Democratization, civil society, and illiberal middle class culture in Pacific Asia

Comparative Politics

Volumn 30, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 147-169

  Jones, David Martin ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0039560596     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/422285     Document Type: Review

References (154)

1. As Ruth McVey notes, "'middle class' is a term much used and little defined by social scientists." Ruth McVey, "The Case of the Disappearing Decade," in D. Bourchier and J. Legge, eds., Democracy in Indonesia 1950s and 1990s (Clayton: Monash University Press, 1994), p. 12. It "depends on self-consciousness and requires the existence of both an elaborate administrative apparatus and a sizeable, educated and relatively well-off urban population."
2. The World Bank, The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), coined this term to cover the rapidly developing economies of Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, South Korea, Taiwan, and Indonesia.
3. Sung Joo Han, "South Korean Politics in Transition," in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset, Democracy in Developing Countries, vol. 3 (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1989), p. 292.
4. Thomas W. Robinson with Jennifer A. Arnold and Pamela J. Shime, "Introduction," in Thomas W. Robinson, ed., Democracy and Development in East Asia (Washington, D.C.: ACI Press, 1991), p. 2.
5. Linda Chao and Ramon Myers, "The First Chinese Democracy," Asian Survey, 34 (March 1994), 213.
6. Johan Saravanamuttu, in K. Rupesinghe, ed., Internal Conflict and Governance (London: Macmillan, 1992), p. 50.
7. Garry Rodan, "Preserving the One Party State in Singapore," in Kevin Hewison, Richard Robison, and Garry Rodan, eds., Southeast Asia in the 1990's (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1993), p. 104.
8. Ian Chalmers, "Indonesia 1990: Democratization and Social Forces," in Southeast Asian Affairs (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1991), p. 121.
9. Eric Jones, "Predicting Asia's Fate," The National Interest (Spring 1994), 27.
10. Won Mo Dong, "The Democratisation of South Korea: What Role Does the Middle Class Play?," in James Cotton, ed., South Korea under Roh Tae Woo (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1993), p. 89.
11. Ya-li Lu, "Political Development in the Republic of China," in Robinson, ed., p. 36.
12. H. Crouch, "Authoritarian Trends, the UMNO Split and the Limits to State Power," in Joel S. Kahn and Francis Kok Wah Loh, eds., Fragmented Vision: Culture and Politics in Contemporary Malaysia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1993), p. 40.
13. R. Robison, "Authoritarian States, Capitalist Owning Classes and the Politics of Newly Industrialising Countries: The Case of Indonesia," World Politics, 41 (1989), 52.
14. Richard Robison, "Indonesia: Tensions in State and Regime," in Hewison, Robison, and Rodan, eds., p. 41.
15. See Shiu-hing Lo, "Hong Kong: Post-colonialism and Political Conflict," in Richard Robison and David S. G. Goodman, eds., The New Rich in Asia: Mobile Phones, McDonalds and Middle Class Revolution (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 174-79.
16. Seymour M. Lipset, Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (New York: Anchor, 1963).
17. See particularly Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); and Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), ch. 2.
18. See particularly Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); and Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), ch. 2.
19. See Donald K. Emmerson, "Region and Recalcitrance: Rethinking Democracy in Southeast Asia," The Pacific Review, 8 (1995), 223-48.
20. Hewison, Robison, and Rodan, eds., p. 6.
21. The World Bank, p. 8.
22. See Shirley W. Y. Kuo, "Urbanization and Income Distribution: The Case of Taiwan 1966-80," in M. Syrquin, L. Taylor, and L. Westphal, Economic Structure and Performance: Essays in Honor of Hollis B. Chenery (Orlando: Academic Press, 1984), p. 218.
23. The World Bank, pp. 30-31.
24. Ibid., p. 157.
25. Lee Kuan Yew describes the process as "one step at a time." The Straits Times (Singapore), Feb. 15, 1992.
26. The World Bank, pp. 4-5.
27. Chan Heng Chee, "Democracy: Evolution and Implementation," in Robert Bartley, Chan Heng Chee, Samuel P. Huntington, and Shijuro Ogata, Democracy and Capitalism: Asian and American Perspectives (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1993), ch. 1; Kishore Mahbubani, "Go East Young Man," Washington Quarterly (Spring 1994), 5-22; and Kishore Mahbubani, "The Pacific Way," Foreign Affairs, 74 (January-February 1995), 100-11.
28. Chan Heng Chee, "Democracy: Evolution and Implementation," in Robert Bartley, Chan Heng Chee, Samuel P. Huntington, and Shijuro Ogata, Democracy and Capitalism: Asian and American Perspectives (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1993), ch. 1; Kishore Mahbubani, "Go East Young Man," Washington Quarterly (Spring 1994), 5-22; and Kishore Mahbubani, "The Pacific Way," Foreign Affairs, 74 (January-February 1995), 100-11.
29. Chan Heng Chee, "Democracy: Evolution and Implementation," in Robert Bartley, Chan Heng Chee, Samuel P. Huntington, and Shijuro Ogata, Democracy and Capitalism: Asian and American Perspectives (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1993), ch. 1; Kishore Mahbubani, "Go East Young Man," Washington Quarterly (Spring 1994), 5-22; and Kishore Mahbubani, "The Pacific Way," Foreign Affairs, 74 (January-February 1995), 100-11.
30. Gabriel A. Almond, "Introduction: A Functional Approach to Comparative Politics," in Gabriel Almond and James S. Coleman, eds., The Politics of the Developing Areas (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), pp. 23-24.
31. Mahbubani, "The Pacific Way," pp. 100-11; Mahathir Mohamad, Straits Times Aug. 6, 1993; Cabaran (Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk Publications, 1986), p. 103; and Mahathir Mohamad and Ishihara Shintaro, The Voice of Asia: Two Leaders Discuss the Coming Century (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1995).
32. Mahbubani, "The Pacific Way," pp. 100-11; Mahathir Mohamad, Straits Times Aug. 6, 1993; Cabaran (Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk Publications, 1986), p. 103; and Mahathir Mohamad and Ishihara Shintaro, The Voice of Asia: Two Leaders Discuss the Coming Century (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1995).
33. Mahbubani, "The Pacific Way," pp. 100-11; Mahathir Mohamad, Straits Times Aug. 6, 1993; Cabaran (Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk Publications, 1986), p. 103; and Mahathir Mohamad and Ishihara Shintaro, The Voice of Asia: Two Leaders Discuss the Coming Century (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1995).
34. Mahbubani, "The Pacific Way," pp. 100-11; Mahathir Mohamad, Straits Times Aug. 6, 1993; Cabaran (Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk Publications, 1986), p. 103; and Mahathir Mohamad and Ishihara Shintaro, The Voice of Asia: Two Leaders Discuss the Coming Century (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1995).
35. See inter alia Lucian W. Pye, Aspects of Political Development (Boston: Little Brown, 1966), ch. 7; Politics, Personality and Nation Building (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), ch. 1; and (with Mary W. Pye) Asian Power and Politics: The Cultural Dimensions of Authority (Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press, 1985).
36. See inter alia Lucian W. Pye, Aspects of Political Development (Boston: Little Brown, 1966), ch. 7; Politics, Personality and Nation Building (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), ch. 1; and (with Mary W. Pye) Asian Power and Politics: The Cultural Dimensions of Authority (Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press, 1985).
37. See inter alia Lucian W. Pye, Aspects of Political Development (Boston: Little Brown, 1966), ch. 7; Politics, Personality and Nation Building (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), ch. 1; and (with Mary W. Pye) Asian Power and Politics: The Cultural Dimensions of Authority (Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press, 1985).
38. Achmed Sukarno, "The Liberating Effects of Nationalism in Asia, 1956," in Louis L. Snyder, ed., The Dynamics of Nationalism: Readings in Its Meaning and Development (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, 1964), pp. 336-37.
39. Chiang Kai-shek, The Voice of China: Speeches of Generalissimo and Madame Chiang Kai-shek between December 7, 1941, and October 10, 1943 (London: Hutchinson, 1943), p. 46.
40. See Noel O'Sullivan, Fascism (London: J. M. Dent, 1983), ch. 2.
41. See William R. Roff, The Origins of Malay Nationalism (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 247-56; Margaret C. Roff, The Politics of Belonging: Political Change in Sabah and Sarawak (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974), ch. 1; Antony Milner, The Invention of Politics in Colonial Malaya: Contesting Nationalism and the Expansion of the Public Sphere (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), chs. 1-3; and Ariffin Omar, Bangsa Melayu: Malay Concepts of Democracy and Community, 1945-50 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1993), ch. 7.
42. See William R. Roff, The Origins of Malay Nationalism (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 247-56; Margaret C. Roff, The Politics of Belonging: Political Change in Sabah and Sarawak (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974), ch. 1; Antony Milner, The Invention of Politics in Colonial Malaya: Contesting Nationalism and the Expansion of the Public Sphere (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), chs. 1-3; and Ariffin Omar, Bangsa Melayu: Malay Concepts of Democracy and Community, 1945-50 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1993), ch. 7.
43. See William R. Roff, The Origins of Malay Nationalism (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 247-56; Margaret C. Roff, The Politics of Belonging: Political Change in Sabah and Sarawak (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974), ch. 1; Antony Milner, The Invention of Politics in Colonial Malaya: Contesting Nationalism and the Expansion of the Public Sphere (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), chs. 1-3; and Ariffin Omar, Bangsa Melayu: Malay Concepts of Democracy and Community, 1945-50 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1993), ch. 7.
44. See William R. Roff, The Origins of Malay Nationalism (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 247-56; Margaret C. Roff, The Politics of Belonging: Political Change in Sabah and Sarawak (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974), ch. 1; Antony Milner, The Invention of Politics in Colonial Malaya: Contesting Nationalism and the Expansion of the Public Sphere (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), chs. 1-3; and Ariffin Omar, Bangsa Melayu: Malay Concepts of Democracy and Community, 1945-50 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1993), ch. 7.
45. See John R. W. Smail, "Indonesia," in David J. Steinberg, ed., In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1989), p. 308; Benedict Anderson, Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990), ch. 1; Koentjaraningrat, Javanese Culture (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 76-87; and Clifford Geertz, "Ideology as a Cultural System," and "After the Revolution: The Fate of Nationalism in the New States," in Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (London: Fontana, 1993), chs. 8, 9.
46. See John R. W. Smail, "Indonesia," in David J. Steinberg, ed., In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1989), p. 308; Benedict Anderson, Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990), ch. 1; Koentjaraningrat, Javanese Culture (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 76-87; and Clifford Geertz, "Ideology as a Cultural System," and "After the Revolution: The Fate of Nationalism in the New States," in Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (London: Fontana, 1993), chs. 8, 9.
47. See John R. W. Smail, "Indonesia," in David J. Steinberg, ed., In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1989), p. 308; Benedict Anderson, Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990), ch. 1; Koentjaraningrat, Javanese Culture (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 76-87; and Clifford Geertz, "Ideology as a Cultural System," and "After the Revolution: The Fate of Nationalism in the New States," in Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (London: Fontana, 1993), chs. 8, 9.
48. See John R. W. Smail, "Indonesia," in David J. Steinberg, ed., In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1989), p. 308; Benedict Anderson, Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990), ch. 1; Koentjaraningrat, Javanese Culture (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 76-87; and Clifford Geertz, "Ideology as a Cultural System," and "After the Revolution: The Fate of Nationalism in the New States," in Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (London: Fontana, 1993), chs. 8, 9.
49. See Michael Hill and Lian Kwen Fee, The Politics of Nation Building and Citizenship: Singapore (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 63.
50. Sun Yat-sen, Three Principles of the People (Taipei: China Publishing Company, 1981), p. ii.
51. Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton, 1990), p. 415.
52. See Gregory Henderson, Korea: The Politics of the Vortex (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), pp. 282-38; and Thomas B. Gold, "Taiwan's Quest for Identity in the Shadow of China," in Steve Tsang, ed., In the Shadow of China: Political Development in China since 1949 (London: Hurst, 1993), pp. 170-71.
53. See Gregory Henderson, Korea: The Politics of the Vortex (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), pp. 282-38; and Thomas B. Gold, "Taiwan's Quest for Identity in the Shadow of China," in Steve Tsang, ed., In the Shadow of China: Political Development in China since 1949 (London: Hurst, 1993), pp. 170-71.
54. See Geertz, ch. 9.
55. Soedjatmoko, "Cultural Motivations to Progress: The Exterior and the Interior Views," in Robert N. Bellah, ed., Religion and Progress in Modern Asia (New York: Free Press, 1965), pp. 3-4.
56. Michael Vatikiotis, Indonesian Politics under Suharto: Order, Development, and Pressure for Change (London: Routledge, 1993); Pye, Asian Power and Politics, pp. 111-14.
57. Michael Vatikiotis, Indonesian Politics under Suharto: Order, Development, and Pressure for Change (London: Routledge, 1993); Pye, Asian Power and Politics, pp. 111-14.
58. See Jon S. T. Quah, "National Values and Nation Building: Defining the Problem," in Jon S. T. Quah, ed., In Search of Singapore's National Values (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1990), ch. 1.
59. Clive S. Kessler, "Archaism and Modernity: Contemporary Malay Political Culture," in Kahn and Loh, eds., pp. 133-54.
60. K. S. Suh, ed., The Identity of the Korean People: A History of Legitimacy on the Korean Peninsula (Seoul: National Unification Board, 1983), ch. 1.
61. Pye, Asian Power and Politics, p. 224.
62. John F. Copper, Taiwan: Nation-State or Province? (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990), p. 40.
63. Yun-han Chu, Crafting Democracy in Taiwan (Taipei: Institute for National Policy Research, 1992), p. 17; and Michael Hsiao, "Emerging Social Movements and the Rise of a Demanding Civil Society in Taiwan," in Tun-jen Cheng and Stephan Haggard, eds., Political Change in Taiwan (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1992), p. 65.
64. Yun-han Chu, Crafting Democracy in Taiwan (Taipei: Institute for National Policy Research, 1992), p. 17; and Michael Hsiao, "Emerging Social Movements and the Rise of a Demanding Civil Society in Taiwan," in Tun-jen Cheng and Stephan Haggard, eds., Political Change in Taiwan (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1992), p. 65.
65. The World Bank, pp. 43-46. See also "Survey of Education," The Economist, Aug. 21, 1993, pp. 3-7, and "A Survey of Asia," The Economist, Oct. 30, 1993, pp. 7-11.
66. The World Bank, pp. 43-46. See also "Survey of Education," The Economist, Aug. 21, 1993, pp. 3-7, and "A Survey of Asia," The Economist, Oct. 30, 1993, pp. 7-11.
67. For South Korea, see Far Eastern Economic Review, Nov. 4, 1993, p. 22, Apr. 6, 1995, p. 18; and Mark Clifford, Troubled Tiger: Businessmen, Bureaucrats and Generals in South Korea (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994). For Taiwan, see Hung-mao Tien, "Dynamics of Taiwan's Democratic Transition," in Tsang, ed., pp. 103-5; Hsiao, pp. 64-65; Thomas B. Gold, State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1986); and R. L. Cheng, "Language Unification in Taiwan: Present and Future," in M. A. Rubinstein, ed., The Other Taiwan: 1945 to Present (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 386-91. For Singapore, see W. M. Ho, "Value Premises Underlying the Transformation of Singapore," in Kernial Singh and Paul Wheatley, eds., The Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989), p. 686.
68. For South Korea, see Far Eastern Economic Review, Nov. 4, 1993, p. 22, Apr. 6, 1995, p. 18; and Mark Clifford, Troubled Tiger: Businessmen, Bureaucrats and Generals in South Korea (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994). For Taiwan, see Hung-mao Tien, "Dynamics of Taiwan's Democratic Transition," in Tsang, ed., pp. 103-5; Hsiao, pp. 64-65; Thomas B. Gold, State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1986); and R. L. Cheng, "Language Unification in Taiwan: Present and Future," in M. A. Rubinstein, ed., The Other Taiwan: 1945 to Present (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 386-91. For Singapore, see W. M. Ho, "Value Premises Underlying the Transformation of Singapore," in Kernial Singh and Paul Wheatley, eds., The Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989), p. 686.
69. For South Korea, see Far Eastern Economic Review, Nov. 4, 1993, p. 22, Apr. 6, 1995, p. 18; and Mark Clifford, Troubled Tiger: Businessmen, Bureaucrats and Generals in South Korea (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994). For Taiwan, see Hung-mao Tien, "Dynamics of Taiwan's Democratic Transition," in Tsang, ed., pp. 103-5; Hsiao, pp. 64-65; Thomas B. Gold, State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1986); and R. L. Cheng, "Language Unification in Taiwan: Present and Future," in M. A. Rubinstein, ed., The Other Taiwan: 1945 to Present (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 386-91. For Singapore, see W. M. Ho, "Value Premises Underlying the Transformation of Singapore," in Kernial Singh and Paul Wheatley, eds., The Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989), p. 686.
70. For South Korea, see Far Eastern Economic Review, Nov. 4, 1993, p. 22, Apr. 6, 1995, p. 18; and Mark Clifford, Troubled Tiger: Businessmen, Bureaucrats and Generals in South Korea (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994). For Taiwan, see Hung-mao Tien, "Dynamics of Taiwan's Democratic Transition," in Tsang, ed., pp. 103-5; Hsiao, pp. 64-65; Thomas B. Gold, State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1986); and R. L. Cheng, "Language Unification in Taiwan: Present and Future," in M. A. Rubinstein, ed., The Other Taiwan: 1945 to Present (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 386-91. For Singapore, see W. M. Ho, "Value Premises Underlying the Transformation of Singapore," in Kernial Singh and Paul Wheatley, eds., The Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989), p. 686.
71. For South Korea, see Far Eastern Economic Review, Nov. 4, 1993, p. 22, Apr. 6, 1995, p. 18; and Mark Clifford, Troubled Tiger: Businessmen, Bureaucrats and Generals in South Korea (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994). For Taiwan, see Hung-mao Tien, "Dynamics of Taiwan's Democratic Transition," in Tsang, ed., pp. 103-5; Hsiao, pp. 64-65; Thomas B. Gold, State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1986); and R. L. Cheng, "Language Unification in Taiwan: Present and Future," in M. A. Rubinstein, ed., The Other Taiwan: 1945 to Present (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 386-91. For Singapore, see W. M. Ho, "Value Premises Underlying the Transformation of Singapore," in Kernial Singh and Paul Wheatley, eds., The Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989), p. 686.
72. For South Korea, see Far Eastern Economic Review, Nov. 4, 1993, p. 22, Apr. 6, 1995, p. 18; and Mark Clifford, Troubled Tiger: Businessmen, Bureaucrats and Generals in South Korea (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994). For Taiwan, see Hung-mao Tien, "Dynamics of Taiwan's Democratic Transition," in Tsang, ed., pp. 103-5; Hsiao, pp. 64-65; Thomas B. Gold, State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1986); and R. L. Cheng, "Language Unification in Taiwan: Present and Future," in M. A. Rubinstein, ed., The Other Taiwan: 1945 to Present (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 386-91. For Singapore, see W. M. Ho, "Value Premises Underlying the Transformation of Singapore," in Kernial Singh and Paul Wheatley, eds., The Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989), p. 686.
73. For South Korea, see Far Eastern Economic Review, Nov. 4, 1993, p. 22, Apr. 6, 1995, p. 18; and Mark Clifford, Troubled Tiger: Businessmen, Bureaucrats and Generals in South Korea (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994). For Taiwan, see Hung-mao Tien, "Dynamics of Taiwan's Democratic Transition," in Tsang, ed., pp. 103-5; Hsiao, pp. 64-65; Thomas B. Gold, State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1986); and R. L. Cheng, "Language Unification in Taiwan: Present and Future," in M. A. Rubinstein, ed., The Other Taiwan: 1945 to Present (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 386-91. For Singapore, see W. M. Ho, "Value Premises Underlying the Transformation of Singapore," in Kernial Singh and Paul Wheatley, eds., The Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989), p. 686.
74. Jon S. T. Quah, "Government Policies and Nation Building," in Quah, ed., ch. 4; K. J. Khoo, "The Grand Vision: Mahathir and Modernisation," in Loh and Kahn, eds., pp. 44-77: Far Eastern Economic Review, Dec. 9, 1993, p. 37, Mar. 31, 1994, p. 16, Apr. 6, 1995, p. 18; "A Survey of South Korea," The Economist, June 3, 1995, pp. 10-12.
75. Jon S. T. Quah, "Government Policies and Nation Building," in Quah, ed., ch. 4; K. J. Khoo, "The Grand Vision: Mahathir and Modernisation," in Loh and Kahn, eds., pp. 44-77: Far Eastern Economic Review, Dec. 9, 1993, p. 37, Mar. 31, 1994, p. 16, Apr. 6, 1995, p. 18; "A Survey of South Korea," The Economist, June 3, 1995, pp. 10-12.
76. Jon S. T. Quah, "Government Policies and Nation Building," in Quah, ed., ch. 4; K. J. Khoo, "The Grand Vision: Mahathir and Modernisation," in Loh and Kahn, eds., pp. 44-77: Far Eastern Economic Review, Dec. 9, 1993, p. 37, Mar. 31, 1994, p. 16, Apr. 6, 1995, p. 18; "A Survey of South Korea," The Economist, June 3, 1995, pp. 10-12.
77. Jon S. T. Quah, "Government Policies and Nation Building," in Quah, ed., ch. 4; K. J. Khoo, "The Grand Vision: Mahathir and Modernisation," in Loh and Kahn, eds., pp. 44-77: Far Eastern Economic Review, Dec. 9, 1993, p. 37, Mar. 31, 1994, p. 16, Apr. 6, 1995, p. 18; "A Survey of South Korea," The Economist, June 3, 1995, pp. 10-12.
78. Jon S. T. Quah, "Government Policies and Nation Building," in Quah, ed., ch. 4; K. J. Khoo, "The Grand Vision: Mahathir and Modernisation," in Loh and Kahn, eds., pp. 44-77: Far Eastern Economic Review, Dec. 9, 1993, p. 37, Mar. 31, 1994, p. 16, Apr. 6, 1995, p. 18; "A Survey of South Korea," The Economist, June 3, 1995, pp. 10-12.
79. Jon S. T. Quah, "Government Policies and Nation Building," in Quah, ed., ch. 4; K. J. Khoo, "The Grand Vision: Mahathir and Modernisation," in Loh and Kahn, eds., pp. 44-77: Far Eastern Economic Review, Dec. 9, 1993, p. 37, Mar. 31, 1994, p. 16, Apr. 6, 1995, p. 18; "A Survey of South Korea," The Economist, June 3, 1995, pp. 10-12.
80. Ernest Gellner, "Nationalism and the Two Forms of Cohesion in Complex Societies," in Ernest Gellner, Culture, Identity, and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 16.
81. Ernest Gellner, Plough, Sword and Book: The Structure of Human History (London: Collins, 1988), p. 206.
82. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 1-3.
83. Garry Rodan, "The Growth of Singapore's Middle Class," in Garry Rodan, ed., Singapore Changes Guard (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1995), p. 55; and Gary Rodan, "Class Transformations and Political Tension in Singapore's Development," in Robison and Goodman, eds., p. 30.
84. Garry Rodan, "The Growth of Singapore's Middle Class," in Garry Rodan, ed., Singapore Changes Guard (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1995), p. 55; and Gary Rodan, "Class Transformations and Political Tension in Singapore's Development," in Robison and Goodman, eds., p. 30.
85. Hung-mao Tien, "Transformation of an Authoritarian Party State: Taiwan's Developmental Experience," in Chen and Haggard, eds., p. 36; Tun-jen Cheng, "Is the Dog Barking? The Middle Class and Democratic Movements in the East Asian NIC's." Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies, University of California, San Diego, Research Paper 89-05 (1990), pp. 4-5.
86. Hung-mao Tien, "Transformation of an Authoritarian Party State: Taiwan's Developmental Experience," in Chen and Haggard, eds., p. 36; Tun-jen Cheng, "Is the Dog Barking? The Middle Class and Democratic Movements in the East Asian NIC's." Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies, University of California, San Diego, Research Paper 89-05 (1990), pp. 4-5.
87. Hagen Koo, "Middle Classes, Democratization and Class Formation," Theory and Society, 20 (1991), 486-94. See also James Cotton and Kim Hyung-a van Leest, "Korea: Dilemmas for the Golf Republic," The Pacific Review, 5 (1992), 361-62.
88. Hagen Koo, "Middle Classes, Democratization and Class Formation," Theory and Society, 20 (1991), 486-94. See also James Cotton and Kim Hyung-a van Leest, "Korea: Dilemmas for the Golf Republic," The Pacific Review, 5 (1992), 361-62.
89. Rodan, in Robison and Goodman, eds., p. 31; J. J. Chu, "Taiwan: A Fragmented Middle Class in the Making," in Robison and Goodman, eds., p. 216.
90. Kiasu, from the Hokkien "scared to lose," is one of the few indigenous words to appear in the forthcoming edition of the Macquarie English Dictionary. See also David Chan Kum Wah, "Kiasuism and the Withering Away of Singaporean Creativity," Business Times (Singapore), June 26-27, 1993.
91. The Straits Times, Aug. 19, 1992.
92. Julian Baum, "The Money Machine," Far Eastern Economic Review, Aug. 11, 1994, pp. 62-66.
93. Far Eastern Economic Review, June 23, 1988, p. 32; Quah, ed., ch. 4. For Malaysia and Indonesia, see Leo Suryadinata, "National Ideology and Nation Building in Multi-Ethnic States: Lessons from Other Countries," in Quah, ed., pp. 23-45.
94. Far Eastern Economic Review, June 23, 1988, p. 32; Quah, ed., ch. 4. For Malaysia and Indonesia, see Leo Suryadinata, "National Ideology and Nation Building in Multi-Ethnic States: Lessons from Other Countries," in Quah, ed., pp. 23-45.
95. Tai-chun Kuo and Ramon Myers, "The Great Transition: Political Change and the Prospects for Democracy in the Republic of China on Taiwan," Asian Affairs, 15 (Fall 1988), 189.
96. Daniel Metraux, Taiwan's Political and Economic Growth in the Late Twentieth Century (Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press, 1991), p. 58.
97. Tak-wing Ngo, "Civil Society and Political Liberalization in Taiwan," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 25 (1993), p. 32; Chao and Myers, p. 213.
98. Joseph Bosco, "Faction versus Ideology: Mobilization Strategies in Taiwan's Elections," The China Quarterly 13 (March 1994); and "Taiwan Factions: Guanxi, Patronage and the State in Local Politics," in Rubinstein, ed., ch. 4.
99. Joseph Bosco, "Faction versus Ideology: Mobilization Strategies in Taiwan's Elections," The China Quarterly 13 (March 1994); and "Taiwan Factions: Guanxi, Patronage and the State in Local Politics," in Rubinstein, ed., ch. 4.
100. Metraux, pp. 83-84.
101. Chong Lim Kim, "Potential for Democratic Change in a Divided Nation," in Ilpyong J. Kim and Young Whan Kihl, eds., Political Change in South Korea (New York: Paragon House, 1991), p. 50.
102. Jung-Gook Back, "Elections as Transformation: Explaining the Reorganization of a Ruling Coalition," in Doh Chull Shin, Myeong-Han Zoh, and Myung Chey, eds., Korea in the Global Wave of Demoralization (Seoul: National University Press, 1992), pp. 238-41.
103. Bruce Jacobs, The Korean Road to Urbanization and Development (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985), p. 26.
104. Saravanamuttu, p. 48.
105. Ibid.
106. The World Bank, p. 26. See also Edmund T. Gomez, Political Business: Corporate Involvement of Malaysian Political Parties (Townsville: James Cook University Press, 1994), ch. 2; James V. Jesudason, Ethnicity and the Economy: The State, Chinese Business and Multinationals in Malaysia (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990), ch. 4.; and James V. Jesudason, "Statist Democracy: The Limits to Civil Society in Malaysia," Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 33 (November 1995), 347.
107. The World Bank, p. 26. See also Edmund T. Gomez, Political Business: Corporate Involvement of Malaysian Political Parties (Townsville: James Cook University Press, 1994), ch. 2; James V. Jesudason, Ethnicity and the Economy: The State, Chinese Business and Multinationals in Malaysia (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990), ch. 4.; and James V. Jesudason, "Statist Democracy: The Limits to Civil Society in Malaysia," Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 33 (November 1995), 347.
108. The World Bank, p. 26. See also Edmund T. Gomez, Political Business: Corporate Involvement of Malaysian Political Parties (Townsville: James Cook University Press, 1994), ch. 2; James V. Jesudason, Ethnicity and the Economy: The State, Chinese Business and Multinationals in Malaysia (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990), ch. 4.; and James V. Jesudason, "Statist Democracy: The Limits to Civil Society in Malaysia," Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 33 (November 1995), 347.
109. M. K. Mahadzir, in The Straits Times, July 13, 1994.
110. Ibid..
111. As demonstrated in the national elections of April 1995. See Far Eastern Economic Review, July 2, 1995, p. 17; The Straits Times, Apr. 27, 1995.
112. As demonstrated in the national elections of April 1995. See Far Eastern Economic Review, July 2, 1995, p. 17; The Straits Times, Apr. 27, 1995.
113. J. Bresnan, Managing Indonesia: The Modern Political Economy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), p. 280.
114. Ibid., p. 279.
115. Vatikiotis, p. 109.
116. Ibid.
117. The Straits Times, July 13, 1994.
118. L. Soetrisno, "Pergeseran Dalam Golongan Menegah di Indonesia," Prisma, 13 (February 1984), 27.
119. Mahathir Mohamad, The Straits Times, Oct. 7, 1993.
120. Oscar Wolters, History, Culture, Religion in Southeast Asian Perspectives (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1992), pp. 102-3.
121. The Straits Times, Nov. 3, 1993.
122. Anwar Ibrahim, in The Far Eastern Economic Review, June 2, 1994, p. 20.
123. See Joel S. Kahn, "Subalternity of Malay Identity," in A. Gomes, ed., Modernity and Identity: Asian Illustrations (Melbourne: La Trobe University Press, 1994), p. 37; and M. Vatikiotis, "Radical Chic," Far Eastern Economic Review, May 26, 1994, pp. 35-36.
124. See Joel S. Kahn, "Subalternity of Malay Identity," in A. Gomes, ed., Modernity and Identity: Asian Illustrations (Melbourne: La Trobe University Press, 1994), p. 37; and M. Vatikiotis, "Radical Chic," Far Eastern Economic Review, May 26, 1994, pp. 35-36.
125. Far Eastern Economic Review, July 2, 1995, p. 13.
126. "Indonesia Trade and Investment," Far Eastern Economic Review, Apr. 28, 1994, p. 44
127. The Economist, May 7, 1994, p. 47.
128. Far Eastern Economic Review, Dec. 9, 1993, p. 22.
129. See Ariel Budiman, "From Lower to Middle Class: Political Activities before and after 1988," in Bouchier and Legge, eds., pp. 227-29.
130. Amir Santoso Jakarta Post, Nov. 10, 1993.
131. Henderson, p. 31.
132. Daryl Plunk, "Political Development in the ROK," in Robinson, ed., p. 105.
133. The Economist, Sept. 25, 1993, p. 30.
134. Hyun-Chin Lim and Byung-Kook Kim, "Labour and Democratization in Korea: A Search for a Social Pact," in Shin, Zoh, and Chey, eds., p. 225.
135. See inter alia Chung-Si Ahn, Asian Journal of Political Science, 1 (1993), 101; N. Eberstadt, "Some Comments on Democracy and Development," in Robinson, eds., p. 266; Dong, ch. 5; and Han, p. 292.
136. See inter alia Chung-Si Ahn, Asian Journal of Political Science, 1 (1993), 101; N. Eberstadt, "Some Comments on Democracy and Development," in Robinson, eds., p. 266; Dong, ch. 5; and Han, p. 292.
137. Dong, p. 85.
138. Ibid., p. 91.
139. Ibid.
140. James Cotton, "South Korea Regionalises after Local Elections," Business Times (Singapore), July 29-30, 1995.
141. Myung Chey and Do Chull Shin, "The Experience of Democratization and Quality of Life among the Korean Mass Public," in Shin, Zoh, and Chey, eds., pp. 264-69.
142. Back, p. 238.
143. Lim and Kim, p. 225.
144. Baum, p. 62.
145. Chu, p. 65.
146. Bosco, "Taiwan Factions," ch. 4; The Economist, Sept. 18, 1993, p. 31.
147. Bosco, "Taiwan Factions," ch. 4; The Economist, Sept. 18, 1993, p. 31.
148. Constance S. Meaney, "Liberalization, Democratization and the Role of the KMT," in Cheng and Haggard, eds., p. 103.
149. Chu, p. 173.
150. Commonwealth (Taipei) (June 1994).
151. See Christopher Tremewan, The Political Economy of Social Control in Singapore (London: Macmillan, 1994), ch. 3.
152. Ernest Gellner, Encounters with Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), p. 160.
153. Przeworski, pp. 14, 50.
154. Ernest Gellner, Conditions of Liberty: Civil Society and Its Rivals (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1994), pp. 185, 211, 212.