp.87-106. also Moshe Ma'oz, Ottoman Reform in Syria and Palestine 1840-1861 (Oxford, 1968), pp.186-240, and Kais M. Firro, A History of the Druzes (Leiden, 1992), pp.119-26.
14. On the Civil War and the events leading up to it, see J.F. Scheltema, The Lebanon in Turmoil-Syria and the Powers in 1860 (New Haven, 1920); Fawaz, pp.8-100; Linda S. Schilcher, 'The July 1860 Riots in Damascus' in her Families in Politics: Damascene Factions and Estates of the 18th and 19th Centuries (Stuttgart, 1985), pp.87-106. also Moshe Ma'oz, Ottoman Reform in Syria and Palestine 1840-1861 (Oxford, 1968), pp.186-240, and Kais M. Firro, A History of the Druzes (Leiden, 1992), pp.119-26.
15. On the Civil War and the events leading up to it, see J.F. Scheltema, The Lebanon in Turmoil-Syria and the Powers in 1860 (New Haven, 1920); Fawaz, pp.8-100; Linda S. Schilcher, 'The July 1860 Riots in Damascus' in her Families in Politics: Damascene Factions and Estates of the 18th and 19th Centuries (Stuttgart, 1985), pp.87-106. also Moshe Ma'oz, Ottoman Reform in Syria and Palestine 1840-1861 (Oxford, 1968), pp.186-240, and Kais M. Firro, A History of the Druzes (Leiden, 1992), pp.119-26.
16. On the French position see: John P. Spagnolo, France and Ottoman Lebanon, 1861-1914 (London, 1977), pp.1-29; Kamal S. Salibi, The Modern History of Lebanon (New York, 1964), pp.109-10.
17. On the French position see: John P. Spagnolo, France and Ottoman Lebanon, 1861-1914 (London, 1977), pp.1-29; Kamal S. Salibi, The Modern History of Lebanon (New York, 1964), pp.109-10.
18. BPO, D1071/H/C/2/3, Dufferin to Bulwer, 22 Dec. 1860; Fawaz and Schilcher hold that the force included 6000 troops; Fawaz, p.115; Schilcher, Families in Politics, p.88.
19. BPO, D1071/H/C/2/3, Dufferin to Bulwer, 22 Dec. 1860; Fawaz and Schilcher hold that the force included 6000 troops; Fawaz, p.115; Schilcher, Families in Politics, p.88.
20. Fawaz, p.198; Spagnolo, p.35.
21. FO 195/659, 'Protocol of the Sixth Meeting of the Syrian Commission', Beirut, 26 Oct. 1860.
22. For example see: FO 195/659, 'Protocol of the First Meeting of the Syrian Commission', 5 Oct. 1860; FO 195/659. 'Protocol of the Second Meeting of the Syrian Commission', Beyrout, 9 Oct. 1860; FO 195/659. 'Protocol of the Eighth Meeting of the Syrian Commission', Beyrout, 2 Nov. 1860; FO 195/659 'Protocol of the Sixteenth Meeting of the Syrian Commission', Beyrout, 29 Dec. 1860.
23. For example see: FO 195/659, 'Protocol of the First Meeting of the Syrian Commission', 5 Oct. 1860; FO 195/659. 'Protocol of the Second Meeting of the Syrian Commission', Beyrout, 9 Oct. 1860; FO 195/659. 'Protocol of the Eighth Meeting of the Syrian Commission', Beyrout, 2 Nov. 1860; FO 195/659 'Protocol of the Sixteenth Meeting of the Syrian Commission', Beyrout, 29 Dec. 1860.
24. For example see: FO 195/659, 'Protocol of the First Meeting of the Syrian Commission', 5 Oct. 1860; FO 195/659. 'Protocol of the Second Meeting of the Syrian Commission', Beyrout, 9 Oct. 1860; FO 195/659. 'Protocol of the Eighth Meeting of the Syrian Commission', Beyrout, 2 Nov. 1860; FO 195/659 'Protocol of the Sixteenth Meeting of the Syrian Commission', Beyrout, 29 Dec. 1860.
25. For example see: FO 195/659, 'Protocol of the First Meeting of the Syrian Commission', 5 Oct. 1860; FO 195/659. 'Protocol of the Second Meeting of the Syrian Commission', Beyrout, 9 Oct. 1860; FO 195/659. 'Protocol of the Eighth Meeting of the Syrian Commission', Beyrout, 2 Nov. 1860; FO 195/659 'Protocol of the Sixteenth Meeting of the Syrian Commission', Beyrout, 29 Dec. 1860.
26. For further details on the Beirut Committee and the principles of the agreement see Asad Rustum, Lubnan fi 'Ahd al-Mutasarrifiyya (Beirut, 1909), pp.216-17; Akarli, pp.31-3.
27. For further details on the Beirut Committee and the principles of the agreement see Asad Rustum, Lubnan fi 'Ahd al-Mutasarrifiyya (Beirut, 1909), pp.216-17; Akarli, pp.31-3.
28. Andrew T. Harrison, 'The First Marquess of Dufferin and Ava: Whig, Ulster and Landlord and Imperial Statesman', Vol.1 (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, New University of Ulster, 1973), pp.1-50: Alfred Lyall, The Life of the Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, Vol.1 (London, 1905), pp.22, 28, 42, 193; BPO, MD&A. mic. 320, reel 1, Contemporary Biography, Letters to Griffin, 1870; Fawaz, p.195.
29. Andrew T. Harrison, 'The First Marquess of Dufferin and Ava: Whig, Ulster and Landlord and Imperial Statesman', Vol.1 (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, New University of Ulster, 1973), pp.1-50: Alfred Lyall, The Life of the Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, Vol.1 (London, 1905), pp.22, 28, 42, 193; BPO, MD&A. mic. 320, reel 1, Contemporary Biography, Letters to Griffin, 1870; Fawaz, p.195.
30. Andrew T. Harrison, 'The First Marquess of Dufferin and Ava: Whig, Ulster and Landlord and Imperial Statesman', Vol.1 (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, New University of Ulster, 1973), pp.1-50: Alfred Lyall, The Life of the Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, Vol.1 (London, 1905), pp.22, 28, 42, 193; BPO, MD&A. mic. 320, reel 1, Contemporary Biography, Letters to Griffin, 1870; Fawaz, p.195.
31. Harrison, p.4.
32. Lyall, pp.93-5.
33. Harrison, p.84.
34. BPO, D1071H/C5, Russell to Dufferin, 30 July 1860; see also BPO, D1071/H/C/2/3, Dufferin, Beirut, 20 Dec. 1860.
35. Harrison, p.88; Lyall, pp.104-5.
36. Ibid., p.91.
37. FO 195/659, Dufferin, 25 April 1861.
38. For this and following quote, see text of Dufferin's plan in FO78/1626; BPO, D1071H/C5, Dufferin to Bulwer, 3 Nov. 1860.
39. Ibid.
40. Ibid.
41. This can also be deduced from the lecture on Syria that Dufferin gave in Belfast in 1864. BPO, D1071H/C/4/6, Dufferin, without date. Dufferin's lecture runs over 60 pages of hand writings; see also below.
42. See, for example: J.L. Burckhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land (London, 1822): F.A. Neale, Eight Years in Syria, Palestine and Asia Minor from 1842-1850, 2 vols. (London, 1851); F.F. Volney, Travels in Syria and Egypt in the Years 1783-1785, 2 vols. (London, 1787); The use of this name in the West can be dated back to the days of Hellenism. British diplomats during the Muhammad Ali crisis spoke of the 'Syrian question' and on the whole Western diplomats, merchants and Christian missionaries, together with the local Christian population, generally referred to 'Syria'. See Fruma Zachs, 'Toward a Proto-Nationalist Concept of Syria? Revisiting the American Presbyterian Missionaries in 19th-Century Levant' (forthcoming).
43. See, for example: J.L. Burckhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land (London, 1822): F.A. Neale, Eight Years in Syria, Palestine and Asia Minor from 1842-1850, 2 vols. (London, 1851); F.F. Volney, Travels in Syria and Egypt in the Years 1783-1785, 2 vols. (London, 1787); The use of this name in the West can be dated back to the days of Hellenism. British diplomats during the Muhammad Ali crisis spoke of the 'Syrian question' and on the whole Western diplomats, merchants and Christian missionaries, together with the local Christian population, generally referred to 'Syria'. See Fruma Zachs, 'Toward a Proto-Nationalist Concept of Syria? Revisiting the American Presbyterian Missionaries in 19th-Century Levant' (forthcoming).
44. See, for example: J.L. Burckhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land (London, 1822): F.A. Neale, Eight Years in Syria, Palestine and Asia Minor from 1842-1850, 2 vols. (London, 1851); F.F. Volney, Travels in Syria and Egypt in the Years 1783-1785, 2 vols. (London, 1787); The use of this name in the West can be dated back to the days of Hellenism. British diplomats during the Muhammad Ali crisis spoke of the 'Syrian question' and on the whole Western diplomats, merchants and Christian missionaries, together with the local Christian population, generally referred to 'Syria'. See Fruma Zachs, 'Toward a Proto-Nationalist Concept of Syria? Revisiting the American Presbyterian Missionaries in 19th-Century Levant' (forthcoming).
45. See, for example: J.L. Burckhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land (London, 1822): F.A. Neale, Eight Years in Syria, Palestine and Asia Minor from 1842-1850, 2 vols. (London, 1851); F.F. Volney, Travels in Syria and Egypt in the Years 1783-1785, 2 vols. (London, 1787); The use of this name in the West can be dated back to the days of Hellenism. British diplomats during the Muhammad Ali crisis spoke of the 'Syrian question' and on the whole Western diplomats, merchants and Christian missionaries, together with the local Christian population, generally referred to 'Syria'. See Fruma Zachs, 'Toward a Proto-Nationalist Concept of Syria? Revisiting the American Presbyterian Missionaries in 19th-Century Levant' (forthcoming).
46. Local Christians began using the term 'Syria' as of the end of the first half of the 19th century. For example see: B. Bustani, Al-Jam'iyya al-Suriyya L'iktisab al-'Ulum wal-Funun 1847-1852 (Beirut, 1990); Khalil al-Khuri, Kharabat Suriyya (Beirut, 1860); Jurji Yanni, Tarikh Suriyya (Beirut, 1881).
47. Local Christians began using the term 'Syria' as of the end of the first half of the 19th century. For example see: B. Bustani, Al-Jam'iyya al-Suriyya L'iktisab al-'Ulum wal-Funun 1847-1852 (Beirut, 1990); Khalil al-Khuri, Kharabat Suriyya (Beirut, 1860); Jurji Yanni, Tarikh Suriyya (Beirut, 1881).
48. Local Christians began using the term 'Syria' as of the end of the first half of the 19th century. For example see: B. Bustani, Al-Jam'iyya al-Suriyya L'iktisab al-'Ulum wal-Funun 1847-1852 (Beirut, 1990); Khalil al-Khuri, Kharabat Suriyya (Beirut, 1860); Jurji Yanni, Tarikh Suriyya (Beirut, 1881).
49. BPO, D1071H/C5, Dufferin to Bulwer, 3 Nov. 1860; Y. Özluna, Keçecizade Fuat Pasa (Istanbul, 1988), pp.34-5.
50. BPO, D1071H/C5, Dufferin to Bulwer, 3 Nov. 1860; Y. Özluna, Keçecizade Fuat Pasa (Istanbul, 1988), pp.34-5.
51. For example, he corresponded with James Brant, the British Consul in Damascus, and with Cyril Graham, whom he had met already during his travels in the region in 1858. Graham had hoped to be appointed British commissioner but as the opinions he voiced were almost diametrically opposed to those of the Foreign office, the job had gone to Dufferin. Fawaz, p.198; Lyall, p.93; BPO, MD&A, mic. 22, reel 5, Vol.12, Cyril Grahm to Dufferin, 6 Aug. 1860; BPO, MA& A, mic. 22, reel 12, Vol.12, Brant to Dufferin, 24 Sept. 1860.
52. For example, he corresponded with James Brant, the British Consul in Damascus, and with Cyril Graham, whom he had met already during his travels in the region in 1858. Graham had hoped to be appointed British commissioner but as the opinions he voiced were almost diametrically opposed to those of the Foreign office, the job had gone to Dufferin. Fawaz, p.198; Lyall, p.93; BPO, MD&A, mic. 22, reel 5, Vol.12, Cyril Grahm to Dufferin, 6 Aug. 1860; BPO, MA& A, mic. 22, reel 12, Vol.12, Brant to Dufferin, 24 Sept. 1860.
53. For example, he corresponded with James Brant, the British Consul in Damascus, and with Cyril Graham, whom he had met already during his travels in the region in 1858. Graham had hoped to be appointed British commissioner but as the opinions he voiced were almost diametrically opposed to those of the Foreign office, the job had gone to Dufferin. Fawaz, p.198; Lyall, p.93; BPO, MD&A, mic. 22, reel 5, Vol.12, Cyril Grahm to Dufferin, 6 Aug. 1860; BPO, MA& A, mic. 22, reel 12, Vol.12, Brant to Dufferin, 24 Sept. 1860.
54. BPO, D 1071H/C/3/36/3, Moore to Dufferin, 7 Oct. 1860.
55. BPO, MD&A, mic. 22, reel 5, Vol.12, Calvert to Dufferin, 6 Sept. 1860; 20 Sept. 1860. See also BPO, D1071H/C/3/11, Calvert Memorandum, 20 Sept. 1860.
56. BPO, MD&A, mic. 22, reel 5, Vol.12, Calvert to Dufferin, 6 Sept. 1860; 20 Sept. 1860. See also BPO, D1071H/C/3/11, Calvert Memorandum, 20 Sept. 1860.
57. Fawaz, p.215; Spagnolo, p.37; BPO, D1071H/C5, Dufferin, 15 Dec. 1860.
58. FO 195/659, Lowther to Russell, 22 Dec. 1860; BPO, D1071/H/C/2/3, Dufferin to Russell, 16 Dec. 1860.
59. FO 195/659, Bulwer to Russell, 11 Dec. 1860; Lyall, p.119.
60. BPO, D1071/H/C/2/3, Dufferin to Bulwer, 22 Dec. 1860; BPO, D1071/H/C5, Dufferin to Bulwer, 12 Dec. 1860; BPO, D1071/H/C5, Dufferin to Bulwer, 15 Dec. 1860.
61. BPO, D1071/H/C5, Dufferin to Bulwer, 12 Dec. 1860.
62. Lyall, p.122.
63. BPO, D1071/H/C/2/3, Dufferin to Bulwer, 22 Dec. 1860; BPO, D1071H/C5, Dufferin to Bulwer, 3 Nov. 1860.
64. Lyall, p.118; Fawaz, p.215.
65. BPO, D1071H/C/4/6, Dufferin, without date.
66. Lyall, pp.125-7.
67. For example, Dufferin exchanged letters with Simeon Howard Calhoun (1804-76), an American missionary in Syria. Calhoun supported the choice of Fuad as future governor, and later wrote to Dufferin that he believed the Porte should have control of the Mountain. FO 195/659, Calhoun to Dufferin, 2 May 1861. See also Scheltema, p.176.
68. See, for further details, Zachs, 'Toward a Proto-Nationalist Concept of Syria? Revisiting the American Presbyterian Missionaries in 19th-century Levant'.
69. National Archives (NA), Washington, Johnson to Morris, 28 Dec. 1861.
70. See for example, A.L. Tibawi. 'The American Missionaries in Beirut and Butrus al-Bustani', St. Antony's Papers, Middle Eastern Affairs, No. 16 (1963), pp.137-82.
71. On 19 Dec. 1858, for example, in a letter to the American Secretary of State, the missionaries suggested to change the title of the Consulate in Beirut into the General Consulate of Syria. NA, Calhoun, Eddy, Bird, Bliss, Daddy, Benton, Van Dyck, Jessup, Ford and Smith to L. Cass, 19 Oct. 1858.
72. As quoted in Fawaz, p.194.
73. 2, Vol.2, pp.934-6; Roderic H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton, 1963), pp.83, 84, 89-90 ; S.J. Shaw and E.K. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol.2 (Cambridge, 1977), pp.61-6; Fawaz, p.106.
74. 2, Vol.2, pp.934-6; Roderic H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton, 1963), pp.83, 84, 89-90 ; S.J. Shaw and E.K. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol.2 (Cambridge, 1977), pp.61-6; Fawaz, p.106.
75. 2, Vol.2, pp.934-6; Roderic H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton, 1963), pp.83, 84, 89-90 ; S.J. Shaw and E.K. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol.2 (Cambridge, 1977), pp.61-6; Fawaz, p.106.
76. 2, Vol.2, pp.934-6; Roderic H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton, 1963), pp.83, 84, 89-90 ; S.J. Shaw and E.K. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol.2 (Cambridge, 1977), pp.61-6; Fawaz, p.106.
77. 2, Vol.2, pp.934-6; Roderic H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton, 1963), pp.83, 84, 89-90 ; S.J. Shaw and E.K. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol.2 (Cambridge, 1977), pp.61-6; Fawaz, p.106.
78. FO 195/656, Dufferin to Fuad, 8 Sept. 1860.
79. BPO, D1071/H/C/2/3, Dufferin to Cowley, 4 Nov. 1860.
80. BPO, D1071/H/C5, Dufferin to Bulwer, 23 Sept. 1860.
81. Firro, pp.123-6.
82. Fawaz, p.120; emphasis added.
83. Ibid., 121; see also p.106.
84. FO as quoted in Fawaz, p.194; The BPO has the following variant, 'he is now, as it were, a man fighting with his face to the sun and from a lower level, but did the justice of his cause but equalize the choice of position, it is evident he would be more than a match for his present opponents'. BPO, D1071H/C5, Dufferin to Bulwer, 31 Oct. 1860.
85. BPO, D1071/H/C/2/3, Dufferin to Bulwer, 25 Dec. 1860.
86. I have not been able to consult Ottoman archives, and there always remains, of course, the possibility of Ottoman documents throwing further light on the matter. However, Butrus Abu-Manneh already wrote that, when trying 'to understand the Porte's policy towards the notion of a larger Syrian province ... no documentary evidence has been found on this subject.' Cf.: B. Abu-Manneh, 'The Establishment and Dismantling of the Province of Syria, 1865-1888', in J.P. Spagnolo (ed.), Problems of the Modern Middle East in Historical Perspective (Reading, 1992), p.16.
87. Cf. Davison, pp.142-51; Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London, Oxford, New York, 1968), p.388. For further details regarding the Vilayets Law, see Shaw, pp.83-4, 88-9. Cf. also Butrus Abu-Manneh, 'The Establishment and Dismantling of the Province of Syria', p.8. 'The men of the later Tanzimat believed that, in the prevailing circumstances, the new law on provincial government provided the best means of preserving the integrity of the empire'.
88. Cf. Davison, pp.142-51; Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London, Oxford, New York, 1968), p.388. For further details regarding the Vilayets Law, see Shaw, pp.83-4, 88-9. Cf. also Butrus Abu-Manneh, 'The Establishment and Dismantling of the Province of Syria', p.8. 'The men of the later Tanzimat believed that, in the prevailing circumstances, the new law on provincial government provided the best means of preserving the integrity of the empire'.
89. Cf. Davison, pp.142-51; Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London, Oxford, New York, 1968), p.388. For further details regarding the Vilayets Law, see Shaw, pp.83-4, 88-9. Cf. also Butrus Abu-Manneh, 'The Establishment and Dismantling of the Province of Syria', p.8. 'The men of the later Tanzimat believed that, in the prevailing circumstances, the new law on provincial government provided the best means of preserving the integrity of the empire'.
90. Cf. Davison, pp.142-51; Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London, Oxford, New York, 1968), p.388. For further details regarding the Vilayets Law, see Shaw, pp.83-4, 88-9. Cf. also Butrus Abu-Manneh, 'The Establishment and Dismantling of the Province of Syria', p.8. 'The men of the later Tanzimat believed that, in the prevailing circumstances, the new law on provincial government provided the best means of preserving the integrity of the empire'.
91. Davison, pp.143-4.
92. Davison., p.108.
93. Abu-Manneh, 'The Establishment and Dismantling of the Province of Syria', pp.8-9, 15; Hadiqat al-Akhbar, No.366, 20 April 1865.
94. Abu-Manneh, 'The Establishment and Dismantling of the Province of Syria', pp.8-9, 15; Hadiqat al-Akhbar, No.366, 20 April 1865.
95. BPO, D1071H/C5, Dufferin to Bulwer, 3 Nov. 1860.