Modeling format and source effects of an advocacy message

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 73, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 135-146

  Straughan, Dulcie ^a   Bleske, Glen L ^b   Zhao, Xinshu ^a  

^a University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill   (United States)

^b CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0039612103     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909607300112     Document Type: Article

References (58)

1. Karen F.A. Fox, "The Measurement of Issue/Advocacy Advertising Effects," Current Issues and Research in Advertising (spring 1986): 61-92; Charles T. Salmon, Leonard N. Reid, James Pokrywczynski, and Robert W. Willett, "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising Relative to News Coverage," Communication Research 12 (October 1985): 546-67; S. Prakash Sethi, "Institutional/Image Advertising and Idea/Issue Advertising as Marketing Tools: Some Public Policy Issues," Journal of Marketing 43 (January 1979): 70.
2. Karen F.A. Fox, "The Measurement of Issue/Advocacy Advertising Effects," Current Issues and Research in Advertising (spring 1986): 61-92; Charles T. Salmon, Leonard N. Reid, James Pokrywczynski, and Robert W. Willett, "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising Relative to News Coverage," Communication Research 12 (October 1985): 546-67; S. Prakash Sethi, "Institutional/Image Advertising and Idea/Issue Advertising as Marketing Tools: Some Public Policy Issues," Journal of Marketing 43 (January 1979): 70.
3. Karen F.A. Fox, "The Measurement of Issue/Advocacy Advertising Effects," Current Issues and Research in Advertising (spring 1986): 61-92; Charles T. Salmon, Leonard N. Reid, James Pokrywczynski, and Robert W. Willett, "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising Relative to News Coverage," Communication Research 12 (October 1985): 546-67; S. Prakash Sethi, "Institutional/Image Advertising and Idea/Issue Advertising as Marketing Tools: Some Public Policy Issues," Journal of Marketing 43 (January 1979): 70.
4. Gerald Keim and Valarie Zeithame, "Improving the Return of Advocacy Advertising," Financial Executive 49 (November 1981): 40.
5. Ward Welty, "Is Issue Advertising Working?" PR Journal 37 (November 1981): 29; Michael L. Ray, Advertising and Communication Management (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982); Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising."
6. Ward Welty, "Is Issue Advertising Working?" PR Journal 37 (November 1981): 29; Michael L. Ray, Advertising and Communication Management (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982); Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising."
7. Ward Welty, "Is Issue Advertising Working?" PR Journal 37 (November 1981): 29; Michael L. Ray, Advertising and Communication Management (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982); Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising."
8. Fox, "The Measurement," 65.
9. Barbara J. Coe, The Effectiveness Challenge in Issue Advertising Campaigns," Journal of Advertising 12 (December 1983) 27-35; James F. Fox, "Communicating on Public Issues: The CEO's Changing Role," Public Relations Review 9 (spring 1983): 11-23.
10. Barbara J. Coe, The Effectiveness Challenge in Issue Advertising Campaigns," Journal of Advertising 12 (December 1983) 27-35; James F. Fox, "Communicating on Public Issues: The CEO's Changing Role," Public Relations Review 9 (spring 1983): 11-23.
11. R. Eric Reidenbach and Robert E. Pitts, "Not All CEOs Are Created Equal As Advertising Spokespersons: Evaluating the Effective CEO Spokes-person," Journal of Advertising 15 (March 1986): 30.
12. Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Dirty Politics: Deception, Distraction, and Democracy (NY: Oxford University Press, 1992); Xinshu Zhao and Steven H. Chaffee, "Campaign Advertisements Vs. Television News as Sources of Political Issue Information," Public Opinion Quarterly 59 (spring 1995): 41-65; Xinshu Zhao and Glen L. Bleske, "Measurement Effects in Comparing Voter Learning from Television News and Campaign Advertisements," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 72 (spring 1995): 72-84.
13. Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Dirty Politics: Deception, Distraction, and Democracy (NY: Oxford University Press, 1992); Xinshu Zhao and Steven H. Chaffee, "Campaign Advertisements Vs. Television News as Sources of Political Issue Information," Public Opinion Quarterly 59 (spring 1995): 41-65; Xinshu Zhao and Glen L. Bleske, "Measurement Effects in Comparing Voter Learning from Television News and Campaign Advertisements," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 72 (spring 1995): 72-84.
14. Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Dirty Politics: Deception, Distraction, and Democracy (NY: Oxford University Press, 1992); Xinshu Zhao and Steven H. Chaffee, "Campaign Advertisements Vs. Television News as Sources of Political Issue Information," Public Opinion Quarterly 59 (spring 1995): 41-65; Xinshu Zhao and Glen L. Bleske, "Measurement Effects in Comparing Voter Learning from Television News and Campaign Advertisements," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 72 (spring 1995): 72-84.
15. Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising."
16. Carl Hovland, Irving Janis, and Harold Kelley, Communication and Persuasion (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1953).
17. There have been numerous studies involving the news media and credibility. See, for example, Wayne Wanta and Yu-Wei Hu, "The Effects of Credibility, Reliance, and Exposure on Media Agenda-Setting: A Path Analysis Model," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 90-98; Safran S. Al-Makaty, Douglas A. Boyd, and G. Norman Van Tubergen, "Source Credibility During the Gulf War: A Q-Study of Rural and Urban Saudi Arabian Citizens," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 55-63; Philip Meyer, "Defining and Measuring Credibility of Newspapers: Developing an Index," Journalism Quarterly 65 (autumn 1988): 567-74; Cecilie Gaziano and Kristin McGrath, "Measuring the Concept of Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 63 (autumn 1986): 451-62; Michael Singletary, "Components of Credibility of a Favorable News Source," Journalism Quarterly 53 (summer 1976): 316-19.
18. There have been numerous studies involving the news media and credibility. See, for example, Wayne Wanta and Yu-Wei Hu, "The Effects of Credibility, Reliance, and Exposure on Media Agenda-Setting: A Path Analysis Model," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 90-98; Safran S. Al-Makaty, Douglas A. Boyd, and G. Norman Van Tubergen, "Source Credibility During the Gulf War: A Q-Study of Rural and Urban Saudi Arabian Citizens," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 55-63; Philip Meyer, "Defining and Measuring Credibility of Newspapers: Developing an Index," Journalism Quarterly 65 (autumn 1988): 567-74; Cecilie Gaziano and Kristin McGrath, "Measuring the Concept of Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 63 (autumn 1986): 451-62; Michael Singletary, "Components of Credibility of a Favorable News Source," Journalism Quarterly 53 (summer 1976): 316-19.
19. There have been numerous studies involving the news media and credibility. See, for example, Wayne Wanta and Yu-Wei Hu, "The Effects of Credibility, Reliance, and Exposure on Media Agenda-Setting: A Path Analysis Model," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 90-98; Safran S. Al-Makaty, Douglas A. Boyd, and G. Norman Van Tubergen, "Source Credibility During the Gulf War: A Q-Study of Rural and Urban Saudi Arabian Citizens," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 55-63; Philip Meyer, "Defining and Measuring Credibility of Newspapers: Developing an Index," Journalism Quarterly 65 (autumn 1988): 567-74; Cecilie Gaziano and Kristin McGrath, "Measuring the Concept of Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 63 (autumn 1986): 451-62; Michael Singletary, "Components of Credibility of a Favorable News Source," Journalism Quarterly 53 (summer 1976): 316-19.
20. There have been numerous studies involving the news media and credibility. See, for example, Wayne Wanta and Yu-Wei Hu, "The Effects of Credibility, Reliance, and Exposure on Media Agenda-Setting: A Path Analysis Model," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 90-98; Safran S. Al-Makaty, Douglas A. Boyd, and G. Norman Van Tubergen, "Source Credibility During the Gulf War: A Q-Study of Rural and Urban Saudi Arabian Citizens," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 55-63; Philip Meyer, "Defining and Measuring Credibility of Newspapers: Developing an Index," Journalism Quarterly 65 (autumn 1988): 567-74; Cecilie Gaziano and Kristin McGrath, "Measuring the Concept of Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 63 (autumn 1986): 451-62; Michael Singletary, "Components of Credibility of a Favorable News Source," Journalism Quarterly 53 (summer 1976): 316-19.
21. There have been numerous studies involving the news media and credibility. See, for example, Wayne Wanta and Yu-Wei Hu, "The Effects of Credibility, Reliance, and Exposure on Media Agenda-Setting: A Path Analysis Model," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 90-98; Safran S. Al-Makaty, Douglas A. Boyd, and G. Norman Van Tubergen, "Source Credibility During the Gulf War: A Q-Study of Rural and Urban Saudi Arabian Citizens," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 55-63; Philip Meyer, "Defining and Measuring Credibility of Newspapers: Developing an Index," Journalism Quarterly 65 (autumn 1988): 567-74; Cecilie Gaziano and Kristin McGrath, "Measuring the Concept of Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 63 (autumn 1986): 451-62; Michael Singletary, "Components of Credibility of a Favorable News Source," Journalism Quarterly 53 (summer 1976): 316-19.
22. Jerry B. Gotlieb and Dan Sarel, "Comparative Advertising Effectiveness: The Role of Involvement and Source Credibility," Journal of Advertising 20 (March 1991): 38-45.
23. Leonard N. Reid, Lawrence C. Solely, and Bruce C. Vanden Bergh, "Does Source Affect Response to Direct Advocacy Print Advertisements?" Journal of Business Research 9 (September 1981): 309-19.
24. Reidenbach and Pitts, "Not All CEOs Are Created Equal," 30-36, 46.
25. Gotlieb and Sarel, "Comparative Advertising Effectiveness," 40.
26. Reid, Solely, and Vanden Bergh, "Does Source Affect Response?"; Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising."
27. Reid, Solely, and Vanden Bergh, "Does Source Affect Response?"; Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising."
28. Fox, "The Measurement."
29. Reid, Solely, and Vanden Bergh, "Does Source Affect Response?"
30. Michael L. Ray, "Marketing Communication and the Hierarchy of Effects," in New Models for Communication Research, ed. Peter Clark (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1973), 147-76.
31. Joel J. Davis, "Environmental Advertising: Norms and Levels of Advertiser's Trust," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 330-45.
32. For a discussion of newspaper credibility see Mark Douglas West, "Validating a Scale for the Measurement of Credibility: A Covariance Structure Modeling Approach," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 159-68.
33. Keim and Zeithame, "Improving the Return of Advocacy Advertising"; Welty, "Is Issue Advertising Working?"
34. Keim and Zeithame, "Improving the Return of Advocacy Advertising"; Welty, "Is Issue Advertising Working?"
35. The statistically nonsignificant results could be attributed to large measurement error, insufficient statistical power, or weak manipulation of the independent variables. The surprising findings, on the other hand, could be due to idiosyncrasies related to stimulus materials, student subjects, or the experimental environment.
36. Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising"; Charles T. Salmon, "Perspectives on Involvement in Consumer and Communication Research," in Progress in Communication Sciences, vol. 7, ed. B. Dervin and M.J. Voight (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986).
37. Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising"; Charles T. Salmon, "Perspectives on Involvement in Consumer and Communication Research," in Progress in Communication Sciences, vol. 7, ed. B. Dervin and M.J. Voight (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986).
38. Herbert E. Krugman, "The Impact of Television Advertising: Learning Without Involvement," Public Opinion Quarterly 29 (fall 1965): 349-56; Herbert E. Krugman, "Brain Wave Measures of Media Involvement," Journal of Advertising Research 11 (February 1971): 3-9.
39. Herbert E. Krugman, "The Impact of Television Advertising: Learning Without Involvement," Public Opinion Quarterly 29 (fall 1965): 349-56; Herbert E. Krugman, "Brain Wave Measures of Media Involvement," Journal of Advertising Research 11 (February 1971): 3-9.
40. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "Issue Involvement Can Increase or Decrease Persuasion by Enhancing Message-Relevant Cognitive Responses," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (October 1979): 1915-1926.
41. Ramon J. Rhine and Laurence J. Severance, "Ego-involvement, Discrepancy, Source Credibility, and Attitude Change," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16 (October 1970): 175-90; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches (Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown, 1981); Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising."
42. Ramon J. Rhine and Laurence J. Severance, "Ego-involvement, Discrepancy, Source Credibility, and Attitude Change," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16 (October 1970): 175-90; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches (Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown, 1981); Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising."
43. Ramon J. Rhine and Laurence J. Severance, "Ego-involvement, Discrepancy, Source Credibility, and Attitude Change," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16 (October 1970): 175-90; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches (Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown, 1981); Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising."
44. Krugman, "The Impact of Television Advertising."
45. James E. Grunig and Fred C. Repper, "Strategic Management, Publics, and Issues," in Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management, ed. James E. Grunig (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992), 117-57.
46. Grunig and Repper, "Strategic Management, Publics, and Issues," 136.
47. Hovland, Janis, and Kelley, Communication and Persuasion.
48. Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising."
49. The ad/article described how the drug was successful in treating schizophrenia, a mental disorder for which there had been little hope. It went on to describe a problem that some patients (1-2%) had with the drug - a blood disorder - that had potentially fatal side effects. The company had set up a patient management care system to monitor patients on the drug and prevent problems, but Sandoz was being sued for antitrust violations related to the management system. The company argued that it would have to take the drug off the market if the issue were not resolved. The ad/article went on to describe how cost beneficial the drug was to patients and how they could lead normal lives when taking it, instead of being institutionalized. The ad/article also urged people to contact the company and let them know how they felt about the issue.
50. Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising."
51. Conventional ANOVA analysis was conducted on each of the ten response items and other three dependent variables. The results were reported by Dulcie Straughan, "Telling It Like It Is: Advocacy Advertising Versus News Coverage," in Proceedings, Fifth Conference on Corporate Communication, ed. Mary Cross and Walter Cummins (Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University, 1992), 73-80.
52. Richard P. Bagozzi, "Structural Equation Models in Experimental Research," Journal of Marketing Research 24 (May 1977): 209-26.
53. While these results in general meet our theoretical expectation, one item, trust, was loaded on the interest factor, rather than the credibility factor, where it may appear conceptually to fit better. A reasonable approach is to discard the trust item from the subsequent analysis. We note, however, that the trust item has substantial loadings on both credibility and interest factors. It means that deleting the item would artificially reduce the correlation between the two factors, a correlation that has been predicted by all our theoretical models, therefore a correlation that we would like to preserve for the subsequent analysis. An alternative approach is to load the trust item on credibility factor anyway, in spite of the factor analysis result. Since the credibility factor has been apparently well represented, conceptually and statistically, by the three items designated by the factor analysis, we chose to take a more empirical approach, and loaded the trust item on the interest factor. While this approach may increase the measurement errors, hence further complicate the subsequent modeling, we note that the trust item has the smallest loading on the factor when compared with the inform and interest items; therefore, it will have the smallest impact on the composite variable when it is weighted by the factor loadings.
54. Karl G. Jöreskok and Dag Söbom, LISREL 7: A Guide to Program and Applications, 2d ed. (Chicago: SPSS Inc., 1989).
55. Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising."
56. Davis, "Environmental Advertising";
57. Salmon et al., "The Effectiveness of Advocacy Advertising."
58. Davis, "Environmental Advertising."