Mexico City: Space and class in the Porfirian capital, 1884-1910

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 454-492

  Lear, John ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PUGET SOUND   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0039828926     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009614429602200402     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. A. Dupin de St. Andre, Le Mexique aujourd'hui (Paris, 1884), 48; Salvador Diego Fernández, La Ciudad de Méjico a fines del Siglo XJX (Mexico City, 1937), 5.
2. A. Dupin de St. Andre, Le Mexique aujourd'hui (Paris, 1884), 48; Salvador Diego Fernández, La Ciudad de Méjico a fines del Siglo XJX (Mexico City, 1937), 5.
3. Mrs. Elizabeth Blake, Mexico: Picturesque, Political, and Progressive (Boston, 1888), 58.
4. Adolfo Dollero, México al Dia, Impresiones y Notas de Viaje (Mexico City, 1937), 11.
5. Julio Sesto, México de Porfirio Díaz (Valencia, 1910), 129.
6. Mrs. Alec Tweedie, Mexico as I Saw it (New York, 1901), 220; José Rornero, Guía Romero (Mexico City, 1910), 211; T. Philip Terry, Terry's Mexico (London, 1909), 232-40; Moises Gonzalez Navarro, Historia moderna de México. El Porfiriato. La Vida Social, (Mexico City, 1957), 789.
7. Mrs. Alec Tweedie, Mexico as I Saw it (New York, 1901), 220; José Rornero, Guía Romero (Mexico City, 1910), 211; T. Philip Terry, Terry's Mexico (London, 1909), 232-40; Moises Gonzalez Navarro, Historia moderna de México. El Porfiriato. La Vida Social, (Mexico City, 1957), 789.
8. Mrs. Alec Tweedie, Mexico as I Saw it (New York, 1901), 220; José Rornero, Guía Romero (Mexico City, 1910), 211; T. Philip Terry, Terry's Mexico (London, 1909), 232-40; Moises Gonzalez Navarro, Historia moderna de México. El Porfiriato. La Vida Social, (Mexico City, 1957), 789.
9. Mrs. Alec Tweedie, Mexico as I Saw it (New York, 1901), 220; José Rornero, Guía Romero (Mexico City, 1910), 211; T. Philip Terry, Terry's Mexico (London, 1909), 232-40; Moises Gonzalez Navarro, Historia moderna de México. El Porfiriato. La Vida Social, (Mexico City, 1957), 789.
10. Nevin Winter, Mexico and her People Today (Boston, 1907), 46.
11. México Obrero, "Por Que Postulamos al Sr. Gral. Bernardo Reyes," primera quincena September 1909, 3.
12. Some classic examples from this rich literature are Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900, (Cambridge, 1962); Gereth Stedman Jones, Outcast London (New York, 1971); and David Harvey, "Paris, 1850-1870," in Consciousness and the Urban Experience: Studies in the history and theory of capitalist urbanization, (Baltimore, 1985).
13. Some classic examples from this rich literature are Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900, (Cambridge, 1962); Gereth Stedman Jones, Outcast London (New York, 1971); and David Harvey, "Paris, 1850-1870," in Consciousness and the Urban Experience: Studies in the history and theory of capitalist urbanization, (Baltimore, 1985).
14. Some classic examples from this rich literature are Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900, (Cambridge, 1962); Gereth Stedman Jones, Outcast London (New York, 1971); and David Harvey, "Paris, 1850-1870," in Consciousness and the Urban Experience: Studies in the history and theory of capitalist urbanization, (Baltimore, 1985).
15. The best historical surveys of Latin American urbanization are Jorge E. Hardoy, "Two Thousand Years of Latin American Urbanization," in Jorge Hardoy, ed., Urbanization in Latin America (New York, 1975) and James Scobie, "The Growth of Latin American Cities, 1870-1930," in The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. 4 (Cambridge, 1986), 233-66.
16. The best historical surveys of Latin American urbanization are Jorge E. Hardoy, "Two Thousand Years of Latin American Urbanization," in Jorge Hardoy, ed., Urbanization in Latin America (New York, 1975) and James Scobie, "The Growth of Latin American Cities, 1870-1930," in The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. 4 (Cambridge, 1986), 233-66.
17. For a dramatic case study of the effects of export agriculture on land tenure and labor relations, see Gilbert Joseph, Revolution from Without: Yucatan, Mexico and the United States, 1880-1924, (Durham, 1988)
18. Important exceptions to the pattern of primacy, defined here as being twice the size of the next largest city, are Colombia and Brazil. For degrees of primacy in 1930, see Scobie, "The Growth," 245. The pattern of primacy did not prevent secondary cities, particularly those that served as centers of regional export economies, from similar attempts at modernization. See Allen Wells and Gilbert M. Joseph, "Modernizing Visions, Chilango Blueprints, and Provincial Growing Pains: Mérida at the Turn of the Century," Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 8(2), 1992, 167-215.
19. See in particular Jeffrey Needall, A Tropical Belle Époque elite culture and society in turn-of-the-century Rio de Janeiro, (Cambridge, 1987), 1-51; James Scobie, Buenos Aires, Plaza to Suburb, 1870-1910, (New York, 1974).
20. See in particular Jeffrey Needall, A Tropical Belle Époque elite culture and society in turn-of-the-century Rio de Janeiro, (Cambridge, 1987), 1-51; James Scobie, Buenos Aires, Plaza to Suburb, 1870-1910, (New York, 1974).
21. For examples of sanitized indigenismo, see Barbara Tenenbaum's discussion of the creation of the Mexico City Monument to Cuauhtémoc in, "Streetwise History: The Paseo de la Reforma and the Porfirian State, 1876-1910," in William Beezley, Cheryl English Martin, and William French, eds., Rituals of Rule, Rituals of Resistance: Public Celebrations and Popular Culture in Mexico, (Wilmington, 1994), 127-50.
22. See Jeffrey Needall, "The Revolta Contra Vacina of 1904: The Revolt Against "modernization" in Belle-Époque Rio de Janeiro," Hispanic American Historical Review, 67:2 (May 1987), 233-69; Teresa Meade, " 'Living worse and costing more': resistance and riot in Rio de Janeiro, 1890-1917," Journal of Latin American Studies, 21:2 (May 1989), 241-66; David Sowell, "The 1893 bogotazo: Artisans and Public Violence in Late Nineteenth-Century Bogotá," Journal of Latin American Studies, 21:2 (May 1989), 267-82.
23. See Jeffrey Needall, "The Revolta Contra Vacina of 1904: The Revolt Against "modernization" in Belle-Époque Rio de Janeiro," Hispanic American Historical Review, 67:2 (May 1987), 233-69; Teresa Meade, " 'Living worse and costing more': resistance and riot in Rio de Janeiro, 1890-1917," Journal of Latin American Studies, 21:2 (May 1989), 241-66; David Sowell, "The 1893 bogotazo: Artisans and Public Violence in Late Nineteenth-Century Bogotá," Journal of Latin American Studies, 21:2 (May 1989), 267-82.
24. See Jeffrey Needall, "The Revolta Contra Vacina of 1904: The Revolt Against "modernization" in Belle-Époque Rio de Janeiro," Hispanic American Historical Review, 67:2 (May 1987), 233-69; Teresa Meade, " 'Living worse and costing more': resistance and riot in Rio de Janeiro, 1890-1917," Journal of Latin American Studies, 21:2 (May 1989), 241-66; David Sowell, "The 1893 bogotazo: Artisans and Public Violence in Late Nineteenth-Century Bogotá," Journal of Latin American Studies, 21:2 (May 1989), 267-82.
25. The literature on Mexico City during the Porfirian period is thin but growing. Pioneering efforts were made in the 1970s by researchers led by Alejandra Moreno Toscano at the National Institute for Anthropology and History. See in particular, her edited volumes, Ciudad de México, Ensayo de Constructión de una Historia (Mexico City, 1978), and Investigaciones sobre la historia de la ciudad de México (Mexico City, 1974), in particular the articles by Maria Dolores Morales in those volumes and cited below. Very useful information, documents, and analysis can be found in Hira de Gortari Rabiela and Regina Hernández, editors, La Ciudad de México y el Distrito Federal (Mexico City, 1988), 4 volumes. Recent works include Jorge H. Jiménez Muñoz, La Traza del poder (Mexico City, 1993), and the following articles: Steven Topik, "Economic Domination by the Capital: Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, 1888-1910," in Roberto Moreno de los Arcos, ed., La Ciudad y el Campo en la Historia de México (Mexico City, 1992), 185-96; Barbara Tenenbaum, "Streetwise History," and Mauricio Tenorio, "Mexico City and 'El Centenario,' " (paper presented at the International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Atlanta, Georgia, March, 1994).
26. The literature on Mexico City during the Porfirian period is thin but growing. Pioneering efforts were made in the 1970s by researchers led by Alejandra Moreno Toscano at the National Institute for Anthropology and History. See in particular, her edited volumes, Ciudad de México, Ensayo de Constructión de una Historia (Mexico City, 1978), and Investigaciones sobre la historia de la ciudad de México (Mexico City, 1974), in particular the articles by Maria Dolores Morales in those volumes and cited below. Very useful information, documents, and analysis can be found in Hira de Gortari Rabiela and Regina Hernández, editors, La Ciudad de México y el Distrito Federal (Mexico City, 1988), 4 volumes. Recent works include Jorge H. Jiménez Muñoz, La Traza del poder (Mexico City, 1993), and the following articles: Steven Topik, "Economic Domination by the Capital: Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, 1888-1910," in Roberto Moreno de los Arcos, ed., La Ciudad y el Campo en la Historia de México (Mexico City, 1992), 185-96; Barbara Tenenbaum, "Streetwise History," and Mauricio Tenorio, "Mexico City and 'El Centenario,' " (paper presented at the International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Atlanta, Georgia, March, 1994).
27. The literature on Mexico City during the Porfirian period is thin but growing. Pioneering efforts were made in the 1970s by researchers led by Alejandra Moreno Toscano at the National Institute for Anthropology and History. See in particular, her edited volumes, Ciudad de México, Ensayo de Constructión de una Historia (Mexico City, 1978), and Investigaciones sobre la historia de la ciudad de México (Mexico City, 1974), in particular the articles by Maria Dolores Morales in those volumes and cited below. Very useful information, documents, and analysis can be found in Hira de Gortari Rabiela and Regina Hernández, editors, La Ciudad de México y el Distrito Federal (Mexico City, 1988), 4 volumes. Recent works include Jorge H. Jiménez Muñoz, La Traza del poder (Mexico City, 1993), and the following articles: Steven Topik, "Economic Domination by the Capital: Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, 1888-1910," in Roberto Moreno de los Arcos, ed., La Ciudad y el Campo en la Historia de México (Mexico City, 1992), 185-96; Barbara Tenenbaum, "Streetwise History," and Mauricio Tenorio, "Mexico City and 'El Centenario,' " (paper presented at the International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Atlanta, Georgia, March, 1994).
28. The literature on Mexico City during the Porfirian period is thin but growing. Pioneering efforts were made in the 1970s by researchers led by Alejandra Moreno Toscano at the National Institute for Anthropology and History. See in particular, her edited volumes, Ciudad de México, Ensayo de Constructión de una Historia (Mexico City, 1978), and Investigaciones sobre la historia de la ciudad de México (Mexico City, 1974), in particular the articles by Maria Dolores Morales in those volumes and cited below. Very useful information, documents, and analysis can be found in Hira de Gortari Rabiela and Regina Hernández, editors, La Ciudad de México y el Distrito Federal (Mexico City, 1988), 4 volumes. Recent works include Jorge H. Jiménez Muñoz, La Traza del poder (Mexico City, 1993), and the following articles: Steven Topik, "Economic Domination by the Capital: Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, 1888-1910," in Roberto Moreno de los Arcos, ed., La Ciudad y el Campo en la Historia de México (Mexico City, 1992), 185-96; Barbara Tenenbaum, "Streetwise History," and Mauricio Tenorio, "Mexico City and 'El Centenario,' " (paper presented at the International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Atlanta, Georgia, March, 1994).
29. The literature on Mexico City during the Porfirian period is thin but growing. Pioneering efforts were made in the 1970s by researchers led by Alejandra Moreno Toscano at the National Institute for Anthropology and History. See in particular, her edited volumes, Ciudad de México, Ensayo de Constructión de una Historia (Mexico City, 1978), and Investigaciones sobre la historia de la ciudad de México (Mexico City, 1974), in particular the articles by Maria Dolores Morales in those volumes and cited below. Very useful information, documents, and analysis can be found in Hira de Gortari Rabiela and Regina Hernández, editors, La Ciudad de México y el Distrito Federal (Mexico City, 1988), 4 volumes. Recent works include Jorge H. Jiménez Muñoz, La Traza del poder (Mexico City, 1993), and the following articles: Steven Topik, "Economic Domination by the Capital: Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, 1888-1910," in Roberto Moreno de los Arcos, ed., La Ciudad y el Campo en la Historia de México (Mexico City, 1992), 185-96; Barbara Tenenbaum, "Streetwise History," and Mauricio Tenorio, "Mexico City and 'El Centenario,' " (paper presented at the International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Atlanta, Georgia, March, 1994).
30. The literature on Mexico City during the Porfirian period is thin but growing. Pioneering efforts were made in the 1970s by researchers led by Alejandra Moreno Toscano at the National Institute for Anthropology and History. See in particular, her edited volumes, Ciudad de México, Ensayo de Constructión de una Historia (Mexico City, 1978), and Investigaciones sobre la historia de la ciudad de México (Mexico City, 1974), in particular the articles by Maria Dolores Morales in those volumes and cited below. Very useful information, documents, and analysis can be found in Hira de Gortari Rabiela and Regina Hernández, editors, La Ciudad de México y el Distrito Federal (Mexico City, 1988), 4 volumes. Recent works include Jorge H. Jiménez Muñoz, La Traza del poder (Mexico City, 1993), and the following articles: Steven Topik, "Economic Domination by the Capital: Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, 1888-1910," in Roberto Moreno de los Arcos, ed., La Ciudad y el Campo en la Historia de México (Mexico City, 1992), 185-96; Barbara Tenenbaum, "Streetwise History," and Mauricio Tenorio, "Mexico City and 'El Centenario,' " (paper presented at the International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Atlanta, Georgia, March, 1994).
31. Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Cambridge, 1986).
32. See Andrés Lira, Communidades indígenas frente a la ciudadde Mexico (Mexico City, 1983).
33. Fanny Calderón de la Barca, Life in Mexico (Berkeley, 1982), 101, 113.
34. See Jan Bazant, The Alienation of Church Property (Cambridge, 1971), 114, and Maria Dolores Morales, "Estructura Urbana y Distributión de la Propiedad de la ciudad de México en 1813," in Alejandra Moreno Toscano, Ciudad de Mexico, Ensayo de Construcción de una Historia, (Mexico City, 1978), 72.
35. See Jan Bazant, The Alienation of Church Property (Cambridge, 1971), 114, and Maria Dolores Morales, "Estructura Urbana y Distributión de la Propiedad de la ciudad de México en 1813," in Alejandra Moreno Toscano, Ciudad de Mexico, Ensayo de Construcción de una Historia, (Mexico City, 1978), 72.
36. Fanny Gooch, Face to Face with the Mexicans, (New York, 1887), 172; Diego Femández, La Ciudad, 11.
37. Fanny Gooch, Face to Face with the Mexicans, (New York, 1887), 172; Diego Femández, La Ciudad, 11.
38. Jaime Rodriguez Piña, "Las Vecindades en 1811," in Jorge Gonzalez Angulo, et al., Investigaciones sobre la Historia de la Ciudad de México, (Mexico City, 1976) vol. 2.
39. Terry's Mexico, 348-50; Miguel Macedo, Mi Barrio (Mexico City, 1930), 27, 30, 49.
40. Terry's Mexico, 348-50; Miguel Macedo, Mi Barrio (Mexico City, 1930), 27, 30, 49.
41. Jorge Gonzalez Angulo Aguirre,Artesanado y Ciudad a finales del siglo XVIII, (Mexico City, 1983), 122.
42. Adriana Lopez Monjardín, Hacia la Ciudad del capital: México 1790-1870 (Mexico City, 1985), 166.
43. "True democracy is the rule, and the most degraded, unclean lepero has as much space allotted to him as the grandest lady or gentleman." Fanny Gooch, Face to Face, 164.
44. On the "ruralization of power" see Tulio Halperín-Donghi, The Aftermath of Revolution in Latin America (New York, 1973). On the Porfirian growth of Mexico City as a recovery of colonial predominance, see Alejandra Moreno Toscano, "Patrones de Urbanizatión en México," Historia Mexicana 22:185, and the same author with Enrique Florescano, El Sector Externo y la Organización Espacial y Regional de México (1522-1910) (Mexico City, 1974); Similarly, Richard Boyer argues that the postrevolutionary growth of Mexico City is a continuation and strengthening of its traditional functions, "Las Ciudades Mexicanas," Historia Mexicana 22:142.
45. On the "ruralization of power" see Tulio Halperín-Donghi, The Aftermath of Revolution in Latin America (New York, 1973). On the Porfirian growth of Mexico City as a recovery of colonial predominance, see Alejandra Moreno Toscano, "Patrones de Urbanizatión en México," Historia Mexicana 22:185, and the same author with Enrique Florescano, El Sector Externo y la Organización Espacial y Regional de México (1522-1910) (Mexico City, 1974); Similarly, Richard Boyer argues that the postrevolutionary growth of Mexico City is a continuation and strengthening of its traditional functions, "Las Ciudades Mexicanas," Historia Mexicana 22:142.
46. On the "ruralization of power" see Tulio Halperín-Donghi, The Aftermath of Revolution in Latin America (New York, 1973). On the Porfirian growth of Mexico City as a recovery of colonial predominance, see Alejandra Moreno Toscano, "Patrones de Urbanizatión en México," Historia Mexicana 22:185, and the same author with Enrique Florescano, El Sector Externo y la Organización Espacial y Regional de México (1522-1910) (Mexico City, 1974); Similarly, Richard Boyer argues that the postrevolutionary growth of Mexico City is a continuation and strengthening of its traditional functions, "Las Ciudades Mexicanas," Historia Mexicana 22:142.
47. On the "ruralization of power" see Tulio Halperín-Donghi, The Aftermath of Revolution in Latin America (New York, 1973). On the Porfirian growth of Mexico City as a recovery of colonial predominance, see Alejandra Moreno Toscano, "Patrones de Urbanizatión en México," Historia Mexicana 22:185, and the same author with Enrique Florescano, El Sector Externo y la Organización Espacial y Regional de México (1522-1910) (Mexico City, 1974); Similarly, Richard Boyer argues that the postrevolutionary growth of Mexico City is a continuation and strengthening of its traditional functions, "Las Ciudades Mexicanas," Historia Mexicana 22:142.
48. T. Philip Terry, Terry's Mexico (New York, 1911), 232.
49. Paul J. Vanderwood, Disorder and Progress, Police and Mexican Development (Lincoln, 1981) 120-4.
50. On the metropolitan activities of Escandón, see John Womack, Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York, 1968), 16-20; On Enrique Creel, see Mark Wasserman, Capitalists, Caciques, and Revolution in Chihuahua: the native elite and foreign enterprise in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1854-1911 (Chapel Hill, 1984).
51. On the metropolitan activities of Escandón, see John Womack, Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York, 1968), 16-20; On Enrique Creel, see Mark Wasserman, Capitalists, Caciques, and Revolution in Chihuahua: the native elite and foreign enterprise in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1854-1911 (Chapel Hill, 1984).
52. John Coatsworth, Growth Against Development; the economic impact of railroads in Porfirian Mexico (DeKalb, 1981), 75. See migration data to this effect in Bernardo Garcia Diaz, Un Pueblo Fabril, 32-41 and appendix. Most workers had migrated from Puebla, the D.F., and Oaxaca. While the first two groups of workers benefited from the railroad and previous factory experience, those from Oaxaca had a more arduous geographical dislocation to make, and had worked in textiles mostly as craft workers.
53. John Coatsworth, Growth Against Development; the economic impact of railroads in Porfirian Mexico (DeKalb, 1981), 75. See migration data to this effect in Bernardo Garcia Diaz, Un Pueblo Fabril, 32-41 and appendix. Most workers had migrated from Puebla, the D.F., and Oaxaca. While the first two groups of workers benefited from the railroad and previous factory experience, those from Oaxaca had a more arduous geographical dislocation to make, and had worked in textiles mostly as craft workers.
54. Richard Boyer and Keith Davies, Urbanization in 19th Century Latin America: Statistics and Sources (Los Angeles, 1973), 33, 42.
55. The construction of the Congressional Palace was interrupted by the revolution and in 1938 the unfinished building became the Monument of the Revolution.
56. See Harvey, "Paris, 1850-1870."
57. Stephen Haber, Industry and Development: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890-1940, (Stanford, 1989), 68-9; on real estate speculation of the traditional elite, see Maria Dolores Morales, "Francisco Somera y el primer Fraccionamiento de la Ciudad de México, 1840-1889", in Ciro F. S. Cardoso, Formación y Desarrollo de la Burguesía en México (Mexico City, 1987).
58. Stephen Haber, Industry and Development: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890-1940, (Stanford, 1989), 68-9; on real estate speculation of the traditional elite, see Maria Dolores Morales, "Francisco Somera y el primer Fraccionamiento de la Ciudad de México, 1840-1889", in Ciro F. S. Cardoso, Formación y Desarrollo de la Burguesía en México (Mexico City, 1987).
59. On changes of income and expenditures of the ayuntamiento and Federal District, see Diego Lopez Rosado, Los Servicios Públicos de la Ciudad de México, Porrua, (Mexico City, 1976), 235-7.
60. David Walker, "Porfirian Labor Politics: Working Class Organizations in Mexico City and Porfirio Díaz, 1876-1902," The Americas, 37:3 (1981), 271; Archivo Historico el ExAyuntamiento (AHEA), Regidores, 3891.
61. AHEA, 402:727.
62. Among his many positions in 1910, Landa y Escandón represented the National Railways of Mexico before the national government, was director of the Mexican Commercial and Industrial bank, and member of the board of directors of the Compañía Bancaria de Obras y Bienes Raíces. "The Governor of the Federal District," Mexican Herald, September 1910, centenary edition.
63. On the elaboration of the Paseo, see Barbara Tenenbaum, "Streetwise History."
64. Manuel Vidrio, "Sistemas de transporte y expansión urbana: los tranvías," in Alejandra Moreno Toscano, Ciudad de México, 206; Diego Fernández, La Ciudad, 39.
65. Manuel Vidrio, "Sistemas de transporte y expansión urbana: los tranvías," in Alejandra Moreno Toscano, Ciudad de México, 206; Diego Fernández, La Ciudad, 39.
66. Dolores Morales, "La expansión de la ciudad de México en el siglo XIX: el caso de los fraccionamientos," in Alejandra Moreno Toscane, et al., Investigaciones sobre la historia de la ciudad de México, (Mexico City, 1974), vol. 1, 80.
67. Terry's Mexico, 236; Mexican Yearbook (London, 1908), 570; Vidrio, "Sistemas," 215.
68. Terry's Mexico, 236; Mexican Yearbook (London, 1908), 570; Vidrio, "Sistemas," 215.
69. Terry's Mexico, 236; Mexican Yearbook (London, 1908), 570; Vidrio, "Sistemas," 215.
70. José Cossio, De México Viejo (Mexico City, 1935), 116; Maria Dolores Morales, "Francisco Somera," 208.
71. José Cossio, De México Viejo (Mexico City, 1935), 116; Maria Dolores Morales, "Francisco Somera," 208.
72. José Cossio, De México Viejo, 116; and Andrés Lira, Comunidades indigenas frente a la ciudad de México (Mexico City, 1983).
73. José Cossio, De México Viejo, 116; and Andrés Lira, Comunidades indigenas frente a la ciudad de México (Mexico City, 1983).
74. This calculation is based on the 1890 municipal census, which is used by the engineer M. Marroquin y Rivera in his maps in El Proyecto de Abastecimiento de Agua para la Ciudad de México (Mexico City, 1901), map 1.
75. José Lorenzo Cossio, "Algunas Noticias sobre las Colonias de esta Capital," in Boletín de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografla y Estadistica 5:47 (1937), 12; Maria Dolores Morales,"La expansión," 189.
76. José Lorenzo Cossio, "Algunas Noticias sobre las Colonias de esta Capital," in Boletín de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografla y Estadistica 5:47 (1937), 12; Maria Dolores Morales,"La expansión," 189.
77. Sonia Lombardo de Ruiz, "Ideas y proyectos urbanisticos de la ciudad de México, 1788-1850," in Moreno Toscano, Ciudad de México, 183, based on data of Israel Katzman.
78. In his memoir Jarano, the politician and educator Ramon Bateta describes the middle-class environment of lawyers and bureaucrats that composed this neighborhood; Ramon Bateta, Jarano (Austin, 1970).
79. Mexican Herald, September 1910, Centenario edition, 105.
80. Maria Dolores Morales, "Francisco Somera," 217, 227.
81. William Beezley, Judas at the Jockey Club and other episodes of Porfirian Mexico (Lincoln, 1987), chapter 1.
82. This figure is somewhat slanted by the inclusion of the category of "chozas o jacales" as single-dwelling houses. Censo, 1900, Distrito Federal, 4.
83. In 1900 in district eight, servants were 14 percent of the total population, as opposed to 9 percent for the city at large, elaborated from Censo, 1900, Distrito Federal, 93-5.
84. Maria del Carmen Collado, La Burguesía Mexicana, El Emporio Braniff y su Participación política, 1865-1920, (Mexico City, 1987), 69-73.
85. Terry's Mexico, 255; Cossio, "Algunas Noticias," 32.
86. Terry's Mexico, 255; Cossio, "Algunas Noticias," 32.
87. Land values are from Terry's Mexico, 255; Maria Dolores Morales, "La expansión," 198.
88. Land values are from Terry's Mexico, 255; Maria Dolores Morales, "La expansión," 198.
89. Diego Fernández, La Ciudad, 11.
90. Dolores Morales, "La Expansión," 196.
91. Sanborn's Insurance Maps, 1907, Bancroft Library.
92. Terry's Mexico, 257.
93. Haber, Industry and Development, 65-74; José Luis Cecefia, "La Penetración Extranjera y los Grupos de Poder Económico en el Mexico Porforista," in Mario Contreras and Jesus Tamayo, eds., México en el Siglo XX (Mexico City, 1975).
94. Haber, Industry and Development, 65-74; José Luis Cecefia, "La Penetración Extranjera y los Grupos de Poder Económico en el Mexico Porforista," in Mario Contreras and Jesus Tamayo, eds., México en el Siglo XX (Mexico City, 1975).
95. See for example the breadbakers' strike, 1914, in Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), Departamento de Trabajo (DT), 347:9; Juan Felipe Leal and Mario Huacuja Rountree, Economia y sistema de haciendas en México; La hacienda pulquera en el cambio, (Mexico City, 1984), 122, 126. On the role of dissatisfied small merchants in bringing on the revolution, see Friedrich Katz, "Mexico: Restored Republic and Porfiriato, 1867-1910,"in Leslie Bethell, ed., Cambridge History of Latin America (Cambridge, 1984), vol. 5, 62.
96. See for example the breadbakers' strike, 1914, in Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), Departamento de Trabajo (DT), 347:9; Juan Felipe Leal and Mario Huacuja Rountree, Economia y sistema de haciendas en México; La hacienda pulquera en el cambio, (Mexico City, 1984), 122, 126. On the role of dissatisfied small merchants in bringing on the revolution, see Friedrich Katz, "Mexico: Restored Republic and Porfiriato, 1867-1910,"in Leslie Bethell, ed., Cambridge History of Latin America (Cambridge, 1984), vol. 5, 62.
97. On elite conceptions of and preparations for the centennial, see Mauricio Tenorio, "Mexico City and 'El Centenenario.' "
98. Cossio, De México Viejo, 120.
99. Dolores Morales, "Francisco Somera," 192; also see maps in Jorge Angulo Aguirre and Yolanda Terán Trillo, Pianos de la Ciudad de México, (Mexico City, 1976).
100. Dolores Morales, "Francisco Somera," 192; also see maps in Jorge Angulo Aguirre and Yolanda Terán Trillo, Pianos de la Ciudad de México, (Mexico City, 1976).
101. Second National Edition for the Centenario of the Mexican Herald, September 1910, 105; Romero,Guía Romero, 154.
102. Second National Edition for the Centenario of the Mexican Herald, September 1910, 105; Romero,Guía Romero, 154.
103. Quoted in José Romero,Guíe Romero, 154.
104. Mexico City reportedly received 80 percent of national allocations for infrastructural improvements. Cited in Wells and Joseph, "Mérida at the Turn of the Century," 175.
105. Beezley, Judas, 12.
106. Gonzalo de Murga, "Atisbos Sociólogicos," Boletín de la Sociedad de Geografía y Estadísticas, VI, 1913, 479, 486.
107. The official estimate for 1895 is mentioned in Gonzalez Navarro, La Vida Social, 85, 86: Wallace Thompson, The People of Mexico, (New York, 1921), 254.
108. The official estimate for 1895 is mentioned in Gonzalez Navarro, La Vida Social, 85, 86: Wallace Thompson, The People of Mexico, (New York, 1921), 254.
109. AGN, DT 227:5.
110. AGN, DT 223:10
111. José Antonio Rojas Loa, "Población y vivienda en la zona central de la ciudad de México, 1970" in Investigaciones sobre la Historia de la Ciudad de Mexico (Mexico City, 1976), 59.
112. Morales, "Francisco Somera," 218; González Navarro, 87, 89.
113. Morales, "Francisco Somera," 218; González Navarro, 87, 89.
114. Bureau of American Republics, Mexico 1907,64; González Navarro, La Vida Social, 89; Fanny Gooch, Face to Face, 191.
115. Bureau of American Republics, Mexico 1907,64; González Navarro, La Vida Social, 89; Fanny Gooch, Face to Face, 191.
116. Bureau of American Republics, Mexico 1907,64; González Navarro, La Vida Social, 89; Fanny Gooch, Face to Face, 191.
117. See the complaints of engineer Alberto Robles Gil over the inadequacy of city building regulations in Enrique Creel, et al. Concurso Cientifico del Centenario, (1911).
118. Gonzalez Navarro, La Vida Social, 85-6.
119. Censo, 1900, D.F., 4; Miguel Macedo, Mi Barrio (Mexico City, 1930), 64.
120. Censo, 1900, D.F., 4; Miguel Macedo, Mi Barrio (Mexico City, 1930), 64.
121. Gonzalez Navarro, La Vida Social, 90.
122. John Kenneth Turner, Barbarous Mexico (Austin, 1969), 97-8.
123. Beezley, Judas, 112-5, 128; AHEA, Tomo 3645, ex 1712.
124. Miguel Macedo, La Criminalidad en México (Mexico City, 1897), 60.
125. Mexican Herald, supplement, September 16, 1910, 105; Macedo, La Criminalidad, 6: Juan Felipe Leal, Economía y Sistema, 121; see also Pablo Piccato, " 'El Paso de Venus por el disco del Sol': Criminality and Alcoholism in the Late Porfiriato," forthcoming in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos. 85. Guía Tremulla (1906), 134; The Mexican Yearbook,(1908), 564. See also Robert Buffington, "Revolutionary Reform: The Mexican Revolution and the Discourse on Prison Reform," in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, vol. 9, number 1, (Winter 1993), 71-93.
126. Mexican Herald, supplement, September 16, 1910, 105; Macedo, La Criminalidad, 6: Juan Felipe Leal, Economía y Sistema, 121; see also Pablo Piccato, " 'El Paso de Venus por el disco del Sol': Criminality and Alcoholism in the Late Porfiriato," forthcoming in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos. 85. Guía Tremulla (1906), 134; The Mexican Yearbook,(1908), 564. See also Robert Buffington, "Revolutionary Reform: The Mexican Revolution and the Discourse on Prison Reform," in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, vol. 9, number 1, (Winter 1993), 71-93.
127. Mexican Herald, supplement, September 16, 1910, 105; Macedo, La Criminalidad, 6: Juan Felipe Leal, Economía y Sistema, 121; see also Pablo Piccato, " 'El Paso de Venus por el disco del Sol': Criminality and Alcoholism in the Late Porfiriato," forthcoming in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos. 85. Guía Tremulla (1906), 134; The Mexican Yearbook,(1908), 564. See also Robert Buffington, "Revolutionary Reform: The Mexican Revolution and the Discourse on Prison Reform," in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, vol. 9, number 1, (Winter 1993), 71-93.
128. Mexican Herald, supplement, September 16, 1910, 105; Macedo, La Criminalidad, 6: Juan Felipe Leal, Economía y Sistema, 121; see also Pablo Piccato, " 'El Paso de Venus por el disco del Sol': Criminality and Alcoholism in the Late Porfiriato," forthcoming in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos. 85. Guía Tremulla (1906), 134; The Mexican Yearbook,(1908), 564. See also Robert Buffington, "Revolutionary Reform: The Mexican Revolution and the Discourse on Prison Reform," in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, vol. 9, number 1, (Winter 1993), 71-93.
129. Mexican Herald, supplement, September 16, 1910, 105; Macedo, La Criminalidad, 6: Juan Felipe Leal, Economía y Sistema, 121; see also Pablo Piccato, " 'El Paso de Venus por el disco del Sol': Criminality and Alcoholism in the Late Porfiriato," forthcoming in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos. 85. Guía Tremulla (1906), 134; The Mexican Yearbook,(1908), 564. See also Robert Buffington, "Revolutionary Reform: The Mexican Revolution and the Discourse on Prison Reform," in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, vol. 9, number 1, (Winter 1993), 71-93.
130. Mexican Herald, supplement, September 16, 1910, 105; Macedo, La Criminalidad, 6: Juan Felipe Leal, Economía y Sistema, 121; see also Pablo Piccato, " 'El Paso de Venus por el disco del Sol': Criminality and Alcoholism in the Late Porfiriato," forthcoming in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos. 85. Guía Tremulla (1906), 134; The Mexican Yearbook,(1908), 564. See also Robert Buffington, "Revolutionary Reform: The Mexican Revolution and the Discourse on Prison Reform," in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, vol. 9, number 1, (Winter 1993), 71-93.
131. Mexican Herald, supplement, September 16, 1910, 105; Macedo, La Criminalidad, 6: Juan Felipe Leal, Economía y Sistema, 121; see also Pablo Piccato, " 'El Paso de Venus por el disco del Sol': Criminality and Alcoholism in the Late Porfiriato," forthcoming in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos. 85. Guía Tremulla (1906), 134; The Mexican Yearbook,(1908), 564. See also Robert Buffington, "Revolutionary Reform: The Mexican Revolution and the Discourse on Prison Reform," in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, vol. 9, number 1, (Winter 1993), 71-93.
132. Diego Fernández, La Ciudad, 5; Terry's Mexico, 259.
133. Diego Fernández, La Ciudad, 5; Terry's Mexico, 259.
134. Dollero, México al Dia, 17.
135. On the 1922 rent strike, see Paco Ignacio Taibo, II, Los Bolshevikis, Historia Narrativa de los Orígenes del Comunismo en México (Mexico City, 1987); Erica Berra Stoppa, "La expansion de la ciudad de México y los conflictos urbanos, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. dissertation, El Colegio de México, Mexico, 1982); and John Lear, "Revolutionary Politics and Popular Classes: Mexico City 1911-22" (paper given at the International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Los Angeles, September 1992).
136. On the 1922 rent strike, see Paco Ignacio Taibo, II, Los Bolshevikis, Historia Narrativa de los Orígenes del Comunismo en México (Mexico City, 1987); Erica Berra Stoppa, "La expansion de la ciudad de México y los conflictos urbanos, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. dissertation, El Colegio de México, Mexico, 1982); and John Lear, "Revolutionary Politics and Popular Classes: Mexico City 1911-22" (paper given at the International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Los Angeles, September 1992).
137. On the 1922 rent strike, see Paco Ignacio Taibo, II, Los Bolshevikis, Historia Narrativa de los Orígenes del Comunismo en México (Mexico City, 1987); Erica Berra Stoppa, "La expansion de la ciudad de México y los conflictos urbanos, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. dissertation, El Colegio de México, Mexico, 1982); and John Lear, "Revolutionary Politics and Popular Classes: Mexico City 1911-22" (paper given at the International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Los Angeles, September 1992).
138. Maria Dolores Morales, "Rafael Martinez de la Torre y la Creación de Fraccionamientos. El caso de la Colonia Guerrero," in Maria Dolores Morales, et al, Investigaciones sobre la Historia de la Ciudad de México, vol. III, (Mexico City, 1978).
139. On problems of payment and title, see Murga, "Atisbos," 484; Mexican Herald, June 22, 1908, 2.
140. On problems of payment and title, see Murga, "Atisbos," 484; Mexican Herald, June 22, 1908, 2.
141. Erica Berra Stoppa, "La Expansión de la ciudad de México y los Conflictos urbanos, 1900-1930" (Doctoral thesis, El Colegio de México, 1982), 392-9.
142. See the control industrialists maintained over textile workers as tenants in Antonio Ramos Pedrueza, "Reglamento para las Fabricas de Hilados y Tejidos en La Republica," July 17, 1912. Copy in AGN, DT 91:8.
143. El Imparcial, April 9, 1902, quoted in Dolores Morales, "La Expansion," 200.
144. El Imparcial, April 9, 1902, quoted in Dolores Morales, "La Expansion," 200.
145. AHEA, Colonias, #519, ex. 22.
146. Cossio, "Algunas Noticias," 22-35;
147. Censo, 1900, D.F., indice alfabético, 6.
148. Beezley, Judas, 27, 30.
149. Dollero, México, 20-5.
150. Censo, 1900, D.F., 4; Gonzalez Navarro, La Vida Social, 88.
151. Censo, 1900, D.F., 4; Gonzalez Navarro, La Vida Social, 88.
152. Mexican Herald, June 22, 1908, 2; Cossio, "Algunas Noticias," 23.
153. Mexican Herald, June 22, 1908, 2; Cossio, "Algunas Noticias," 23.
154. Quote from Terry's Mexico, 257; plan also mentioned in Dollero, México al Dia, 28; see inspector's recommendations in AGN, DT 5:1.
155. Quote from Terry's Mexico, 257; plan also mentioned in Dollero, México al Dia, 28; see inspector's recommendations in AGN, DT 5:1.
156. Gustavo Casasola, Historia Gráfica de México, vol. II; Beezley, Judas, 115.
157. Gustavo Casasola, Historia Gráfica de México, vol. II; Beezley, Judas, 115.
158. Miguel Macedo, La Criminalidad en México, 6.
159. Eric Van Young, "Islands in the Storm: Quiet Cities and Violent Countrysides in the Mexican Independence Era," in Past and Present, (February 1988).
160. On the first May Day and similar expressions of community organization, see Lear, "Workers, Vecinos and Citizens: The Revolution in Mexico City, 1909-1917," chapter 6.
161. Although these mobilizations are often cited in the literature on the Mexican Revolution, they are rarely discussed in detail or within the social context of Mexico City. Exceptions are John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978, 1987); Francisco Ramirez Plancarte, La Ciudad de México durante la Revolución Constitucionalista (Mexico City, 1941); Rosendo Salazar and José Escobedo, Las Pugnas de la Gleba (Mexico City, 1922); and Lear, "Workers, Vecinos and Citizens: The Revolution in Mexico City, 1909-1917." On the rent strike, see footnote 88.
162. Although these mobilizations are often cited in the literature on the Mexican Revolution, they are rarely discussed in detail or within the social context of Mexico City. Exceptions are John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978, 1987); Francisco Ramirez Plancarte, La Ciudad de México durante la Revolución Constitucionalista (Mexico City, 1941); Rosendo Salazar and José Escobedo, Las Pugnas de la Gleba (Mexico City, 1922); and Lear, "Workers, Vecinos and Citizens: The Revolution in Mexico City, 1909-1917." On the rent strike, see footnote 88.
163. Although these mobilizations are often cited in the literature on the Mexican Revolution, they are rarely discussed in detail or within the social context of Mexico City. Exceptions are John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978, 1987); Francisco Ramirez Plancarte, La Ciudad de México durante la Revolución Constitucionalista (Mexico City, 1941); Rosendo Salazar and José Escobedo, Las Pugnas de la Gleba (Mexico City, 1922); and Lear, "Workers, Vecinos and Citizens: The Revolution in Mexico City, 1909-1917." On the rent strike, see footnote 88.
164. Although these mobilizations are often cited in the literature on the Mexican Revolution, they are rarely discussed in detail or within the social context of Mexico City. Exceptions are John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978, 1987); Francisco Ramirez Plancarte, La Ciudad de México durante la Revolución Constitucionalista (Mexico City, 1941); Rosendo Salazar and José Escobedo, Las Pugnas de la Gleba (Mexico City, 1922); and Lear, "Workers, Vecinos and Citizens: The Revolution in Mexico City, 1909-1917." On the rent strike, see footnote 88.