The great terror in Leningrad: A quantitative analysis

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 52, Issue 8, 2000, Pages 1515-1534

  Ilic, Melanie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 0039568927     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/713663137     Document Type: Article

References (63)

1. Research for this article was funded by ESRC project no. R000237388: 'The Soviet Politburo and Economic Decision Making and Development in the Stalin Era'. An earlier paper on this topic was presented at the Centre for Russian and East European Studies, University of Birmingham, Annual Conference, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, 12-14 June 1998. I would like to thank R. W. Davies, E. A. Rees, O. Khlevnyuk, C. Joyce and an anonymous reviewer for their comments on this version of the article.
2. For an outline of these debates see, for example, E. A. Rees, 'Stalinism: the Primacy of Polities', in J. Channon (ed.), Politics, Society and Stalinism in the USSR (London, 1998).
3. R. Conquest, The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties (New York, 1968), and The Great Terror: A Reassessment (New York, 1990). See also R. Conquest, 'Small Terror, Few Dead', Times Literary Supplement, 31 May 1996, pp. 3-5, where Conquest offers a critical review of Thurston's revisionist thesis and draws on evidence from the first volume of the Leningradskii Martirolog.
4. R. Conquest, The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties (New York, 1968), and The Great Terror: A Reassessment (New York, 1990). See also R. Conquest, 'Small Terror, Few Dead', Times Literary Supplement, 31 May 1996, pp. 3-5, where Conquest offers a critical review of Thurston's revisionist thesis and draws on evidence from the first volume of the Leningradskii Martirolog.
5. R. Conquest, The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties (New York, 1968), and The Great Terror: A Reassessment (New York, 1990). See also R. Conquest, 'Small Terror, Few Dead', Times Literary Supplement, 31 May 1996, pp. 3-5, where Conquest offers a critical review of Thurston's revisionist thesis and draws on evidence from the first volume of the Leningradskii Martirolog.
6. Conquest, The Great Terror (1968), p. 11.
7. For example see J. Arch Getty, The Origins of the Great Purges: the Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933-1938 (Cambridge, 1985); J. Arch Getty & R. T. Manning, Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993); and R. W. Thurston, Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934-1941 (Yale, 1996). See also S. Fitzpatrick, 'How the Mice Buried the Cat: Scenes from the Great Purges of 1937 in the Russian Provinces', Russian Review, 52, 3, July 1993, pp. 299-332; S. Fitzpatrick, 'Workers Against Bosses: the Impact of the Great Purges on Labor-Management Relations', in L. H. Siegelbaum & R. G. Suny (eds), Making Workers Soviet: Power, Class and Identity (London, 1994); G. T. Rittersporn, 'The Omnipresent Conspiracy: on Soviet Imagery of Politics and Social Relations in the 1930s', in N. Lampert & G. T. Rittersporn (eds), Stalinism: Its Nature and Aftermath (London, 1991); on the impact of the purges in the military see R. R. Reese, Stalin's Reluctant Soldiers: A Social History of the Red Army, 1925-1941 (Kansas, 1996).
8. For example see J. Arch Getty, The Origins of the Great Purges: the Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933-1938 (Cambridge, 1985); J. Arch Getty & R. T. Manning, Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993); and R. W. Thurston, Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934-1941 (Yale, 1996). See also S. Fitzpatrick, 'How the Mice Buried the Cat: Scenes from the Great Purges of 1937 in the Russian Provinces', Russian Review, 52, 3, July 1993, pp. 299-332; S. Fitzpatrick, 'Workers Against Bosses: the Impact of the Great Purges on Labor-Management Relations', in L. H. Siegelbaum & R. G. Suny (eds), Making Workers Soviet: Power, Class and Identity (London, 1994); G. T. Rittersporn, 'The Omnipresent Conspiracy: on Soviet Imagery of Politics and Social Relations in the 1930s', in N. Lampert & G. T. Rittersporn (eds), Stalinism: Its Nature and Aftermath (London, 1991); on the impact of the purges in the military see R. R. Reese, Stalin's Reluctant Soldiers: A Social History of the Red Army, 1925-1941 (Kansas, 1996).
9. For example see J. Arch Getty, The Origins of the Great Purges: the Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933-1938 (Cambridge, 1985); J. Arch Getty & R. T. Manning, Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993); and R. W. Thurston, Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934-1941 (Yale, 1996). See also S. Fitzpatrick, 'How the Mice Buried the Cat: Scenes from the Great Purges of 1937 in the Russian Provinces', Russian Review, 52, 3, July 1993, pp. 299-332; S. Fitzpatrick, 'Workers Against Bosses: the Impact of the Great Purges on Labor-Management Relations', in L. H. Siegelbaum & R. G. Suny (eds), Making Workers Soviet: Power, Class and Identity (London, 1994); G. T. Rittersporn, 'The Omnipresent Conspiracy: on Soviet Imagery of Politics and Social Relations in the 1930s', in N. Lampert & G. T. Rittersporn (eds), Stalinism: Its Nature and Aftermath (London, 1991); on the impact of the purges in the military see R. R. Reese, Stalin's Reluctant Soldiers: A Social History of the Red Army, 1925-1941 (Kansas, 1996).
10. For example see J. Arch Getty, The Origins of the Great Purges: the Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933-1938 (Cambridge, 1985); J. Arch Getty & R. T. Manning, Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993); and R. W. Thurston, Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934-1941 (Yale, 1996). See also S. Fitzpatrick, 'How the Mice Buried the Cat: Scenes from the Great Purges of 1937 in the Russian Provinces', Russian Review, 52, 3, July 1993, pp. 299-332; S. Fitzpatrick, 'Workers Against Bosses: the Impact of the Great Purges on Labor-Management Relations', in L. H. Siegelbaum & R. G. Suny (eds), Making Workers Soviet: Power, Class and Identity (London, 1994); G. T. Rittersporn, 'The Omnipresent Conspiracy: on Soviet Imagery of Politics and Social Relations in the 1930s', in N. Lampert & G. T. Rittersporn (eds), Stalinism: Its Nature and Aftermath (London, 1991); on the impact of the purges in the military see R. R. Reese, Stalin's Reluctant Soldiers: A Social History of the Red Army, 1925-1941 (Kansas, 1996).
11. For example see J. Arch Getty, The Origins of the Great Purges: the Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933-1938 (Cambridge, 1985); J. Arch Getty & R. T. Manning, Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993); and R. W. Thurston, Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934-1941 (Yale, 1996). See also S. Fitzpatrick, 'How the Mice Buried the Cat: Scenes from the Great Purges of 1937 in the Russian Provinces', Russian Review, 52, 3, July 1993, pp. 299-332; S. Fitzpatrick, 'Workers Against Bosses: the Impact of the Great Purges on Labor-Management Relations', in L. H. Siegelbaum & R. G. Suny (eds), Making Workers Soviet: Power, Class and Identity (London, 1994); G. T. Rittersporn, 'The Omnipresent Conspiracy: on Soviet Imagery of Politics and Social Relations in the 1930s', in N. Lampert & G. T. Rittersporn (eds), Stalinism: Its Nature and Aftermath (London, 1991); on the impact of the purges in the military see R. R. Reese, Stalin's Reluctant Soldiers: A Social History of the Red Army, 1925-1941 (Kansas, 1996).
12. For example see J. Arch Getty, The Origins of the Great Purges: the Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933-1938 (Cambridge, 1985); J. Arch Getty & R. T. Manning, Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993); and R. W. Thurston, Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934-1941 (Yale, 1996). See also S. Fitzpatrick, 'How the Mice Buried the Cat: Scenes from the Great Purges of 1937 in the Russian Provinces', Russian Review, 52, 3, July 1993, pp. 299-332; S. Fitzpatrick, 'Workers Against Bosses: the Impact of the Great Purges on Labor-Management Relations', in L. H. Siegelbaum & R. G. Suny (eds), Making Workers Soviet: Power, Class and Identity (London, 1994); G. T. Rittersporn, 'The Omnipresent Conspiracy: on Soviet Imagery of Politics and Social Relations in the 1930s', in N. Lampert & G. T. Rittersporn (eds), Stalinism: Its Nature and Aftermath (London, 1991); on the impact of the purges in the military see R. R. Reese, Stalin's Reluctant Soldiers: A Social History of the Red Army, 1925-1941 (Kansas, 1996).
13. For example see J. Arch Getty, The Origins of the Great Purges: the Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933-1938 (Cambridge, 1985); J. Arch Getty & R. T. Manning, Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993); and R. W. Thurston, Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934-1941 (Yale, 1996). See also S. Fitzpatrick, 'How the Mice Buried the Cat: Scenes from the Great Purges of 1937 in the Russian Provinces', Russian Review, 52, 3, July 1993, pp. 299-332; S. Fitzpatrick, 'Workers Against Bosses: the Impact of the Great Purges on Labor-Management Relations', in L. H. Siegelbaum & R. G. Suny (eds), Making Workers Soviet: Power, Class and Identity (London, 1994); G. T. Rittersporn, 'The Omnipresent Conspiracy: on Soviet Imagery of Politics and Social Relations in the 1930s', in N. Lampert & G. T. Rittersporn (eds), Stalinism: Its Nature and Aftermath (London, 1991); on the impact of the purges in the military see R. R. Reese, Stalin's Reluctant Soldiers: A Social History of the Red Army, 1925-1941 (Kansas, 1996).
14. See for example B. A. Starkov, 'Narkom Ezhov', in Getty & Manning, Stalinist Terror, pp. 21-40; O. Khlevnyuk, 'The Objectives of the Great Terror, 1937-38', in J. Cooper, M. Perrie & E. A. Rees (eds), Soviety History, 1917-53 (London, 1995) pp. 158-176; and V. N. Zemskov, 'Gulag (istoriko-sotsiologicheskii aspekt)', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 1991, 6, pp. 10-27. On the institutional framework see also P. Solomon, Soviet Criminal Justice Under Stalin (Cambridge, 1996). For an example of collaborative work between Russian and Western researchers see J. Arch Getty, G. T. Rittersporn & V. N. Zemskov, 'Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence', American Historical Review, 98, 4, 1993, pp. 1017-1049.
15. See for example B. A. Starkov, 'Narkom Ezhov', in Getty & Manning, Stalinist Terror, pp. 21-40; O. Khlevnyuk, 'The Objectives of the Great Terror, 1937-38', in J. Cooper, M. Perrie & E. A. Rees (eds), Soviety History, 1917-53 (London, 1995) pp. 158-176; and V. N. Zemskov, 'Gulag (istoriko-sotsiologicheskii aspekt)', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 1991, 6, pp. 10-27. On the institutional framework see also P. Solomon, Soviet Criminal Justice Under Stalin (Cambridge, 1996). For an example of collaborative work between Russian and Western researchers see J. Arch Getty, G. T. Rittersporn & V. N. Zemskov, 'Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence', American Historical Review, 98, 4, 1993, pp. 1017-1049.
16. See for example B. A. Starkov, 'Narkom Ezhov', in Getty & Manning, Stalinist Terror, pp. 21-40; O. Khlevnyuk, 'The Objectives of the Great Terror, 1937-38', in J. Cooper, M. Perrie & E. A. Rees (eds), Soviety History, 1917-53 (London, 1995) pp. 158-176; and V. N. Zemskov, 'Gulag (istoriko-sotsiologicheskii aspekt)', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 1991, 6, pp. 10-27. On the institutional framework see also P. Solomon, Soviet Criminal Justice Under Stalin (Cambridge, 1996). For an example of collaborative work between Russian and Western researchers see J. Arch Getty, G. T. Rittersporn & V. N. Zemskov, 'Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence', American Historical Review, 98, 4, 1993, pp. 1017-1049.
17. See for example B. A. Starkov, 'Narkom Ezhov', in Getty & Manning, Stalinist Terror, pp. 21-40; O. Khlevnyuk, 'The Objectives of the Great Terror, 1937-38', in J. Cooper, M. Perrie & E. A. Rees (eds), Soviety History, 1917-53 (London, 1995) pp. 158-176; and V. N. Zemskov, 'Gulag (istoriko-sotsiologicheskii aspekt)', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 1991, 6, pp. 10-27. On the institutional framework see also P. Solomon, Soviet Criminal Justice Under Stalin (Cambridge, 1996). For an example of collaborative work between Russian and Western researchers see J. Arch Getty, G. T. Rittersporn & V. N. Zemskov, 'Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence', American Historical Review, 98, 4, 1993, pp. 1017-1049.
18. See for example B. A. Starkov, 'Narkom Ezhov', in Getty & Manning, Stalinist Terror, pp. 21-40; O. Khlevnyuk, 'The Objectives of the Great Terror, 1937-38', in J. Cooper, M. Perrie & E. A. Rees (eds), Soviety History, 1917-53 (London, 1995) pp. 158-176; and V. N. Zemskov, 'Gulag (istoriko-sotsiologicheskii aspekt)', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 1991, 6, pp. 10-27. On the institutional framework see also P. Solomon, Soviet Criminal Justice Under Stalin (Cambridge, 1996). For an example of collaborative work between Russian and Western researchers see J. Arch Getty, G. T. Rittersporn & V. N. Zemskov, 'Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence', American Historical Review, 98, 4, 1993, pp. 1017-1049.
19. Khlevnyuk, 'The Objectives …', p. 161.
20. Ibid., p. 169.
21. In addition to the research on Leningrad outlined here, similar studies are currently being undertaken by S. G. Wheatcroft (Moscow) and Yu. A. Dmitriev (Karelia).
22. Vsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1939 goda: osnovnye itogi (Moscow, 1992) p. 24 (hereafter, 7959 All-Union Census).
23. Vsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1939 goda: osnovnye itogi (Moscow, 1992) p. 24 (hereafter, 7959 All-Union Census).
24. In addition to the special NKVD troika of the Leningrad oblast' (Osobaya Troika UNKVD LO), which had been introduced first in the 1920s and was resurrected from May 1935, a special Commission, dvoika, of the NKVD and public procurator (Komissiya NKVD i Prokuratury SSSR) was established in 1937 especially to deal with the trials. It should be noted, however, that the Leningradskii Martirolog does not employ strictly correct terminology in its designation of the 'osobaya troika'. 'Osobye troiki' were not established until September-October 1938. Before this date the troiki were either 'militseiskie troiki' (established in 1935) or 'spetsial'nye troiki' (created by order no. 00447 in 1937).
25. 1959 All-Union Census
26. Vsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1939 goda: osnovnye itogi: gorod Leningrad, RGAE, f. 1562, o. 336, d. 305 (hereafter, 1959 Leningrad city Census), and Vsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1939 goda: osnovnye itogi: Leningradskaya oblast', RGAE, f. 1562, o. 336, d. 304 (hereafter, 1959 Leningrad Oblast' Census). The population of the region was divided almost evenly between the city and the oblast'. I have made no distinction between these in the calculations and analysis contained in this article though such a distinction may help to refine some of the preliminary assessments made here.
27. Vsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1939 goda: osnovnye itogi: gorod Leningrad, RGAE, f. 1562, o. 336, d. 305 (hereafter, 1959 Leningrad city Census), and Vsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1939 goda: osnovnye itogi: Leningradskaya oblast', RGAE, f. 1562, o. 336, d. 304 (hereafter, 1959 Leningrad Oblast' Census). The population of the region was divided almost evenly between the city and the oblast'. I have made no distinction between these in the calculations and analysis contained in this article though such a distinction may help to refine some of the preliminary assessments made here.
28. Vsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1939 goda: osnovnye itogi: gorod Leningrad, RGAE, f. 1562, o. 336, d. 305 (hereafter, 1959 Leningrad city Census), and Vsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1939 goda: osnovnye itogi: Leningradskaya oblast', RGAE, f. 1562, o. 336, d. 304 (hereafter, 1959 Leningrad Oblast' Census). The population of the region was divided almost evenly between the city and the oblast'. I have made no distinction between these in the calculations and analysis contained in this article though such a distinction may help to refine some of the preliminary assessments made here.
29. Vsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1939 goda: osnovnye itogi: gorod Leningrad, RGAE, f. 1562, o. 336, d. 305 (hereafter, 1959 Leningrad city Census), and Vsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1939 goda: osnovnye itogi: Leningradskaya oblast', RGAE, f. 1562, o. 336, d. 304 (hereafter, 1959 Leningrad Oblast' Census). The population of the region was divided almost evenly between the city and the oblast'. I have made no distinction between these in the calculations and analysis contained in this article though such a distinction may help to refine some of the preliminary assessments made here.
30. The original entries were made in the database programme Access, which allows relational data entry and offers complex search facilities although, it should be noted, only simple searches have been used in the preparation of this article. The data were analysed using Access and Excel. 15 Referred to as 'sample' in the tables.
31. Getty, Origins, p. 173, notes that 'many of the arrests seem to have resulted from chains (sometimes family circles) of personal connections. Those under interrogation were always encouraged to implicate and denounce others in a prophylactic attempt to destroy possible circles even remotely connected to the main targets'.
32. Referred to as 'women' in the tables.
33. On dissent in general see for example S. Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin's Russia: Terror, Propaganda and Dissent, 1934-1941 (Cambridge, 1997).
34. For example see E. Ginzburg, Into the Whirlwind (London, 1989). Ginzburg was arrested in 1937 and spent the following two years in Butyrki Prison in Moscow before being deported to Siberia. She spent the next 18 years in prison camps and exile. She was eventually released, and was rehabilitated before her death in Moscow in 1977.
35. See Getty, Origins, p. 175.
36. Only one of the victims was 19 years of age, and no date of birth was given for two of the 673 entries.
37. The entries in the Leningradskii Martirolog include detailed particulars of the place of residence of those living in Leningrad city, but these have not been included for the purposes of this study.
38. T. H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership in the USSR, 1917-1967 (Princeton, 1968), p. 52, estimates total CPSU membership on 1 January 1939 at 2 306 973; according to the 1939 All-Union Census the total population of the USSR on 17 January 1939 was 170 557 093. For the changes in composition and structure of the CPSU membership between 1929 and 1941, including commentary on the impact of the purges, see also L. Schapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Norfolk, 1963) pp. 439-456.
39. T. H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership in the USSR, 1917-1967 (Princeton, 1968), p. 52, estimates total CPSU membership on 1 January 1939 at 2 306 973; according to the 1939 All-Union Census the total population of the USSR on 17 January 1939 was 170 557 093. For the changes in composition and structure of the CPSU membership between 1929 and 1941, including commentary on the impact of the purges, see also L. Schapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Norfolk, 1963) pp. 439-456.
40. For some of the reasons why women were less likely to join the CPSU see for example G. B. Smith, Soviet Politics: Struggling with Change (London, 1992) p. 98.
41. According to Rigby, Communist Party Membership …, p. 361, women constituted 14.8% of the CPSU membership in January 1937, and this had fallen to 14.5% by March 1939. Fewer than 0.4% of the entire Soviet female population in 1939, therefore, were members of the party. In contrast, almost 2.5% of the male population were party members.
42. No date for joining the Communist Party is given for eight of the entries.
43. No date for leaving the Communist Party is given for five of the entries.
44. The impact of the purges on the Poles is explored in more detail in the Memorial publication, Repressii protiv polyakov i pol'skikh grazhdan (Moscow, 1997). See in particular N. V. Petrov & A. B. Roginsky, '"Pol'skaya operatsiya" NKVD 1937-1938gg.', in Memorial, Repressii …, pp. 22-43.
45. The impact of the purges on the Poles is explored in more detail in the Memorial publication, Repressii protiv polyakov i pol'skikh grazhdan (Moscow, 1997). See in particular N. V. Petrov & A. B. Roginsky, '"Pol'skaya operatsiya" NKVD 1937-1938gg.', in Memorial, Repressii …, pp. 22-43.
46. The impact of the purges on the Poles is explored in more detail in the Memorial publication, Repressii protiv polyakov i pol'skikh grazhdan (Moscow, 1997). See in particular N. V. Petrov & A. B. Roginsky, '"Pol'skaya operatsiya" NKVD 1937-1938gg.', in Memorial, Repressii …, pp. 22-43.
47. On the Karelian national and ethnic groups, and the impact of the purges in this region, see T. Vihavainen & I. Takala (eds), V sem'e edinnoi: natsional'naya politika partii bol'shevikov i ee osushchestvlenie na Severo-Zapadne Rossii v 1920-1950-e gody (Petrozavodsk, 1998). I am grateful to Nick Baron for this reference.
48. See for example I. Takala, 'Natsional'nye operatsii OGPU/NKVD v Karelii', in Vihaivainen & Takala (eds), V sem'e edinnoi …, p. 161, and Khlevnyuk, 'The Objectives …', p. 169.
49. See for example I. Takala, 'Natsional'nye operatsii OGPU/NKVD v Karelii', in Vihaivainen & Takala (eds), V sem'e edinnoi …, p. 161, and Khlevnyuk, 'The Objectives …', p. 169.
50. See also TsSU, Slovar'-spravochnik po sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoi statistike (Moscow, 1944); 'O chislennosti rabochikh i sluzhashchikh po dannym perepisi naseleniya 1939 goda i po dannym tekushchego ucheta', RGAE, f. 4372, o. 92, d. 283, 11. 145-148; and 'Instruktsiya po zapolneniyu perepisnogo lista na kontingenty NKVD pri provedenii vsesoyuznoi perepisi naseleniya 1939 g.', RGAE, f. 1562, o. 329, d. 276, 11. 1-9.
51. See also TsSU, Slovar'-spravochnik po sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoi statistike (Moscow, 1944); 'O chislennosti rabochikh i sluzhashchikh po dannym perepisi naseleniya 1939 goda i po dannym tekushchego ucheta', RGAE, f. 4372, o. 92, d. 283, 11. 145-148; and 'Instruktsiya po zapolneniyu perepisnogo lista na kontingenty NKVD pri provedenii vsesoyuznoi perepisi naseleniya 1939 g.', RGAE, f. 1562, o. 329, d. 276, 11. 1-9.
52. See also TsSU, Slovar'-spravochnik po sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoi statistike (Moscow, 1944); 'O chislennosti rabochikh i sluzhashchikh po dannym perepisi naseleniya 1939 goda i po dannym tekushchego ucheta', RGAE, f. 4372, o. 92, d. 283, 11. 145-148; and 'Instruktsiya po zapolneniyu perepisnogo lista na kontingenty NKVD pri provedenii vsesoyuznoi perepisi naseleniya 1939 g.', RGAE, f. 1562, o. 329, d. 276, 11. 1-9.
53. Of which there were three in the larger sample and 21 in the dataset of women.
54. All kustari and artel workers are listed under 4, unless it is clear from the source that they worked independently, such as 'kustar'-edinolichnik' or 'kustar'-odinochka', when they are listed under 5.
55. See 'Rasstrel po raznaryadke, ili kak eto delali bol'sheviki', Trud, 4 June 1992. On the treatment of criminals in particular, see D. R. Shearer, 'Crime and Social Disorder in Stalin's Russia: a Reassessment of the Great Retreat and the Origins of Mass Repression', Cahiers du Monde Russe, 39, 1-2, 1998, pp. 119-148.
56. See 'Rasstrel po raznaryadke, ili kak eto delali bol'sheviki', Trud, 4 June 1992. On the treatment of criminals in particular, see D. R. Shearer, 'Crime and Social Disorder in Stalin's Russia: a Reassessment of the Great Retreat and the Origins of Mass Repression', Cahiers du Monde Russe, 39, 1-2, 1998, pp. 119-148.
57. This was clearly in line with the decree introduced in the wake of the Kirov murder on 1 December 1934 in which Stalin urged the judicial authorities to speed up the process between trial and execution of those accused of acts of terror, thus withdrawing any opportunity for appeal.
58. The state organisation responsible for conducting trials is listed as it appears in the Leningradskii Martirolog. See also note 11.
59. Leningradskii Martirolog, vol. 1, p. 14.
60. Conquest, The Great Terror (1968), appendix G, pp. 741-746, sets out 'Article 58 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR'.
61. Article 58-8 was used against those accused of murdering women in the Far East, who may have refused to wear a veil, for example.
62. S. Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism. Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s (Oxford, 1999) p. 126.
63. On the seemingly random nature of arrests during the period of mass repression see also Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, ch. 8, and especially pp. 203-204.