The political economy of 'quasi-statehood' and the demise of 19th century African politics

Review of International Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 233-255

  Warner, Carolyn M ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0039613955     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210599002338     Document Type: Article

References (203)

1. Robert Bates, Essays on the Political Economy of Rural Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 26-9; E. Colson, 'African Society at the Time of the Scramble,' in L. H. Gann and P. Duignan (eds.), Colonialism in Africa 1870-1960, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), pp. 27-65; Basil Davidson, with F. K. Buah and J. F. A. Ajayi, The Growth of African Civilization: West Africa 1000-1800 (London: Longmans, Green, 1965); J. Vansina, 'Long-Distance Trade Routes in Central Africa', The Journal of African History, 3 (1962), pp. 375-90.
2. Robert Bates, Essays on the Political Economy of Rural Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 26-9; E. Colson, 'African Society at the Time of the Scramble,' in L. H. Gann and P. Duignan (eds.), Colonialism in Africa 1870-1960, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), pp. 27-65; Basil Davidson, with F. K. Buah and J. F. A. Ajayi, The Growth of African Civilization: West Africa 1000-1800 (London: Longmans, Green, 1965); J. Vansina, 'Long-Distance Trade Routes in Central Africa', The Journal of African History, 3 (1962), pp. 375-90.
3. Robert Bates, Essays on the Political Economy of Rural Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 26-9; E. Colson, 'African Society at the Time of the Scramble,' in L. H. Gann and P. Duignan (eds.), Colonialism in Africa 1870-1960, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), pp. 27-65; Basil Davidson, with F. K. Buah and J. F. A. Ajayi, The Growth of African Civilization: West Africa 1000-1800 (London: Longmans, Green, 1965); J. Vansina, 'Long-Distance Trade Routes in Central Africa', The Journal of African History, 3 (1962), pp. 375-90.
4. Robert Bates, Essays on the Political Economy of Rural Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 26-9; E. Colson, 'African Society at the Time of the Scramble,' in L. H. Gann and P. Duignan (eds.), Colonialism in Africa 1870-1960, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), pp. 27-65; Basil Davidson, with F. K. Buah and J. F. A. Ajayi, The Growth of African Civilization: West Africa 1000-1800 (London: Longmans, Green, 1965); J. Vansina, 'Long-Distance Trade Routes in Central Africa', The Journal of African History, 3 (1962), pp. 375-90.
5. André Gunder Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America: Historical Studies of Chile and Brazil (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967); Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System (vols. I, II: New York: Academic Press, 1979) and vol. III (San Diego: Academic Press, 1989).
6. André Gunder Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America: Historical Studies of Chile and Brazil (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967); Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System (vols. I, II: New York: Academic Press, 1979) and vol. III (San Diego: Academic Press, 1989).
7. André Gunder Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America: Historical Studies of Chile and Brazil (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967); Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System (vols. I, II: New York: Academic Press, 1979) and vol. III (San Diego: Academic Press, 1989).
8. John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson, 'The Imperialism of Free Trade,' The Economic History Review 2nd Series, 6 (1953), pp. 1-15; Michael Doyle, Empires (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Robert H. Jackson, Quasi-states: International Relations, Sovereignty and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
9. John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson, 'The Imperialism of Free Trade,' The Economic History Review 2nd Series, 6 (1953), pp. 1-15; Michael Doyle, Empires (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Robert H. Jackson, Quasi-states: International Relations, Sovereignty and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
10. John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson, 'The Imperialism of Free Trade,' The Economic History Review 2nd Series, 6 (1953), pp. 1-15; Michael Doyle, Empires (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Robert H. Jackson, Quasi-states: International Relations, Sovereignty and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
11. Douglass C. North, Structure and Change in Economic History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Hendrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and its Competitors (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994).
12. Douglass C. North, Structure and Change in Economic History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Hendrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and its Competitors (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994).
13. Miles Kahler, 'Political Regime and Economic Actors: The Response of Firms to the End of Colonial Rule', World Politics, 33 (1981), p. 384: Bill Warren, Imperialism: Pioneer of Capitalism (London: Verso, 1980).
14. Miles Kahler, 'Political Regime and Economic Actors: The Response of Firms to the End of Colonial Rule', World Politics, 33 (1981), p. 384: Bill Warren, Imperialism: Pioneer of Capitalism (London: Verso, 1980).
15. Öyvind Österud notes that in the 19th century, 'the empirical qualities of recognized states were extremely variable and often precarious'. 'Narrow Gate: Entry to the Club of Sovereign States', Review of International Studies, 23:2 (1997), p. 182.
16. Thomas Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Charles Tilly (ed.), The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975); Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: Verso, 1979).
17. Thomas Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Charles Tilly (ed.), The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975); Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: Verso, 1979).
18. Thomas Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Charles Tilly (ed.), The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975); Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: Verso, 1979).
19. Thomas Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Charles Tilly (ed.), The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975); Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: Verso, 1979).
20. Spruyt, Sovereign State.
21. This essay does not address Jackson's claims concerning statehood among contemporary Third World states, only his arguments about the 19th century state system. Quote at Jackson, Quasi-states, p. 187.
22. Robert H. Jackson, 'Juridical Statehood in Sub-Saharan Africa', Journal of International Affairs, 46 (1992), p. 1.
23. Robert H. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, Dual Regimes, and Neo-classical Theory: International Jurisprudence and the Third World,' International Organization, 41 (1987), p. 526, and Jackson, Quasi-states, pp. 15, 25.
24. Robert H. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, Dual Regimes, and Neo-classical Theory: International Jurisprudence and the Third World,' International Organization, 41 (1987), p. 526, and Jackson, Quasi-states, pp. 15, 25.
25. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 529-31; Jackson, Quasi-states, pp. 24, 168. Jackson, 'Juridical statehood', p. 2. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' p. 530. Jackson, Quasi-states, p. 29. Ibid., pp. 71-2; Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 523, 534-5.
26. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 529-31; Jackson, Quasi-states, pp. 24, 168. Jackson, 'Juridical statehood', p. 2. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' p. 530. Jackson, Quasi-states, p. 29. Ibid., pp. 71-2; Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 523, 534-5.
27. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 529-31; Jackson, Quasi-states, pp. 24, 168. Jackson, 'Juridical statehood', p. 2. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' p. 530. Jackson, Quasi-states, p. 29. Ibid., pp. 71-2; Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 523, 534-5.
28. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 529-31; Jackson, Quasi-states, pp. 24, 168. Jackson, 'Juridical statehood', p. 2. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' p. 530. Jackson, Quasi-states, p. 29. Ibid., pp. 71-2; Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 523, 534-5.
29. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 529-31; Jackson, Quasi-states, pp. 24, 168. Jackson, 'Juridical statehood', p. 2. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' p. 530. Jackson, Quasi-states, p. 29. Ibid., pp. 71-2; Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 523, 534-5.
30. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 529-31; Jackson, Quasi-states, pp. 24, 168. Jackson, 'Juridical statehood', p. 2. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' p. 530. Jackson, Quasi-states, p. 29. Ibid., pp. 71-2; Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 523, 534-5.
31. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 529-31; Jackson, Quasi-states, pp. 24, 168. Jackson, 'Juridical statehood', p. 2. Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' p. 530. Jackson, Quasi-states, p. 29. Ibid., pp. 71-2; Jackson, 'Quasi-states, dual regimes,' pp. 523, 534-5.
32. Ertman, Leviathan, pp. 35-110, 125-53; Skocpol, States, pp.57-64.
33. Ertman, Leviathan, pp. 35-110, 125-53; Skocpol, States, pp.57-64.
34. Jackson, Quasi-states, p. 21.
35. Ibid., pp. 39, 67-8.
36. Doyle, Empires, pp. 46, 166, 194, 186, 46, 163-5, 177, 193-4, 226-7, 167, 188, 194, 226, 203, 175.
37. Ibid., pp. 218-221, 133; cf. Ronald Robinson, 'The Excentric Idea of Imperialism, with or without Empire,' in Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Jürgen Osterhammel (eds.), Imperialism and After: Continuities and Discontinuities (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986), p. 278.
38. Ibid., pp. 218-221, 133; cf. Ronald Robinson, 'The Excentric Idea of Imperialism, with or without Empire,' in Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Jürgen Osterhammel (eds.), Imperialism and After: Continuities and Discontinuities (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986), p. 278.
39. Jackson, Quasi-states, p. 22.
40. David Strang, 'Contested Sovereignty: the Social Construction of Colonial Imperialism' in Thomas J. Biersteker and Cynthia Weber (eds.), State Sovereignty as Social Construct (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 50-80; cf. Colson, 'African Society,' p. 28.
41. David Strang, 'Contested Sovereignty: the Social Construction of Colonial Imperialism' in Thomas J. Biersteker and Cynthia Weber (eds.), State Sovereignty as Social Construct (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 50-80; cf. Colson, 'African Society,' p. 28.
42. North, Structure; and Spruyt, Sovereign State, pp. 527-28.
43. North, Structure; and Spruyt, Sovereign State, pp. 527-28.
44. Anthony G. Hopkins, 'The Victorians and Africa: A Reconsideration of the Occupation of Egypt, 1882,' Journal of African History, 27 (1986), pp. 363-91; Jack Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), pp. 17-18, 203-6.
45. Anthony G. Hopkins, 'The Victorians and Africa: A Reconsideration of the Occupation of Egypt, 1882,' Journal of African History, 27 (1986), pp. 363-91; Jack Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), pp. 17-18, 203-6.
46. Jeffrey A. Frieden, 'International Investment and Colonial Control: a new interpretation', International Organization, 48 (1994), pp. 559-93.
47. As Doyle notes, domestic politics in the core is a significant factor in accounting for which core state imposes imperial rule. Doyle, Empires.
48. Across the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, 'Asante' has been given various spellings, such as Ashante and Ashanti. I shall use 'Asante'. Similarly, 'Tukulor' has been spelled 'Toucouleur', and 'Tokolor'. I shall use 'Tukulor'. In quotations, I leave the spelling as it is in the original text.
49. Michael Crowder, 'Introduction' in Crowder (ed.), West African Resistance (New York: Africana Publishing, 1971) pp. 1-18; J.F.A. Ajayi and M. Crowder (eds.), History of West Africa, vol. 2 (London: Longman, 1974); Colson, 'African Society,' p. 38.
50. Michael Crowder, 'Introduction' in Crowder (ed.), West African Resistance (New York: Africana Publishing, 1971) pp. 1-18; J.F.A. Ajayi and M. Crowder (eds.), History of West Africa, vol. 2 (London: Longman, 1974); Colson, 'African Society,' p. 38.
51. Michael Crowder, 'Introduction' in Crowder (ed.), West African Resistance (New York: Africana Publishing, 1971) pp. 1-18; J.F.A. Ajayi and M. Crowder (eds.), History of West Africa, vol. 2 (London: Longman, 1974); Colson, 'African Society,' p. 38.
52. Jackson, 'Juridical Statehood,' p. 2.
53. C. W. Newbury, 'Trade and Authority in West Africa from 1850-1880', in Gann and Duignan (eds.), Colonialism, p. 76.
54. B. O. Oloruntimehin, 'The Western Sudan and the Coming of the French, 1800-1893', in Ajayi and Crowder (eds.), History, pp. 355-6; and his The Segu Tukulor Empire (London: Longman, 1972), p. 28.
55. B. O. Oloruntimehin, 'The Western Sudan and the Coming of the French, 1800-1893', in Ajayi and Crowder (eds.), History, pp. 355-6; and his The Segu Tukulor Empire (London: Longman, 1972), p. 28.
56. A. S. Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' in Crowder (ed.) Resistance, pp. 53-7; David Robinson, The Holy War of Umar Tal (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 1 (the quotation); Oloruntimehin, 'Sudan,' p. 363.
57. A. S. Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' in Crowder (ed.) Resistance, pp. 53-7; David Robinson, The Holy War of Umar Tal (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 1 (the quotation); Oloruntimehin, 'Sudan,' p. 363.
58. A. S. Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' in Crowder (ed.) Resistance, pp. 53-7; David Robinson, The Holy War of Umar Tal (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 1 (the quotation); Oloruntimehin, 'Sudan,' p. 363.
59. A. S. Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' in Crowder (ed.) Resistance, pp. 53-7; David Robinson, The Holy War of Umar Tal (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 1 (the quotation); Oloruntimehin, 'Sudan,' p. 363.
60. Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' p. 57; Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, pp. 26-7.
61. Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' p. 57; Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, pp. 26-7.
62. Ibid., pp. 150, 152; quote on p. 165. Henri Brunschwig, 'French Exploration and Conquest in Tropical Africa from 1865 to 1898,' in Gann and Duignan (eds.), Colonialism, p. 148.
63. Ibid., pp. 150, 152; quote on p. 165. Henri Brunschwig, 'French Exploration and Conquest in Tropical Africa from 1865 to 1898,' in Gann and Duignan (eds.), Colonialism, p. 148.
64. Newbury, 'Authority,' p. 90.
65. J. D. Hargreaves (ed.), France and West Africa: An Anthology of Historical Documents (London: Macmillan, 1969), p. 146.
66. First quote at Newbury, 'Authority,' p. 82; second quote at Oloruntimehin, 'Sudan,' pp. 356-7.
67. First quote at Newbury, 'Authority,' p. 82; second quote at Oloruntimehin, 'Sudan,' pp. 356-7.
68. Bernard Schnapper, La Politique et le Commerce Français dans le Golfe de Guinée de 1838 à 1871 (Paris: Mouton, 1961), p. 249; Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' pp. 58-9; Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, pp. 208-9, 220.
69. Bernard Schnapper, La Politique et le Commerce Français dans le Golfe de Guinée de 1838 à 1871 (Paris: Mouton, 1961), p. 249; Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' pp. 58-9; Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, pp. 208-9, 220.
70. Bernard Schnapper, La Politique et le Commerce Français dans le Golfe de Guinée de 1838 à 1871 (Paris: Mouton, 1961), p. 249; Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' pp. 58-9; Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, pp. 208-9, 220.
71. A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Conquest of the Western Sudan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), pp. 29-31; and Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' p. 59.
72. A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Conquest of the Western Sudan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), pp. 29-31; and Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' p. 59.
73. Oloruntimehin, 'Sudan,' p. 356.
74. Kanya-Forstner, Conquest, p. 40; C.W. Newbury, 'North African and Western Sudan Trade in the Nineteenth Century: A Re-evaluation', Journal of African History, 1 (1966), pp. 233-46.
75. Kanya-Forstner, Conquest, p. 40; C.W. Newbury, 'North African and Western Sudan Trade in the Nineteenth Century: A Re-evaluation', Journal of African History, 1 (1966), pp. 233-46.
76. Hargreaves, France and West Africa, p. 152.
77. Kanya-Forstner, Conquest, p. 39, fn. 2.
78. Ibid., p. 41.
79. Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 177; Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' pp. 62-3.
80. Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 177; Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' pp. 62-3.
81. Hargreaves, Prelude to the Partition of West Africa (London: Macmillan, 1963); Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 188.
82. Hargreaves, Prelude to the Partition of West Africa (London: Macmillan, 1963); Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 188.
83. Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, pp. 190, 183, 187-8.
84. Ibid., p. 155, and Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' p. 61.
85. Ibid., p. 155, and Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' p. 61.
86. Kanya-Forstner, Conquest, p. 48.
87. B. I. Obichere, 'The African Factor in the Establishment of French Authority in West Africa 1880-1900', in P. Gifford and W. R. Lewis (eds.), France and Britain in Africa, (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971) pp.443-90; p. 463.
88. B. I. Obichere, 'The African Factor in the Establishment of French Authority in West Africa 1880-1900', in P. Gifford and W. R. Lewis (eds.), France and Britain in Africa, (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971) pp.443-90; p. 463.
89. Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor,' p. 63.
90. Oloruntimehin, 'Sudan', p. 375.
91. Brunschwig, 'French Exploration', pp. 148-52; Hargreaves, Prelude, pp. 256-8; Obichere, 'African Factor', p. 445; Jean Ganiage, L'Expansion coloniale de la France sous la troisième République, 1871-1914. (Paris: Payot, 1968), pp. 173-4; quote at Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 188.
92. Brunschwig, 'French Exploration', pp. 148-52; Hargreaves, Prelude, pp. 256-8; Obichere, 'African Factor', p. 445; Jean Ganiage, L'Expansion coloniale de la France sous la troisième République, 1871-1914. (Paris: Payot, 1968), pp. 173-4; quote at Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 188.
93. Brunschwig, 'French Exploration', pp. 148-52; Hargreaves, Prelude, pp. 256-8; Obichere, 'African Factor', p. 445; Jean Ganiage, L'Expansion coloniale de la France sous la troisième République, 1871-1914. (Paris: Payot, 1968), pp. 173-4; quote at Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 188.
94. Brunschwig, 'French Exploration', pp. 148-52; Hargreaves, Prelude, pp. 256-8; Obichere, 'African Factor', p. 445; Jean Ganiage, L'Expansion coloniale de la France sous la troisième République, 1871-1914. (Paris: Payot, 1968), pp. 173-4; quote at Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 188.
95. Brunschwig, 'French Exploration', pp. 148-52; Hargreaves, Prelude, pp. 256-8; Obichere, 'African Factor', p. 445; Jean Ganiage, L'Expansion coloniale de la France sous la troisième République, 1871-1914. (Paris: Payot, 1968), pp. 173-4; quote at Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 188.
96. Ibid., pp. 200-201; and Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor', p. 63; Obichere, 'African Factor,' p. 464.
97. Ibid., pp. 200-201; and Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor', p. 63; Obichere, 'African Factor,' p. 464.
98. Ibid., pp. 200-201; and Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor', p. 63; Obichere, 'African Factor,' p. 464.
99. C. W. Newbury, 'Credit in Early Nineteenth Century West African Trade,' Journal of African History, 13 (1972), pp. 81-95; Newbury, 'Authority', pp. 88-92.
100. C. W. Newbury, 'Credit in Early Nineteenth Century West African Trade,' Journal of African History, 13 (1972), pp. 81-95; Newbury, 'Authority', pp. 88-92.
101. Governor of Senegal, in C. W. Newbury, 'The Protectionist Revival in French Colonial Trade: the Case of Senegal', Economic History Review, 21 (1968), p. 343.
102. Newbury, 'Victorians, Republicans', p. 493.
103. C. W. Newbury, 'The Tariff Factor in Anglo-French West African Partition', in Gilford and Louis (eds.), France and Britain, pp. 221-59, quote at p. 222.
104. C. W. Newbury and A. S. Forstner, 'French Policy and the Origins of the Scramble for West Africa, Journal of African History, 10 (1969), 253-76, here at p. 259; Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 202, 203; Newbury, 'Protectionist Revival', p. 340.
105. C. W. Newbury and A. S. Forstner, 'French Policy and the Origins of the Scramble for West Africa, Journal of African History, 10 (1969), 253-76, here at p. 259; Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 202, 203; Newbury, 'Protectionist Revival', p. 340.
106. C. W. Newbury and A. S. Forstner, 'French Policy and the Origins of the Scramble for West Africa, Journal of African History, 10 (1969), 253-76, here at p. 259; Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, p. 202, 203; Newbury, 'Protectionist Revival', p. 340.
107. L. Abrams and D. J. Miller, 'Who Were the French Colonialists? A Reassessment of the Parti Colonial, 1890-1914', Historical Journal, 19 (1976), 685-725; pp. 691-3, 695, 703-7, 710-13; C. M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, 'The French Colonial Party: its Composition, Aims, and Influence, 1885-1914', Historical Journal, 14 (1971), pp. 99-128.
108. L. Abrams and D. J. Miller, 'Who Were the French Colonialists? A Reassessment of the Parti Colonial, 1890-1914', Historical Journal, 19 (1976), 685-725; pp. 691-3, 695, 703-7, 710-13; C. M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, 'The French Colonial Party: its Composition, Aims, and Influence, 1885-1914', Historical Journal, 14 (1971), pp. 99-128.
109. See documents in M. Chailley, Histoire de l'Afrique Occidentale Française, 1638-1959 (Paris: Éditions Berger-Levrault, 1968), pp. 158-160; and in Hargreaves, Prelude, pp. 144-47.
110. See documents in M. Chailley, Histoire de l'Afrique Occidentale Française, 1638-1959 (Paris: Éditions Berger-Levrault, 1968), pp. 158-160; and in Hargreaves, Prelude, pp. 144-47.
111. Newbury, 'Authority,' p. 92.
112. Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, pp. 252, 230-31, 233.
113. Ibid., pp. 229-30, 270; quotes on p. 249.
114. Hargreaves, Prelude, p. 257.
115. Obichere, 'African Factor', p. 466; Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, pp. 236-7, 249-51.
116. Obichere, 'African Factor', p. 466; Oloruntimehin, Tukulor, pp. 236-7, 249-51.
117. Ibid., p. 236; Hargreaves, Prelude, pp. 254-5; Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor', 70-73.
118. Ibid., p. 236; Hargreaves, Prelude, pp. 254-5; Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor', 70-73.
119. Ibid., p. 236; Hargreaves, Prelude, pp. 254-5; Kanya-Forstner, 'Mali-Tukulor', 70-73.
120. J. J. Crooks, Records Relating to the Gold Coast Settlements from 1750 to 1874 (London: Frank Cass, 1973), p. 3. 'Credible' phrase in Jackson, 'Juridical Statehood', p. 2.
121. J. J. Crooks, Records Relating to the Gold Coast Settlements from 1750 to 1874 (London: Frank Cass, 1973), p. 3. 'Credible' phrase in Jackson, 'Juridical Statehood', p. 2.
122. A. Boahen, 'Politics in Ghana, 1800-1874', in Ajayi and Crowder, History, 167-261; pp. 179-80; G.E. Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana (London: Thomas Nelson, 1964), pp. 92-3, 112-13; quote on p. 307.
123. A. Boahen, 'Politics in Ghana, 1800-1874', in Ajayi and Crowder, History, 167-261; pp. 179-80; G.E. Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana (London: Thomas Nelson, 1964), pp. 92-3, 112-13; quote on p. 307.
124. Colson, 'African Society', pp. 36, 40.
125. T. C. McCaskie, State and society in pre-colonial Asante (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 82, 87.
126. Ivor Wilks, Asante in the Nineteenth Century (London: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp. 394-5; see also his 'Bureaucratization in 19th Century Asante', Journal of African History, 1 (1966), pp. 215-32, 216-18, 231; and Boahen, 'Ghana', p. 172.
127. Ivor Wilks, Asante in the Nineteenth Century (London: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp. 394-5; see also his 'Bureaucratization in 19th Century Asante', Journal of African History, 1 (1966), pp. 215-32, 216-18, 231; and Boahen, 'Ghana', p. 172.
128. Ivor Wilks, Asante in the Nineteenth Century (London: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp. 394-5; see also his 'Bureaucratization in 19th Century Asante', Journal of African History, 1 (1966), pp. 215-32, 216-18, 231; and Boahen, 'Ghana', p. 172.
129. Ivor Wilks, 'Ashanti Government' in Daryll Forde and P. M. Kaberry (eds.), West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1967), pp. 206-38, here at 217-18, 229.
130. Crowder, 'Introduction, p. 6.
131. Quote at Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 25-6. T. C. McCaskie has challenged the claims of Wilks and others that the Asante polity was a powerful, semi-bureaucratic entity, yet leaves the reader confused as to the bases of his claims. He writes that 'the precolonial Asante state simply lacked the infrastructure and technology to command society solely by coercive force' (State and Society, p. 9), and that 'the reach of coercive capacity depended for its effectiveness on a most fragile equation' (Ibid., p. 10). However, he also notes that the Asante polity controlled the ability of individuals to acquire 'great wealth' via warfare or trade (Ibid., p. 52), and goes on to state that '[i]t should be clearly recorded and understood that the coercive potential of the evolved state was formidable in range' (Ibid., p. 82). In describing Asante power, McCaskie points to the 'incremental ability of central government to mediate, by force or by law, the national market in subjects and land'. McCaskie, Ahyiamu - 'A Place of Meeting': an Essay on Process and Event in the History of the Asante State' Journal of African History, 25 (1984), pp. 169-88, here at 175. He also notes, as have many scholars of the development of sovereign states in Europe, that the Asante state [that is the term he uses] structure was 'enabled' by the social context (State and Society, p. 73 and ch. 3).
132. Quote at Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 25-6. T. C. McCaskie has challenged the claims of Wilks and others that the Asante polity was a powerful, semi-bureaucratic entity, yet leaves the reader confused as to the bases of his claims. He writes that 'the precolonial Asante state simply lacked the infrastructure and technology to command society solely by coercive force' (State and Society, p. 9), and that 'the reach of coercive capacity depended for its effectiveness on a most fragile equation' (Ibid., p. 10). However, he also notes that the Asante polity controlled the ability of individuals to acquire 'great wealth' via warfare or trade (Ibid., p. 52), and goes on to state that '[i]t should be clearly recorded and understood that the coercive potential of the evolved state was formidable in range' (Ibid., p. 82). In describing Asante power, McCaskie points to the 'incremental ability of central government to mediate, by force or by law, the national market in subjects and land'. McCaskie, Ahyiamu - 'A Place of Meeting': an Essay on Process and Event in the History of the Asante State' Journal of African History, 25 (1984), pp. 169-88, here at 175. He also notes, as have many scholars of the development of sovereign states in Europe, that the Asante state [that is the term he uses] structure was 'enabled' by the social context (State and Society, p. 73 and ch. 3).
133. Quote at Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 25-6. T. C. McCaskie has challenged the claims of Wilks and others that the Asante polity was a powerful, semi-bureaucratic entity, yet leaves the reader confused as to the bases of his claims. He writes that 'the precolonial Asante state simply lacked the infrastructure and technology to command society solely by coercive force' (State and Society, p. 9), and that 'the reach of coercive capacity depended for its effectiveness on a most fragile equation' (Ibid., p. 10). However, he also notes that the Asante polity controlled the ability of individuals to acquire 'great wealth' via warfare or trade (Ibid., p. 52), and goes on to state that '[i]t should be clearly recorded and understood that the coercive potential of the evolved state was formidable in range' (Ibid., p. 82). In describing Asante power, McCaskie points to the 'incremental ability of central government to mediate, by force or by law, the national market in subjects and land'. McCaskie, Ahyiamu - 'A Place of Meeting': an Essay on Process and Event in the History of the Asante State' Journal of African History, 25 (1984), pp. 169-88, here at 175. He also notes, as have many scholars of the development of sovereign states in Europe, that the Asante state [that is the term he uses] structure was 'enabled' by the social context (State and Society, p. 73 and ch. 3).
134. Quote at Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 25-6. T. C. McCaskie has challenged the claims of Wilks and others that the Asante polity was a powerful, semi-bureaucratic entity, yet leaves the reader confused as to the bases of his claims. He writes that 'the precolonial Asante state simply lacked the infrastructure and technology to command society solely by coercive force' (State and Society, p. 9), and that 'the reach of coercive capacity depended for its effectiveness on a most fragile equation' (Ibid., p. 10). However, he also notes that the Asante polity controlled the ability of individuals to acquire 'great wealth' via warfare or trade (Ibid., p. 52), and goes on to state that '[i]t should be clearly recorded and understood that the coercive potential of the evolved state was formidable in range' (Ibid., p. 82). In describing Asante power, McCaskie points to the 'incremental ability of central government to mediate, by force or by law, the national market in subjects and land'. McCaskie, Ahyiamu - 'A Place of Meeting': an Essay on Process and Event in the History of the Asante State' Journal of African History, 25 (1984), pp. 169-88, here at 175. He also notes, as have many scholars of the development of sovereign states in Europe, that the Asante state [that is the term he uses] structure was 'enabled' by the social context (State and Society, p. 73 and ch. 3).
135. Quote at Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 25-6. T. C. McCaskie has challenged the claims of Wilks and others that the Asante polity was a powerful, semi-bureaucratic entity, yet leaves the reader confused as to the bases of his claims. He writes that 'the precolonial Asante state simply lacked the infrastructure and technology to command society solely by coercive force' (State and Society, p. 9), and that 'the reach of coercive capacity depended for its effectiveness on a most fragile equation' (Ibid., p. 10). However, he also notes that the Asante polity controlled the ability of individuals to acquire 'great wealth' via warfare or trade (Ibid., p. 52), and goes on to state that '[i]t should be clearly recorded and understood that the coercive potential of the evolved state was formidable in range' (Ibid., p. 82). In describing Asante power, McCaskie points to the 'incremental ability of central government to mediate, by force or by law, the national market in subjects and land'. McCaskie, Ahyiamu - 'A Place of Meeting': an Essay on Process and Event in the History of the Asante State' Journal of African History, 25 (1984), pp. 169-88, here at 175. He also notes, as have many scholars of the development of sovereign states in Europe, that the Asante state [that is the term he uses] structure was 'enabled' by the social context (State and Society, p. 73 and ch. 3).
136. Quote at Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 25-6. T. C. McCaskie has challenged the claims of Wilks and others that the Asante polity was a powerful, semi-bureaucratic entity, yet leaves the reader confused as to the bases of his claims. He writes that 'the precolonial Asante state simply lacked the infrastructure and technology to command society solely by coercive force' (State and Society, p. 9), and that 'the reach of coercive capacity depended for its effectiveness on a most fragile equation' (Ibid., p. 10). However, he also notes that the Asante polity controlled the ability of individuals to acquire 'great wealth' via warfare or trade (Ibid., p. 52), and goes on to state that '[i]t should be clearly recorded and understood that the coercive potential of the evolved state was formidable in range' (Ibid., p. 82). In describing Asante power, McCaskie points to the 'incremental ability of central government to mediate, by force or by law, the national market in subjects and land'. McCaskie, Ahyiamu - 'A Place of Meeting': an Essay on Process and Event in the History of the Asante State' Journal of African History, 25 (1984), pp. 169-88, here at 175. He also notes, as have many scholars of the development of sovereign states in Europe, that the Asante state [that is the term he uses] structure was 'enabled' by the social context (State and Society, p. 73 and ch. 3).
137. Quote at Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 25-6. T. C. McCaskie has challenged the claims of Wilks and others that the Asante polity was a powerful, semi-bureaucratic entity, yet leaves the reader confused as to the bases of his claims. He writes that 'the precolonial Asante state simply lacked the infrastructure and technology to command society solely by coercive force' (State and Society, p. 9), and that 'the reach of coercive capacity depended for its effectiveness on a most fragile equation' (Ibid., p. 10). However, he also notes that the Asante polity controlled the ability of individuals to acquire 'great wealth' via warfare or trade (Ibid., p. 52), and goes on to state that '[i]t should be clearly recorded and understood that the coercive potential of the evolved state was formidable in range' (Ibid., p. 82). In describing Asante power, McCaskie points to the 'incremental ability of central government to mediate, by force or by law, the national market in subjects and land'. McCaskie, Ahyiamu - 'A Place of Meeting': an Essay on Process and Event in the History of the Asante State' Journal of African History, 25 (1984), pp. 169-88, here at 175. He also notes, as have many scholars of the development of sovereign states in Europe, that the Asante state [that is the term he uses] structure was 'enabled' by the social context (State and Society, p. 73 and ch. 3).
138. Edward Reynolds, Trade and Economic Change on the Gold Coast, 1807-1874 (London: Longman, 1974), pp. 69-71, quote on p. 174; Martin Lynn, 'The West African palm oil trade in the nineteenth century and the 'crisis of adaptation', in Robin Law (ed.), From slave trade to 'legitimate' commerce: The commercial transition in nineteenth century West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995): Gareth Austin, 'No Elders were Present: Commoners and Private Ownership in Asante, 1807-1896', Journal of African History, 37 (1996), pp. 1-30.
139. Edward Reynolds, Trade and Economic Change on the Gold Coast, 1807-1874 (London: Longman, 1974), pp. 69-71, quote on p. 174; Martin Lynn, 'The West African palm oil trade in the nineteenth century and the 'crisis of adaptation', in Robin Law (ed.), From slave trade to 'legitimate' commerce: The commercial transition in nineteenth century West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995): Gareth Austin, 'No Elders were Present: Commoners and Private Ownership in Asante, 1807-1896', Journal of African History, 37 (1996), pp. 1-30.
140. Edward Reynolds, Trade and Economic Change on the Gold Coast, 1807-1874 (London: Longman, 1974), pp. 69-71, quote on p. 174; Martin Lynn, 'The West African palm oil trade in the nineteenth century and the 'crisis of adaptation', in Robin Law (ed.), From slave trade to 'legitimate' commerce: The commercial transition in nineteenth century West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995): Gareth Austin, 'No Elders were Present: Commoners and Private Ownership in Asante, 1807-1896', Journal of African History, 37 (1996), pp. 1-30.
141. Austin, 'No Elders'; Reynolds, Trade, pp. 69-71.
142. Austin, 'No Elders'; Reynolds, Trade, pp. 69-71.
143. Reynolds, Trade, p. 35; Boahen, 'Ghana', p. 168. Kwame Arhin, 'Trade, Accumulation and the State in Asante in the Nineteenth Century', Africa, 60 (1990), pp. 524-37; p. 531.
144. Reynolds, Trade, p. 35; Boahen, 'Ghana', p. 168. Kwame Arhin, 'Trade, Accumulation and the State in Asante in the Nineteenth Century', Africa, 60 (1990), pp. 524-37; p. 531.
145. Reynolds, Trade, p. 35; Boahen, 'Ghana', p. 168. Kwame Arhin, 'Trade, Accumulation and the State in Asante in the Nineteenth Century', Africa, 60 (1990), pp. 524-37; p. 531.
146. Wilks, Asante, p. 175.
147. Boahen, 'Ghana', pp. 171, 170.
148. Reynolds, Trade, p. 54.
149. Crooks, Records, p. 252; quote is on p. 241.
150. J. B. Williams, British Commercial Policy and Trade Expansion, 1750-1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 421; J. K. Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante (Ashanti)', in Crowder, Resistance, pp. 19-52, here at p. 24; Boahen, 'Ghana', pp. 182-7; quote at Ibid., pp. 185-6; Crooks, Records, p. 170; Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 30-32.
151. J. B. Williams, British Commercial Policy and Trade Expansion, 1750-1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 421; J. K. Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante (Ashanti)', in Crowder, Resistance, pp. 19-52, here at p. 24; Boahen, 'Ghana', pp. 182-7; quote at Ibid., pp. 185-6; Crooks, Records, p. 170; Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 30-32.
152. J. B. Williams, British Commercial Policy and Trade Expansion, 1750-1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 421; J. K. Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante (Ashanti)', in Crowder, Resistance, pp. 19-52, here at p. 24; Boahen, 'Ghana', pp. 182-7; quote at Ibid., pp. 185-6; Crooks, Records, p. 170; Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 30-32.
153. J. B. Williams, British Commercial Policy and Trade Expansion, 1750-1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 421; J. K. Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante (Ashanti)', in Crowder, Resistance, pp. 19-52, here at p. 24; Boahen, 'Ghana', pp. 182-7; quote at Ibid., pp. 185-6; Crooks, Records, p. 170; Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 30-32.
154. J. B. Williams, British Commercial Policy and Trade Expansion, 1750-1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 421; J. K. Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante (Ashanti)', in Crowder, Resistance, pp. 19-52, here at p. 24; Boahen, 'Ghana', pp. 182-7; quote at Ibid., pp. 185-6; Crooks, Records, p. 170; Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 30-32.
155. J. B. Williams, British Commercial Policy and Trade Expansion, 1750-1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 421; J. K. Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante (Ashanti)', in Crowder, Resistance, pp. 19-52, here at p. 24; Boahen, 'Ghana', pp. 182-7; quote at Ibid., pp. 185-6; Crooks, Records, p. 170; Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 30-32.
156. Kwame Arhin, 'Aspects of the Ashanti Northern Trade in the Nineteenth-century' Africa, 40 (1970), pp. 363-73; Ivor Wilks, 'Ashanti Government'; quote in Robert Sutherland Rattray, Ashanti Law and Constitution (Oxford: Clarendon, 1929), p. 407.
157. Kwame Arhin, 'Aspects of the Ashanti Northern Trade in the Nineteenth-century' Africa, 40 (1970), pp. 363-73; Ivor Wilks, 'Ashanti Government'; quote in Robert Sutherland Rattray, Ashanti Law and Constitution (Oxford: Clarendon, 1929), p. 407.
158. Kwame Arhin, 'Aspects of the Ashanti Northern Trade in the Nineteenth-century' Africa, 40 (1970), pp. 363-73; Ivor Wilks, 'Ashanti Government'; quote in Robert Sutherland Rattray, Ashanti Law and Constitution (Oxford: Clarendon, 1929), p. 407.
159. Boahen, 'Ghana', pp. 199-200; Austin, 'Abolition', p. 99; quotes at Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, p. 295.
160. Boahen, 'Ghana', pp. 199-200; Austin, 'Abolition', p. 99; quotes at Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, p. 295.
161. Boahen, 'Ghana', pp. 199-200; Austin, 'Abolition', p. 99; quotes at Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, p. 295.
162. Ibid., p. 352.
163. C. W. Newbury, British Policy Toward West Africa: Select Documents, 1875-1914 (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), pp. 614-15; Lynn, 'Palm Oil'; R.E. Dumett, 'Pressure group, bureaucracy, and the decision-making process: the case of slavery abolition and colonial expansion in the Gold Coast, 1874', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 9 (1981), pp. 193-215.
164. C. W. Newbury, British Policy Toward West Africa: Select Documents, 1875-1914 (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), pp. 614-15; Lynn, 'Palm Oil'; R.E. Dumett, 'Pressure group, bureaucracy, and the decision-making process: the case of slavery abolition and colonial expansion in the Gold Coast, 1874', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 9 (1981), pp. 193-215.
165. C. W. Newbury, British Policy Toward West Africa: Select Documents, 1875-1914 (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), pp. 614-15; Lynn, 'Palm Oil'; R.E. Dumett, 'Pressure group, bureaucracy, and the decision-making process: the case of slavery abolition and colonial expansion in the Gold Coast, 1874', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 9 (1981), pp. 193-215.
166. Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 28, 34.
167. Wilks, Asante, pp. 169-75; Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', p. 24; quote at Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, p. 104.
168. Wilks, Asante, pp. 169-75; Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', p. 24; quote at Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, p. 104.
169. Wilks, Asante, pp. 169-75; Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', p. 24; quote at Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, p. 104.
170. Ibid., pp. 208, 196-7, 206, 237.
171. Ibid., pp. 206-7, 219-220; Fante quote at 308-9; cf. Boahen, 'Ghana', p. 241; merchant quote at Reynolds, Trade, p. 114; third quote at Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, pp. 255-6.
172. Ibid., pp. 206-7, 219-220; Fante quote at 308-9; cf. Boahen, 'Ghana', p. 241; merchant quote at Reynolds, Trade, p. 114; third quote at Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, pp. 255-6.
173. Ibid., pp. 206-7, 219-220; Fante quote at 308-9; cf. Boahen, 'Ghana', p. 241; merchant quote at Reynolds, Trade, p. 114; third quote at Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, pp. 255-6.
174. Ibid., pp. 206-7, 219-220; Fante quote at 308-9; cf. Boahen, 'Ghana', p. 241; merchant quote at Reynolds, Trade, p. 114; third quote at Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, pp. 255-6.
175. Doyle, Empires, p. 177.
176. Reynolds, Trade, p. 151.
177. Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', p. 34; Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, p. 321; Reynolds, Trade, p. 147.
178. Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', p. 34; Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, p. 321; Reynolds, Trade, p. 147.
179. Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', p. 34; Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, p. 321; Reynolds, Trade, p. 147.
180. A. G. Hopkins, 'Economic Imperialism in West Africa: Lagos, 1880-92', The Economic History Review, 2nd Series, 21 (1968), pp. 580-606; p. 585.
181. Hopkins, Economic History; Lynn, 'West African Palm Oil'; Reynolds, Trade, pp. 146, 103-38.
182. Hopkins, Economic History; Lynn, 'West African Palm Oil'; Reynolds, Trade, pp. 146, 103-38.
183. Hopkins, Economic History; Lynn, 'West African Palm Oil'; Reynolds, Trade, pp. 146, 103-38.
184. Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 38-9; Boahen, 'Ghana,' p. 259.
185. Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', pp. 38-9; Boahen, 'Ghana,' p. 259.
186. Wilks, Asante, pp. 612-15, 636-7, 683-92; Hopkins, 'Economic Imperialism', p. 593; Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', p. 42.
187. Wilks, Asante, pp. 612-15, 636-7, 683-92; Hopkins, 'Economic Imperialism', p. 593; Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', p. 42.
188. Wilks, Asante, pp. 612-15, 636-7, 683-92; Hopkins, 'Economic Imperialism', p. 593; Fynn, 'Ghana-Asante', p. 42.
189. Agnes A. Aidoo, 'Order and Conflict in the Asante Empire: a study in interest group relations' African Studies Review, 20 (1977), pp. 1-36, here at 25; McCaskie, State and Society, p. 70.
190. Agnes A. Aidoo, 'Order and Conflict in the Asante Empire: a study in interest group relations' African Studies Review, 20 (1977), pp. 1-36, here at 25; McCaskie, State and Society, p. 70.
191. On contradictions, see Aidoo, 'Order' pp. 19, 33 and McCaskie, State and Society, p. 266. Quote in Aidoo, 'Order', p. 29.
192. On contradictions, see Aidoo, 'Order' pp. 19, 33 and McCaskie, State and Society, p. 266. Quote in Aidoo, 'Order', p. 29.
193. On contradictions, see Aidoo, 'Order' pp. 19, 33 and McCaskie, State and Society, p. 266. Quote in Aidoo, 'Order', p. 29.
194. Basil Davidson, Black Man's Burden (London: James Currey, 1992) pp. 59-69.
195. Wilks, Asante, p. 608.
196. Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, pp. 465-7; Newbury, 'Tariff Factor', p. 223; W. G. Hynes, The Economics of Empire: Britain, Africa, and the new Imperialism, 1870-1895 (London: Longman, 1979) pp. 46 and 65.
197. Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, pp. 465-7; Newbury, 'Tariff Factor', p. 223; W. G. Hynes, The Economics of Empire: Britain, Africa, and the new Imperialism, 1870-1895 (London: Longman, 1979) pp. 46 and 65.
198. Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, pp. 465-7; Newbury, 'Tariff Factor', p. 223; W. G. Hynes, The Economics of Empire: Britain, Africa, and the new Imperialism, 1870-1895 (London: Longman, 1979) pp. 46 and 65.
199. Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, pp. 463, 473, 398-9.
200. Wilks, Asante, p. 650.
201. Boahen, 'Ghana', pp. 246-59; Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, pp. 478, 480; Wilks, Asante, pp. 655-7, 659.
202. Boahen, 'Ghana', pp. 246-59; Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, pp. 478, 480; Wilks, Asante, pp. 655-7, 659.
203. Boahen, 'Ghana', pp. 246-59; Metcalfe, Great Britain and Ghana, pp. 478, 480; Wilks, Asante, pp. 655-7, 659.