European identity and the myth of Islam: A reassessment

Review of International Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 435-451

  Rich, Paul ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0039726573     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210599004350     Document Type: Article

References (91)

1. Philip Schlesinger, '"Europeanness" - A New Cultural Battlefield', Innovation, 5: 1 ((1992), pp. 11-22. For some analysts on the left Europe is seen as suffering from an identity crisis as a result of the loss of political direction by its governing elite. See 'Europe's National Identity Crisis', Living Marxism, 45 (July 1992).
2. Philip Schlesinger, '"Europeanness" - A New Cultural Battlefield', Innovation, 5: 1 ((1992), pp. 11-22. For some analysts on the left Europe is seen as suffering from an identity crisis as a result of the loss of political direction by its governing elite. See 'Europe's National Identity Crisis', Living Marxism, 45 (July 1992).
3. J. Peter Burgess, 'European Borders: History of Space/Space of History', p. 1, http:/www.etheory.com/a-european_borders.html
4. Miriam Camps. 'Is "Europe" Obsolete?', International Affairs, 44: 3 (July 1988), pp. 434-45.
5. Iver B. Neumann and Jennifer M. Welsh, 'The Other in European Self-definition: An Addendum to the Literature on International Society', Review of International Studies, 17 (1991), pp. 327-48. See also Gerard Delanty, Inventing Europe (Houndmills: The Macmillan Press, 1995), p. 84.
6. Iver B. Neumann and Jennifer M. Welsh, 'The Other in European Self-definition: An Addendum to the Literature on International Society', Review of International Studies, 17 (1991), pp. 327-48. See also Gerard Delanty, Inventing Europe (Houndmills: The Macmillan Press, 1995), p. 84.
7. For an assessment of this debate see Jochen Hippler and Andrea Lueg, The Next Threat: Western Perceptions of Islam (London: Pluto Press, 1995).
8. Samuel Huntington, 'The Clash of Civilisations', Foreign Affairs, Summer 1993.
9. See also Paul B. Rich, 'Democratisation in the EU and the issue of European identity' in Barrie Axford, Daniela Berghahn, Nick Hewlett (eds.) Unity and Diversity in the New Europe (Bern: Peter Lang AG) forthcoming; Pim den Boer, 'Europe to 1914: The Making of an Idea' in Kevin Wilson and Jan van der Duisen, The History of the Idea of Europe (London: Routledge, 1993), esp. pp. 65-78.
10. See also Paul B. Rich, 'Democratisation in the EU and the issue of European identity' in Barrie Axford, Daniela Berghahn, Nick Hewlett (eds.) Unity and Diversity in the New Europe (Bern: Peter Lang AG) forthcoming; Pim den Boer, 'Europe to 1914: The Making of an Idea' in Kevin Wilson and Jan van der Duisen, The History of the Idea of Europe (London: Routledge, 1993), esp. pp. 65-78.
11. R. B. J. Walker, 'The Concept of Culture in the Theory of International Relations', in Jongsuh Chay (ed.) Culture and International Relations (New York: Praeger, 1990), pp. 3-13.
12. Ronald Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950-1350 (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1994), p. 269. Frankish culture though was by no means homogeneous and there was in many respects only a superficial unity to the Carolingian empire. Ross Balzaretti, 'The Creation of Europe', History Workshop Journal, 33 (1992), pp. 181-93.
13. Ronald Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950-1350 (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1994), p. 269. Frankish culture though was by no means homogeneous and there was in many respects only a superficial unity to the Carolingian empire. Ross Balzaretti, 'The Creation of Europe', History Workshop Journal, 33 (1992), pp. 181-93.
14. Denys Hay, Europe: The Emergence of an Idea (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1957), p. 25.
15. Martin Wight, Systems of States (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1977), p. 119.
16. Ibid., p. 120.
17. M. E. Yapp, 'Europe in the Turkish Mirror', Past and Present, 137 (November 1992), p. 138.
18. Hichem Djait, Europe and Islam (Berkeley: University of California Press 1986), p. 109.
19. J. Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1968), p. 92.
20. Neumann and Welsh, op. cit., p. 336.
21. Richard Fletcher, The Conversion of Europe: From Paganism to Christianity 371 to 1386 AD (London: Harper Collins 1997), pp. 304-22.
22. The Song of Roland (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1990) v. 1015, p. 61.
23. Ibid vv. 979-82, p. 60.
24. Rana Kabbani, Europe's Myths of Orient (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), p. 15.
25. Henri Baudet, Paradise on Earth (New Haven: Royal Van Gorcum, 1965), pp. 13-17.
26. J. R. Hale, War and Society in Renaissance Europe 1450-1620 (Stroud: Sutton Publishers, 1998), p. 34.
27. Neumann and Welsh, op. cit., p. 338.
28. Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, Vol. 11 (London: Fontana Collins, 1976), p. 1088.
29. Ibid., p. 1142.
30. Baudet, op. cit., p. 33; Charles L. Sanford, The Quest for Paradise: Europe and the American Moral Imagination (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961), pp. 42-3. In the case of Spain, though, the expulsion of the Islamic Morisco population in 1609-11 followed a wave of persecution by the Jesuits which was in many respects far more intolerant than the treatment meted out to the Indian population in the Americas. Nigel Griffin 'Un muro invisible': Moriscos and Cristianos 'Viejos in Granada', in Medieval and Renaissance Studies of Spain and Portugal in Honour of P. E. Russell (Oxford: The Society for the Study of Medieval Languages and Literature, 1981).
31. Baudet, op. cit., p. 33; Charles L. Sanford, The Quest for Paradise: Europe and the American Moral Imagination (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961), pp. 42-3. In the case of Spain, though, the expulsion of the Islamic Morisco population in 1609-11 followed a wave of persecution by the Jesuits which was in many respects far more intolerant than the treatment meted out to the Indian population in the Americas. Nigel Griffin 'Un muro invisible': Moriscos and Cristianos 'Viejos in Granada', in Medieval and Renaissance Studies of Spain and Portugal in Honour of P. E. Russell (Oxford: The Society for the Study of Medieval Languages and Literature, 1981).
32. Baudet, op. cit., p. 33; Charles L. Sanford, The Quest for Paradise: Europe and the American Moral Imagination (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961), pp. 42-3. In the case of Spain, though, the expulsion of the Islamic Morisco population in 1609-11 followed a wave of persecution by the Jesuits which was in many respects far more intolerant than the treatment meted out to the Indian population in the Americas. Nigel Griffin 'Un muro invisible': Moriscos and Cristianos 'Viejos in Granada', in Medieval and Renaissance Studies of Spain and Portugal in Honour of P. E. Russell (Oxford: The Society for the Study of Medieval Languages and Literature, 1981).
33. Baudet, op. cit., p. 33; Charles L. Sanford, The Quest for Paradise: Europe and the American Moral Imagination (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961), pp. 42-3. In the case of Spain, though, the expulsion of the Islamic Morisco population in 1609-11 followed a wave of persecution by the Jesuits which was in many respects far more intolerant than the treatment meted out to the Indian population in the Americas. Nigel Griffin 'Un muro invisible': Moriscos and Cristianos 'Viejos in Granada', in Medieval and Renaissance Studies of Spain and Portugal in Honour of P. E. Russell (Oxford: The Society for the Study of Medieval Languages and Literature, 1981).
34. Bernard Sheehan, Savagism and Civility: Indians and Englishmen in Colonial Virginia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), p. 21.
35. Ibid., p. 54.
36. Ibid., pp. 410-41.
37. Yapp, op. cit., p. 139.
38. Maxime Rodinson, Europe and the Mystique of Islam (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1987), p. 8.
39. P. S. Van Koningsveld, 'Muslim Slaves and Captives in Western Europe During the Late Middle Ages', Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 6:1 (1995), pp. 5-6.
40. Wight, op. cit., p. 34.
41. Van Koningsveld, op. cit., p. 8.
42. Albert Hourani, Islam in European Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 9.
43. Hale, op. cit., p. 140.
44. Majid Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955), pp. 57-9.
45. Michael Howard, War and the Liberal Conscience (London: Temple Smith, 1978), p. 13.
46. Erasmus, The Education of a Christian Prince (Cambridge: CUP, 1987), p. 93. See also Hale op. cit., pp. 35-6.
47. Erasmus, The Education of a Christian Prince (Cambridge: CUP, 1987), p. 93. See also Hale op. cit., pp. 35-6.
48. Alfred Vagts, 'The Balance of Power: Growth of an Idea', World Politics, 1:1 (October 1948), pp. 82-101;
49. Garret Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1965), pp. 86-7.
50. John Stoye, Europe Unfolding: 1648-1688 (London: Fontana, 1988), pp. 70-72.
51. H. D. Schmidt, 'The Establishment of "Europe" as a Political Expression', Historical Journal, IX:2 (1966), pp. 174-6; Stoye, op cit., pp. 322-3.
52. H. D. Schmidt, 'The Establishment of "Europe" as a Political Expression', Historical Journal, IX:2 (1966), pp. 174-6; Stoye, op cit., pp. 322-3.
53. Yapp. op. cit., p. 142.
54. T. Naff, 'The Ottoman Empire and the European States System' in H. Bull and A. Watson (eds.), The Expansion of International Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), p. 143.
55. Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: Verso 1974), pp. 361-94.
56. Wight, op. cit., p. 122; M.S. Anderson, The Rise of Modern Diplomacy, 1450-1919 (New York and London: Longman 1993), p. 72.
57. Wight, op. cit., p. 122; M.S. Anderson, The Rise of Modern Diplomacy, 1450-1919 (New York and London: Longman 1993), p. 72.
58. Jack Lively, 'The Europe of the Enlightenment', History of European Ideas, 1:2 (1981), p. 91.
59. Yapp, op. cit., p. 147.
60. Kabani, op. cit., p. 138.
61. Nicholas Till, Mozart and the Enlightenment (London: Faber and Faber, 1992), p. 104.
62. Kabani, op. cit., p. 24.
63. Felix Markham, Napoleon (New York: Mentor Books, 1966), pp. 56-7.
64. Napoleon's colonial ambitions not stop with the Orient since he also had a dream of securing a French empire in the Americas and in 1800 managed to secure from Spain the return of Louisiana. This dream though came to nothing after the failure of the French expedition to Haiti in 1802 and the following year Louisiana was sold to the United States. Geoffrey Bruun, Europe and the French Imperium, 1799-1814 (New York: Harper and Row 1934), pp. 84-5.
65. Philomena Murray and Paul B. Rich (eds.), Visions of European Union (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996).
66. For details see Charles-Robert Ageron, Modern Algeria (London: Hurst, 1991).
67. Stuart Woolf, 'French Civilisation and Ethnicity in the Napoleonic Empire', Past and Present, 124 (August 1989), pp. 96-120.
68. Lively, op. cit., p. 93.
69. George L. Mosse, The Culture of Western Europe (London: Murray 1963), p. 2.
70. Ernest Renan, 'Islamism and Science' in The Poetry of the Celtic Races and Other Studies (New Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press (1st edn 1896)), p. 102.
71. Delanty, op. cit., pp. 97-8; L. Poliakov, The Aryan Myth (New York: Basic Books, 1974).
72. Delanty, op. cit., pp. 97-8; L. Poliakov, The Aryan Myth (New York: Basic Books, 1974).
73. Rodinson, op. cit.
74. Thomas Carlyle, Heroes, Hero Worship (London: Chapman Hall, 1901), p. 70.
75. Letter from de Tocqueville to Gobineau, 22 October 1843 in John Lukacs (ed.), Tocqueville, The European Revolution and Correspondence with Gobineau (New York: Anchor Books, 1959), p. 21. Letter from de Tocqueville to Gobineau 8 January 1856 in ibid. pp. 269-70. The idea of European racial supremacy was underlined by the work of classical scholars in fostering a myth of European civilisation resting on the purer form of classical civilisation centred on Ancient Greece and Rome. The myth linked European cultural and racial supremacy and promoted the idea that the contemporary European polis was the historical successor of the republican tradition of classical Greece. By contrast the polis in Islamic societies became orientalised as it was seen as founded on monarchical 'despotism'. See in particular Athena Leoussi, 'Nationalism and Racial Hellenism in nineteenth century England and France', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20:1 (1997), pp. 42-68; Nationalism and Classicism (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997). The myth ignored any evidence from archaeology that indicated that contractual societies could be found much earlier than classical Greece in the clay tablets and papyri from a variety of civilisations such as Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian and Hittite from the third millenium BC. Patricia Springborg, 'The Contractual State: Reflections on Orientalism and Despotism', History of Political Thought, 8:3 (1987), pp. 395-433.
76. Letter from de Tocqueville to Gobineau, 22 October 1843 in John Lukacs (ed.), Tocqueville, The European Revolution and Correspondence with Gobineau (New York: Anchor Books, 1959), p. 21. Letter from de Tocqueville to Gobineau 8 January 1856 in ibid. pp. 269-70. The idea of European racial supremacy was underlined by the work of classical scholars in fostering a myth of European civilisation resting on the purer form of classical civilisation centred on Ancient Greece and Rome. The myth linked European cultural and racial supremacy and promoted the idea that the contemporary European polis was the historical successor of the republican tradition of classical Greece. By contrast the polis in Islamic societies became orientalised as it was seen as founded on monarchical 'despotism'. See in particular Athena Leoussi, 'Nationalism and Racial Hellenism in nineteenth century England and France', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20:1 (1997), pp. 42-68; Nationalism and Classicism (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997). The myth ignored any evidence from archaeology that indicated that contractual societies could be found much earlier than classical Greece in the clay tablets and papyri from a variety of civilisations such as Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian and Hittite from the third millenium BC. Patricia Springborg, 'The Contractual State: Reflections on Orientalism and Despotism', History of Political Thought, 8:3 (1987), pp. 395-433.
77. Letter from de Tocqueville to Gobineau, 22 October 1843 in John Lukacs (ed.), Tocqueville, The European Revolution and Correspondence with Gobineau (New York: Anchor Books, 1959), p. 21. Letter from de Tocqueville to Gobineau 8 January 1856 in ibid. pp. 269-70. The idea of European racial supremacy was underlined by the work of classical scholars in fostering a myth of European civilisation resting on the purer form of classical civilisation centred on Ancient Greece and Rome. The myth linked European cultural and racial supremacy and promoted the idea that the contemporary European polis was the historical successor of the republican tradition of classical Greece. By contrast the polis in Islamic societies became orientalised as it was seen as founded on monarchical 'despotism'. See in particular Athena Leoussi, 'Nationalism and Racial Hellenism in nineteenth century England and France', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20:1 (1997), pp. 42-68; Nationalism and Classicism (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997). The myth ignored any evidence from archaeology that indicated that contractual societies could be found much earlier than classical Greece in the clay tablets and papyri from a variety of civilisations such as Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian and Hittite from the third millenium BC. Patricia Springborg, 'The Contractual State: Reflections on Orientalism and Despotism', History of Political Thought, 8:3 (1987), pp. 395-433.
78. Letter from de Tocqueville to Gobineau, 22 October 1843 in John Lukacs (ed.), Tocqueville, The European Revolution and Correspondence with Gobineau (New York: Anchor Books, 1959), p. 21. Letter from de Tocqueville to Gobineau 8 January 1856 in ibid. pp. 269-70. The idea of European racial supremacy was underlined by the work of classical scholars in fostering a myth of European civilisation resting on the purer form of classical civilisation centred on Ancient Greece and Rome. The myth linked European cultural and racial supremacy and promoted the idea that the contemporary European polis was the historical successor of the republican tradition of classical Greece. By contrast the polis in Islamic societies became orientalised as it was seen as founded on monarchical 'despotism'. See in particular Athena Leoussi, 'Nationalism and Racial Hellenism in nineteenth century England and France', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20:1 (1997), pp. 42-68; Nationalism and Classicism (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997). The myth ignored any evidence from archaeology that indicated that contractual societies could be found much earlier than classical Greece in the clay tablets and papyri from a variety of civilisations such as Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian and Hittite from the third millenium BC. Patricia Springborg, 'The Contractual State: Reflections on Orientalism and Despotism', History of Political Thought, 8:3 (1987), pp. 395-433.
79. Letter from de Tocqueville to Gobineau, 22 October 1843 in John Lukacs (ed.), Tocqueville, The European Revolution and Correspondence with Gobineau (New York: Anchor Books, 1959), p. 21. Letter from de Tocqueville to Gobineau 8 January 1856 in ibid. pp. 269-70. The idea of European racial supremacy was underlined by the work of classical scholars in fostering a myth of European civilisation resting on the purer form of classical civilisation centred on Ancient Greece and Rome. The myth linked European cultural and racial supremacy and promoted the idea that the contemporary European polis was the historical successor of the republican tradition of classical Greece. By contrast the polis in Islamic societies became orientalised as it was seen as founded on monarchical 'despotism'. See in particular Athena Leoussi, 'Nationalism and Racial Hellenism in nineteenth century England and France', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20:1 (1997), pp. 42-68; Nationalism and Classicism (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997). The myth ignored any evidence from archaeology that indicated that contractual societies could be found much earlier than classical Greece in the clay tablets and papyri from a variety of civilisations such as Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian and Hittite from the third millenium BC. Patricia Springborg, 'The Contractual State: Reflections on Orientalism and Despotism', History of Political Thought, 8:3 (1987), pp. 395-433.
80. Charles H. Pearson, National Life and Character (London: Macmillan, 1894), p. 48.
81. Rodinson, op. cit., p. 64.
82. M. S. Anderson op. cit., pp. 106-7.
83. David Steele, 'Britain and Egypt, 1882-1914' in Keith M. Wilson (ed.), Imperialism and Nationalism in the Middle East (London: Mansell, 1983), p. 2.
84. J. A. S. Grenville, Europe Reshaped, 1848-1878 (London: Fontana, 1976), p. 390.
85. R. Robinson and J. Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians; The Official Mind of Imperialism (London: Macmillan, 1961); Steele, op. cit., p. 20.
86. R. Robinson and J. Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians; The Official Mind of Imperialism (London: Macmillan, 1961); Steele, op. cit., p. 20.
87. Delanty, op. cit., p. 96.
88. Gerrit W. Gong, The Standard of Civilization in International Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), pp. 14-15. By 1905 a 'standard of civilization' had emerged as an explicit legal principle in doctrines of international law.
89. John A. Hall, Powers and Liberties: The Causes and Consequences of the Rise of the West (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1985), p. 143.
90. An idea suggested to the author by Gerrit Gong.
91. Bobby Sayyid, A Fundamental Fear: Eurocentrism and the Emergence of Islam (London and New York: Zed Books, 1997), p. 160.