The Geneva conventions of 12 August 1949: From the 1949 Diplomatic Conference to the dawn of the new millennium

International Affairs

Volumn 76, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 41-50

  Bugnion, Francois ^a  

^a International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)   (Switzerland)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039593019     PISSN: 00205850     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1468-2346.00118     Document Type: Article

References (49)

1. They are: the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field; the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea; the Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War; the Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. All four Conventions are dated 12 August 1949.
2. 'Mémorandum adressé par le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge aux Gouvernements des États parties à la Convention de Genève et aux Sociétés nationales de la Croix-Rouge', 15 February 1945, Revue internationale de la Croix-Rouge, no. 314, Feb. 1945, pp. 85-9.
3. On the preparatory works that led to the adoption of the new Geneva Conventions, the following works may be found useful: Gerald I. A. D. Draper, The Red Cross Conventions (London: Stevens & Sons, 1958); Joyce A. C. Gutteridge, 'The Geneva Conventions of 1949', The British Year Book of International Law, vol. 26, 1949, pp. 294-326; Paul de la Pradelle, La Conférence diplomatique et les nouvelles Conventions de Genève du 12 août 1949, (Paris: Editions internationales, 1951); Jean S. Pictet, 'The new Geneva Conventions for the protection of war victims', American Journal of International Law 45: 3, July 1951, pp. 462-75; Catherine Rey-Schyrr, 'Les Conventions de Genève de 1949: une percée décisive', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 834, June 1999, pp. 209-39; no. 835, Sept. 1999, pp. 499-529.
4. On the preparatory works that led to the adoption of the new Geneva Conventions, the following works may be found useful: Gerald I. A. D. Draper, The Red Cross Conventions (London: Stevens & Sons, 1958); Joyce A. C. Gutteridge, 'The Geneva Conventions of 1949', The British Year Book of International Law, vol. 26, 1949, pp. 294-326; Paul de la Pradelle, La Conférence diplomatique et les nouvelles Conventions de Genève du 12 août 1949, (Paris: Editions internationales, 1951); Jean S. Pictet, 'The new Geneva Conventions for the protection of war victims', American Journal of International Law 45: 3, July 1951, pp. 462-75; Catherine Rey-Schyrr, 'Les Conventions de Genève de 1949: une percée décisive', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 834, June 1999, pp. 209-39; no. 835, Sept. 1999, pp. 499-529.
5. On the preparatory works that led to the adoption of the new Geneva Conventions, the following works may be found useful: Gerald I. A. D. Draper, The Red Cross Conventions (London: Stevens & Sons, 1958); Joyce A. C. Gutteridge, 'The Geneva Conventions of 1949', The British Year Book of International Law, vol. 26, 1949, pp. 294-326; Paul de la Pradelle, La Conférence diplomatique et les nouvelles Conventions de Genève du 12 août 1949, (Paris: Editions internationales, 1951); Jean S. Pictet, 'The new Geneva Conventions for the protection of war victims', American Journal of International Law 45: 3, July 1951, pp. 462-75; Catherine Rey-Schyrr, 'Les Conventions de Genève de 1949: une percée décisive', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 834, June 1999, pp. 209-39; no. 835, Sept. 1999, pp. 499-529.
6. On the preparatory works that led to the adoption of the new Geneva Conventions, the following works may be found useful: Gerald I. A. D. Draper, The Red Cross Conventions (London: Stevens & Sons, 1958); Joyce A. C. Gutteridge, 'The Geneva Conventions of 1949', The British Year Book of International Law, vol. 26, 1949, pp. 294-326; Paul de la Pradelle, La Conférence diplomatique et les nouvelles Conventions de Genève du 12 août 1949, (Paris: Editions internationales, 1951); Jean S. Pictet, 'The new Geneva Conventions for the protection of war victims', American Journal of International Law 45: 3, July 1951, pp. 462-75; Catherine Rey-Schyrr, 'Les Conventions de Genève de 1949: une percée décisive', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 834, June 1999, pp. 209-39; no. 835, Sept. 1999, pp. 499-529.
7. On the preparatory works that led to the adoption of the new Geneva Conventions, the following works may be found useful: Gerald I. A. D. Draper, The Red Cross Conventions (London: Stevens & Sons, 1958); Joyce A. C. Gutteridge, 'The Geneva Conventions of 1949', The British Year Book of International Law, vol. 26, 1949, pp. 294-326; Paul de la Pradelle, La Conférence diplomatique et les nouvelles Conventions de Genève du 12 août 1949, (Paris: Editions internationales, 1951); Jean S. Pictet, 'The new Geneva Conventions for the protection of war victims', American Journal of International Law 45: 3, July 1951, pp. 462-75; Catherine Rey-Schyrr, 'Les Conventions de Genève de 1949: une percée décisive', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 834, June 1999, pp. 209-39; no. 835, Sept. 1999, pp. 499-529.
8. On the preparatory works that led to the adoption of the new Geneva Conventions, the following works may be found useful: Gerald I. A. D. Draper, The Red Cross Conventions (London: Stevens & Sons, 1958); Joyce A. C. Gutteridge, 'The Geneva Conventions of 1949', The British Year Book of International Law, vol. 26, 1949, pp. 294-326; Paul de la Pradelle, La Conférence diplomatique et les nouvelles Conventions de Genève du 12 août 1949, (Paris: Editions internationales, 1951); Jean S. Pictet, 'The new Geneva Conventions for the protection of war victims', American Journal of International Law 45: 3, July 1951, pp. 462-75; Catherine Rey-Schyrr, 'Les Conventions de Genève de 1949: une percée décisive', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 834, June 1999, pp. 209-39; no. 835, Sept. 1999, pp. 499-529.
9. 'No conference has ever been better prepared', wrote a former delegate (La Pradelle, La Conférence diplomatique, p. 15).
10. On the reservations to the Geneva Conventions, the following works may prove particularly useful: Claude Pilloud, Reservations to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 (Geneva: ICRC, 1976; offprint from International Review of the Red Cross, no. 180, March 1976, pp. 107-24; no. 181, April 1976, pp. 163-87); François Bugnion, Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge et la protection des victimes de la guerre (Geneva: ICRC, 1994), pp. 716-24 (English trans. forthcoming from Macmillan, London and New York).
11. On the reservations to the Geneva Conventions, the following works may prove particularly useful: Claude Pilloud, Reservations to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 (Geneva: ICRC, 1976; offprint from International Review of the Red Cross, no. 180, March 1976, pp. 107-24; no. 181, April 1976, pp. 163-87); François Bugnion, Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge et la protection des victimes de la guerre (Geneva: ICRC, 1994), pp. 716-24 (English trans. forthcoming from Macmillan, London and New York).
12. On the reservations to the Geneva Conventions, the following works may prove particularly useful: Claude Pilloud, Reservations to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 (Geneva: ICRC, 1976; offprint from International Review of the Red Cross, no. 180, March 1976, pp. 107-24; no. 181, April 1976, pp. 163-87); François Bugnion, Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge et la protection des victimes de la guerre (Geneva: ICRC, 1994), pp. 716-24 (English trans. forthcoming from Macmillan, London and New York).
13. On the reservations to the Geneva Conventions, the following works may prove particularly useful: Claude Pilloud, Reservations to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 (Geneva: ICRC, 1976; offprint from International Review of the Red Cross, no. 180, March 1976, pp. 107-24; no. 181, April 1976, pp. 163-87); François Bugnion, Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge et la protection des victimes de la guerre (Geneva: ICRC, 1994), pp. 716-24 (English trans. forthcoming from Macmillan, London and New York).
14. A summary of the Soviet doctrine may be found in Grigorij Ivanovic Tunkin, Droit international public: problèmes théoriques, trans. from Russian by the Centre de Recherches sur l'URSS et les Pays de l'Est de la Faculté de Droit et de Sciences Politiques et Economiques de Strasbourg (Paris: Editions A. Pedone, 1965). On the theory of just war and on relations between jus ad bellum and jus in bello, the following books may also be of value: Henn Meyrowitz, Le principe de l'égalité des belligérants devant le droit de la guerre (Paris: Editions A. Pedone, 1970); Robert W. Tucker, The just war: a study in contemporary American doctrine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1960).
15. A summary of the Soviet doctrine may be found in Grigorij Ivanovic Tunkin, Droit international public: problèmes théoriques, trans. from Russian by the Centre de Recherches sur l'URSS et les Pays de l'Est de la Faculté de Droit et de Sciences Politiques et Economiques de Strasbourg (Paris: Editions A. Pedone, 1965). On the theory of just war and on relations between jus ad bellum and jus in bello, the following books may also be of value: Henn Meyrowitz, Le principe de l'égalité des belligérants devant le droit de la guerre (Paris: Editions A. Pedone, 1970); Robert W. Tucker, The just war: a study in contemporary American doctrine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1960).
16. A summary of the Soviet doctrine may be found in Grigorij Ivanovic Tunkin, Droit international public: problèmes théoriques, trans. from Russian by the Centre de Recherches sur l'URSS et les Pays de l'Est de la Faculté de Droit et de Sciences Politiques et Economiques de Strasbourg (Paris: Editions A. Pedone, 1965). On the theory of just war and on relations between jus ad bellum and jus in bello, the following books may also be of value: Henn Meyrowitz, Le principe de l'égalité des belligérants devant le droit de la guerre (Paris: Editions A. Pedone, 1970); Robert W. Tucker, The just war: a study in contemporary American doctrine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1960).
17. On the Korean War, readers might refer to the ICRC's Annual Reports as well as to the collection of documents published by the ICRC: Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge et le conflit de Corée: recueil de documents, 2 vols (Geneva: ICRC, 1952). On the Indochina War, see Florianne Truninger, The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Indochina War: from the Japanese defeat to the Geneva Agreements (1945-1954) (Geneva: ICRC, 1994; offprint from International Review of the Red Cross, no. 303, Nov.-Dec. 1994, pp. 564-94). On the Vietnam War, see Michel Barde, 'La Croix-Rouge et la Révolution indochinoise: histoire du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge dans la guerre du Vietnam' (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, 1975, cyclostyled); Jacques Freymond, Guerres, Révolutions, Croix-Rouge: Réflexions sur le rôle du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, 1976), pp. 85-94.
18. On the Korean War, readers might refer to the ICRC's Annual Reports as well as to the collection of documents published by the ICRC: Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge et le conflit de Corée: recueil de documents, 2 vols (Geneva: ICRC, 1952). On the Indochina War, see Florianne Truninger, The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Indochina War: from the Japanese defeat to the Geneva Agreements (1945-1954) (Geneva: ICRC, 1994; offprint from International Review of the Red Cross, no. 303, Nov.-Dec. 1994, pp. 564-94). On the Vietnam War, see Michel Barde, 'La Croix-Rouge et la Révolution indochinoise: histoire du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge dans la guerre du Vietnam' (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, 1975, cyclostyled); Jacques Freymond, Guerres, Révolutions, Croix-Rouge: Réflexions sur le rôle du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, 1976), pp. 85-94.
19. On the Korean War, readers might refer to the ICRC's Annual Reports as well as to the collection of documents published by the ICRC: Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge et le conflit de Corée: recueil de documents, 2 vols (Geneva: ICRC, 1952). On the Indochina War, see Florianne Truninger, The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Indochina War: from the Japanese defeat to the Geneva Agreements (1945-1954) (Geneva: ICRC, 1994; offprint from International Review of the Red Cross, no. 303, Nov.-Dec. 1994, pp. 564-94). On the Vietnam War, see Michel Barde, 'La Croix-Rouge et la Révolution indochinoise: histoire du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge dans la guerre du Vietnam' (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, 1975, cyclostyled); Jacques Freymond, Guerres, Révolutions, Croix-Rouge: Réflexions sur le rôle du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, 1976), pp. 85-94.
20. On the Korean War, readers might refer to the ICRC's Annual Reports as well as to the collection of documents published by the ICRC: Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge et le conflit de Corée: recueil de documents, 2 vols (Geneva: ICRC, 1952). On the Indochina War, see Florianne Truninger, The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Indochina War: from the Japanese defeat to the Geneva Agreements (1945-1954) (Geneva: ICRC, 1994; offprint from International Review of the Red Cross, no. 303, Nov.-Dec. 1994, pp. 564-94). On the Vietnam War, see Michel Barde, 'La Croix-Rouge et la Révolution indochinoise: histoire du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge dans la guerre du Vietnam' (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, 1975, cyclostyled); Jacques Freymond, Guerres, Révolutions, Croix-Rouge: Réflexions sur le rôle du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, 1976), pp. 85-94.
21. On the Korean War, readers might refer to the ICRC's Annual Reports as well as to the collection of documents published by the ICRC: Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge et le conflit de Corée: recueil de documents, 2 vols (Geneva: ICRC, 1952). On the Indochina War, see Florianne Truninger, The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Indochina War: from the Japanese defeat to the Geneva Agreements (1945-1954) (Geneva: ICRC, 1994; offprint from International Review of the Red Cross, no. 303, Nov.-Dec. 1994, pp. 564-94). On the Vietnam War, see Michel Barde, 'La Croix-Rouge et la Révolution indochinoise: histoire du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge dans la guerre du Vietnam' (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, 1975, cyclostyled); Jacques Freymond, Guerres, Révolutions, Croix-Rouge: Réflexions sur le rôle du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, 1976), pp. 85-94.
22. Geoffrey Best, War and Law since 1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); Bugnion, Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, passim; François Bugnion, 'From the end of the Second World War to the dawn of the third millennium: the activities of the International Committee of the Red Cross during the Cold War and its aftermath, 1945-1995', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 305, March-April 1995, pp. 207-24.
23. Geoffrey Best, War and Law since 1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); Bugmon, Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, passim; François Bugnion, 'From the end of the Second World War to the dawn of the third millennium: the activities of the International Committee of the Red Cross during the Cold War and its aftermath, 1945-1995', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 305, March-April 1995, pp. 207-24.
24. Geoffrey Best, War and Law since 1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); Bugnion, Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, passim; François Bugnion, 'From the end of the Second World War to the dawn of the third millennium: the activities of the International Committee of the Red Cross during the Cold War and its aftermath, 1945-1995', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 305, March-April 1995, pp. 207-24.
25. On the humanitarian rules applicable to non-international armed conflicts, see Erik Castrén, Civil War (Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, 1966); David P. Forsythe, 'Legal management of internal war: the 1977 Protocol on non-international armed conflicts', American Journal of International Law 72: 2, April 1978, pp. 272-95; Charles Zorgbibe, La guerre civile (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1975). On the activities of the ICRC in the event of non-international armed conflicts, see Marion Harroff-Tavel, 'Action taken by the International Committee of the Red Cross in situations of internal violence', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 294, May-June 1993, pp. 195-220.
26. On the humanitarian rules applicable to non-international armed conflicts, see Erik Castrén, Civil War (Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, 1966); David P. Forsythe, 'Legal management of internal war: the 1977 Protocol on non-international armed conflicts', American Journal of International Law 72: 2, April 1978, pp. 272-95; Charles Zorgbibe, La guerre civile (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1975). On the activities of the ICRC in the event of non-international armed conflicts, see Marion Harroff-Tavel, 'Action taken by the International Committee of the Red Cross in situations of internal violence', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 294, May-June 1993, pp. 195-220.
27. On the humanitarian rules applicable to non-international armed conflicts, see Erik Castrén, Civil War (Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, 1966); David P. Forsythe, 'Legal management of internal war: the 1977 Protocol on non-international armed conflicts', American Journal of International Law 72: 2, April 1978, pp. 272-95; Charles Zorgbibe, La guerre civile (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1975). On the activities of the ICRC in the event of non-international armed conflicts, see Marion Harroff-Tavel, 'Action taken by the International Committee of the Red Cross in situations of internal violence', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 294, May-June 1993, pp. 195-220.
28. On the humanitarian rules applicable to non-international armed conflicts, see Erik Castrén, Civil War (Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, 1966); David P. Forsythe, 'Legal management of internal war: the 1977 Protocol on non-international armed conflicts', American Journal of International Law 72: 2, April 1978, pp. 272-95; Charles Zorgbibe, La guerre civile (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1975). On the activities of the ICRC in the event of non-international armed conflicts, see Marion Harroff-Tavel, 'Action taken by the International Committee of the Red Cross in situations of internal violence', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 294, May-June 1993, pp. 195-220.
29. On the question of how to classify wars of national liberation, see Georges Abi-Saab, 'Wars of national liberation in the Geneva Conventions and Protocols', Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law 165: 4, 1979, pp. 353-445.
30. This concern led the ICRC, in 1956, to formulate draft rules to limit the dangers incurred by the civilian population in wartime. This draft, intended primarily to protect civilians against indiscriminate attacks, included (or restated) the prohibition of atomic, bacteriological and chemical weapons. When submitted to the 19th International Conference of the Red Cross (New Delhi, Oct.-Nov. 1957), it was criticized by delegations of countries possessing nuclear weapons, in particular the United States and its allies. In Resolution XIII, the Conference requested the ICRC to transmit the draft to the governments for their consideration. But the ICRC's efforts had, in effect, been defeated. For details, see Draft rules for the limitation of the dangers incurred by the civilian population in time of war, 2nd edn (Geneva: ICRC, April 1958); 19th International Conference of the Red Cross, New Delhi, Oct.-Nov. 1957, 'Final record concerning the draft rules for the limitation of the dangers incurred by the civilian population in time of war' (Geneva: ICRC, April 1958, cyclostyled).
31. This concern led the ICRC, in 1956, to formulate draft rules to limit the dangers incurred by the civilian population in wartime. This draft, intended primarily to protect civilians against indiscriminate attacks, included (or restated) the prohibition of atomic, bacteriological and chemical weapons. When submitted to the 19th International Conference of the Red Cross (New Delhi, Oct.-Nov. 1957), it was criticized by delegations of countries possessing nuclear weapons, in particular the United States and its allies. In Resolution XIII, the Conference requested the ICRC to transmit the draft to the governments for their consideration. But the ICRC's efforts had, in effect, been defeated. For details, see Draft rules for the limitation of the dangers incurred by the civilian population in time of war, 2nd edn (Geneva: ICRC, April 1958); 19th International Conference of the Red Cross, New Delhi, Oct.-Nov. 1957, 'Final record concerning the draft rules for the limitation of the dangers incurred by the civilian population in time of war' (Geneva: ICRC, April 1958, cyclostyled).
32. This concern led the ICRC, in 1956, to formulate draft rules to limit the dangers incurred by the civilian population in wartime. This draft, intended primarily to protect civilians against indiscriminate attacks, included (or restated) the prohibition of atomic, bacteriological and chemical weapons. When submitted to the 19th International Conference of the Red Cross (New Delhi, Oct.-Nov. 1957), it was criticized by delegations of countries possessing nuclear weapons, in particular the United States and its allies. In Resolution XIII, the Conference requested the ICRC to transmit the draft to the governments for their consideration. But the ICRC's efforts had, in effect, been defeated. For details, see Draft rules for the limitation of the dangers incurred by the civilian population in time of war, 2nd edn (Geneva: ICRC, April 1958); 19th International Conference of the Red Cross, New Delhi, Oct.-Nov. 1957, 'Final record concerning the draft rules for the limitation of the dangers incurred by the civilian population in time of war' (Geneva: ICRC, April 1958, cyclostyled).
33. This concern led the ICRC, in 1956, to formulate draft rules to limit the dangers incurred by the civilian population in wartime. This draft, intended primarily to protect civilians against indiscriminate attacks, included (or restated) the prohibition of atomic, bacteriological and chemical weapons. When submitted to the 19th International Conference of the Red Cross (New Delhi, Oct.-Nov. 1957), it was criticized by delegations of countries possessing nuclear weapons, in particular the United States and its allies. In Resolution XIII, the Conference requested the ICRC to transmit the draft to the governments for their consideration. But the ICRC's efforts had, in effect, been defeated. For details, see Draft rules for the limitation of the dangers incurred by the civilian population in time of war, 2nd edn (Geneva: ICRC, April 1958); 19th International Conference of the Red Cross, New Delhi, Oct.-Nov. 1957, 'Final record concerning the draft rules for the limitation of the dangers incurred by the civilian population in time of war' (Geneva: ICRC, April 1958, cyclostyled).
34. Resolution XXIII of the International Conference on Human Rights, Final Act of the International Conference on Human Rights, Teheran, 22 April-13 May 1968 (New York: United Nations, 1968, Document A/CONF. 32/41), p. 18. Between 1968 and 1977, each regular session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted one or more resolutions relating to the reaffirmation and development of international humanitarian law, usually under the heading 'Respect for human rights in armed conflicts': Resolutions 2444 (XXIII) 1968, 2597 (XXIV) 1969, 2674 (XXV) 1970, 2675 (XXV) 1970, 2676 (XXV) 1970, 2677 (XXV) 1970, 2852 (XXVI) 1971, 2853 (XXVI) 1971, 3032 (XXVII) 1972, 3076 (XXVIII) 1973, 3102 (XXVIII) 1973, 3103 (XXVIII) 1973, 3319 (XXIX) 1974, 3500 (XXX) 1975, 31/19-1976, 32/44-1977.
35. On the work preparatory to the additional protocols, see Michael Bothe, Karl Josef Partsch and Waldemar A. Solf, with Martin Eaton, New rules for victims of armed conflicts: commentary on the two 1977 protocols additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1982); Claude Pilloud, Jean De Preux, Yves Sandoz, Bruno Zimmermann, Philippe Eberlin, Hans-Peter Gasser, Claude F. Wenger and Sylvie-S. Junod, with Jean Pictet, Commentary on the additional protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, ed. Yves Sandoz, Christophe Swinarski and Bruno Zimmermann (Geneva: ICRC and Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1987).
36. On the work preparatory to the additional protocols, see Michael Bothe, Karl Josef Partsch and Waldemar A. Solf, with Martin Eaton, New rules for victims of armed conflicts: commentary on the two 1977 protocols additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1982); Claude Pilloud, Jean De Preux, Yves Sandoz, Bruno Zimmermann, Philippe Eberlin, Hans-Peter Gasser, Claude F. Wenger and Sylvie-S. Junod, with Jean Pictet, Commentary on the additional protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, ed. Yves Sandoz, Christophe Swinarski and Bruno Zimmermann (Geneva: ICRC and Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1987).
37. Protocol I, Articles 35-67; Protocol II, Articles 13-17.
38. See Commentary on the additional protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, pp. 585-96; Henri Meyrowitz, 'La stratégie nucléaire et le Protocole additionnel I aux Conventions de Genève de 1949', Revue générale de Droit international public 83: 4, 1979, pp. 905-61.
39. See Commentary on the additional protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, pp. 585-96; Henri Meyrowitz, 'La stratégie nucléaire et le Protocole additionnel I aux Conventions de Genève de 1949', Revue générale de Droit international public 83: 4, 1979, pp. 905-61.
40. The ICRC has nevertheless had to adapt to the new environment resulting from the end of the Cold War. See Simone Delorenzi, Contending with the impasse in international humanitarian action: ICRC policy since the end of the Cold War (Geneva: ICRC, 1999); Cornelio Sommaruga, 'Die Neugestaltung Europas und das Rote Kreuz', in Josef Krainer and Wolfgang Mantl, eds, Ortsbestimmung, Politik, Wirtschaft, Europa (Graz, Vienna and Cologne: Styria Verlag, 1993), pp. 207-15.
41. The ICRC has nevertheless had to adapt to the new environment resulting from the end of the Cold War. See Simone Delorenzi, Contending with the impasse in international humanitarian action: ICRC policy since the end of the Cold War (Geneva: ICRC, 1999); Cornelio Sommaruga, 'Die Neugestaltung Europas und das Rote Kreuz', in Josef Krainer and Wolfgang Mantl, eds, Ortsbestimmung, Politik, Wirtschaft, Europa (Graz, Vienna and Cologne: Styria Verlag, 1993), pp. 207-15.
42. François Jean and Jean-Christophe Rufin, eds, Economie des guerres civiles (Paris: Hachette, 1996); Mark Duffield, 'Post-modern conflicts: warlords, post-adjustment states and private protection', Civil Wars 1: 1, Spring 1998, pp. 64-102; Jakkie Cilliers and Peggy Mason, eds, Peace, profit or plunder? The privatisation of security in war-torn African societies (Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 1999).
43. François Jean and Jean-Christophe Rufin, eds, Economie des guerres civiles (Paris: Hachette, 1996); Mark Duffield, 'Post-modern conflicts: warlords, post-adjustment states and private protection', Civil Wars 1: 1, Spring 1998, pp. 64-102; Jakkie Cilliers and Peggy Mason, eds, Peace, profit or plunder? The privatisation of security in war-torn African societies (Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 1999).
44. François Jean and Jean-Christophe Rufin, eds, Economie des guerres civiles (Paris: Hachette, 1996); Mark Duffield, 'Post-modern conflicts: warlords, post-adjustment states and private protection', Civil Wars 1: 1, Spring 1998, pp. 64-102; Jakkie Cilliers and Peggy Mason, eds, Peace, profit or plunder? The privatisation of security in war-torn African societies (Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 1999).
45. 'Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court', International Legal Materials 37: 5, Sept. 1998, pp. 999-1069; Marie-Claude Roberge, 'The new International Criminal Court: a preliminary assessment', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 325, Dec. 1998, pp. 671-83.
46. 'Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court', International Legal Materials 37: 5, Sept. 1998, pp. 999-1069; Marie-Claude Roberge, 'The new International Criminal Court: a preliminary assessment', International Review of the Red Cross, no. 325, Dec. 1998, pp. 671-83.
47. 'The High Contracting Parties undertake to respect and ensure respect of the present Convention in all circumstances', declares Article I common to all four Geneva Conventions and Protocol I. This provision has been widely interpreted as implying a responsibility for all states party to the Geneva Conventions to see to it that those treaties are universally respected. On the interpretation of this provision, see Luigi Condorelli and Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, 'Quelques remarques à propos de l'obligation des états de "respecter et faire respecter" le droit international humanitaire en toutes circonstances', in Christophe Swinarski, ed., Studies and essays on international humanitarian law and Red Cross principles, in honour of Jean Pictet (Geneva: ICRC and The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1984), pp. 17-35; on the measures which states are entitled to take to ensure compliance with the Geneva Conventions, see Umesh Palwankar, 'Measures available to states for fulfilling their obligation to ensure respect for international humanitarian law'. International Review of the Red Cross, no. 298, Jan.-Feb. 1994, pp. 9-25; on a possible role for the United Nations in ensuring compliance with the Geneva Conventions, see Hans-Peter Gasser, 'Ensuring respect for the Geneva Conventions and Protocols: the role of third states and the United Nations', in Hazel Fox and Michael A. Meyer, eds, Effecting compliance (London: British Institute of International and Comparative Law, 1989), vol. 2, pp. 15-49.
48. 'The High Contracting Parties undertake to respect and ensure respect of the present Convention in all circumstances', declares Article I common to all four Geneva Conventions and Protocol I. This provision has been widely interpreted as implying a responsibility for all states party to the Geneva Conventions to see to it that those treaties are universally respected. On the interpretation of this provision, see Luigi Condorelli and Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, 'Quelques remarques à propos de l'obligation des états de "respecter et faire respecter" le droit international humanitaire en toutes circonstances', in Christophe Swinarski, ed., Studies and essays on international humanitarian law and Red Cross principles, in honour of Jean Pictet (Geneva: ICRC and The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1984), pp. 17-35; on the measures which states are entitled to take to ensure compliance with the Geneva Conventions, see Umesh Palwankar, 'Measures available to states for fulfilling their obligation to ensure respect for international humanitarian law'. International Review of the Red Cross, no. 298, Jan.-Feb. 1994, pp. 9-25; on a possible role for the United Nations in ensuring compliance with the Geneva Conventions, see Hans-Peter Gasser, 'Ensuring respect for the Geneva Conventions and Protocols: the role of third states and the United Nations', in Hazel Fox and Michael A. Meyer, eds, Effecting compliance (London: British Institute of International and Comparative Law, 1989), vol. 2, pp. 15-49.
49. 'The High Contracting Parties undertake to respect and ensure respect of the present Convention in all circumstances', declares Article I common to all four Geneva Conventions and Protocol I. This provision has been widely interpreted as implying a responsibility for all states party to the Geneva Conventions to see to it that those treaties are universally respected. On the interpretation of this provision, see Luigi Condorelli and Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, 'Quelques remarques à propos de l'obligation des états de "respecter et faire respecter" le droit international humanitaire en toutes circonstances', in Christophe Swinarski, ed., Studies and essays on international humanitarian law and Red Cross principles, in honour of Jean Pictet (Geneva: ICRC and The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1984), pp. 17-35; on the measures which states are entitled to take to ensure compliance with the Geneva Conventions, see Umesh Palwankar, 'Measures available to states for fulfilling their obligation to ensure respect for international humanitarian law'. International Review of the Red Cross, no. 298, Jan.-Feb. 1994, pp. 9-25; on a possible role for the United Nations in ensuring compliance with the Geneva Conventions, see Hans-Peter Gasser, 'Ensuring respect for the Geneva Conventions and Protocols: the role of third states and the United Nations', in Hazel Fox and Michael A. Meyer, eds, Effecting compliance (London: British Institute of International and Comparative Law, 1989), vol. 2, pp. 15-49.