Women and Citizenship: Some Lessons from Israel

Political Studies

Volumn 44, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 704-718

  Bryson, Valerie ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039554985     PISSN: 00323217     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9248.1996.tb01750.x     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. See A. Phillips, 'Citizenship and feminist theory,' in G. Andrews (ed.), Citizenship (London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1991), pp. 76-88; I. M. Young, 'Polity and gender difference: a critique of the ideal of universal citizenship', Ethics, 99, 2 (1989), pp. 250-74; K. Jones, 'Citizenship in a gender-friendly polity', Signs, 15, 4 (1990), 781-812; R. Lister, 'Citizenship engendered', Critical Social Policy, 32 (1992), 445-67; R. Lister, 'Tracing the contours of women's citizenship', Policy and Politics, 21, 1 (1993), 3-16; R. Lister, Women and Citizenship (Basingstoke, Macmillan, forthcoming).
2. See A. Phillips, 'Citizenship and feminist theory,' in G. Andrews (ed.), Citizenship (London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1991), pp. 76-88; I. M. Young, 'Polity and gender difference: a critique of the ideal of universal citizenship', Ethics, 99, 2 (1989), pp. 250-74; K. Jones, 'Citizenship in a gender-friendly polity', Signs, 15, 4 (1990), 781-812; R. Lister, 'Citizenship engendered', Critical Social Policy, 32 (1992), 445-67; R. Lister, 'Tracing the contours of women's citizenship', Policy and Politics, 21, 1 (1993), 3-16; R. Lister, Women and Citizenship (Basingstoke, Macmillan, forthcoming).
3. See A. Phillips, 'Citizenship and feminist theory,' in G. Andrews (ed.), Citizenship (London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1991), pp. 76-88; I. M. Young, 'Polity and gender difference: a critique of the ideal of universal citizenship', Ethics, 99, 2 (1989), pp. 250-74; K. Jones, 'Citizenship in a gender-friendly polity', Signs, 15, 4 (1990), 781-812; R. Lister, 'Citizenship engendered', Critical Social Policy, 32 (1992), 445-67; R. Lister, 'Tracing the contours of women's citizenship', Policy and Politics, 21, 1 (1993), 3-16; R. Lister, Women and Citizenship (Basingstoke, Macmillan, forthcoming).
4. See A. Phillips, 'Citizenship and feminist theory,' in G. Andrews (ed.), Citizenship (London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1991), pp. 76-88; I. M. Young, 'Polity and gender difference: a critique of the ideal of universal citizenship', Ethics, 99, 2 (1989), pp. 250-74; K. Jones, 'Citizenship in a gender-friendly polity', Signs, 15, 4 (1990), 781-812; R. Lister, 'Citizenship engendered', Critical Social Policy, 32 (1992), 445-67; R. Lister, 'Tracing the contours of women's citizenship', Policy and Politics, 21, 1 (1993), 3-16; R. Lister, Women and Citizenship (Basingstoke, Macmillan, forthcoming).
5. See A. Phillips, 'Citizenship and feminist theory,' in G. Andrews (ed.), Citizenship (London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1991), pp. 76-88; I. M. Young, 'Polity and gender difference: a critique of the ideal of universal citizenship', Ethics, 99, 2 (1989), pp. 250-74; K. Jones, 'Citizenship in a gender-friendly polity', Signs, 15, 4 (1990), 781-812; R. Lister, 'Citizenship engendered', Critical Social Policy, 32 (1992), 445-67; R. Lister, 'Tracing the contours of women's citizenship', Policy and Politics, 21, 1 (1993), 3-16; R. Lister, Women and Citizenship (Basingstoke, Macmillan, forthcoming).
6. See A. Phillips, 'Citizenship and feminist theory,' in G. Andrews (ed.), Citizenship (London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1991), pp. 76-88; I. M. Young, 'Polity and gender difference: a critique of the ideal of universal citizenship', Ethics, 99, 2 (1989), pp. 250-74; K. Jones, 'Citizenship in a gender-friendly polity', Signs, 15, 4 (1990), 781-812; R. Lister, 'Citizenship engendered', Critical Social Policy, 32 (1992), 445-67; R. Lister, 'Tracing the contours of women's citizenship', Policy and Politics, 21, 1 (1993), 3-16; R. Lister, Women and Citizenship (Basingstoke, Macmillan, forthcoming).
7. C. Pateman, The Disorder of Women. Democracy, Feminism and Political Theory (Cambridge, Polity, 1989), p. 10.
8. D. Bubeck, 'Thin, thick and feminist conceptions of citizenship' in J. Lovenduski and J. Stanyer (eds), Contemporary Political Studies (Belfast, Political Studies Association of the United Kingdom, 1995), pp. 461-71, p. 471.
9. For an overview, see V. Bryson and R. Lister, Women, Citizenship and Social Policy (Bradford, University of Bradford Applied Social Studies/Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 1994).
10. There is a large and expanding literature and debate on the nature and extent of women's gains in Scandinavia. See for example the essays collected in E. Havio-Mannila, D. Dahlelrup, M. Eduards, E. Gudmundsdottir, B. Halsaa, H. Hernes, E. Hanninen-Salmelin, B. Sigmundsdottir, S. Sinkkonen and T. Skard (eds), Unfinished Democracy. Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford, Pergamon, 1985); H. Hernes, Welfare State and Woman Power. Essays in State feminism, (Oslo, Norwegian University Press, 1987); H. Holter (ed). Patriarchy in a Welfare Society (Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1984); A. S. Sassoon (ed.), Women and the State (London, Hutchinson, 1987); K. Jones and A. Jonasdottir, The Political Interests of Gender. Developing Theory and Research with a Feminist Face (London, Sage, 1988). See also V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996); D. Sainsbury, 'The Scandinavian model and women's interests: the issues of universalism and corporatism', Scandinavian Political Studies, 11, 4 (1988), 337-345; B. Siim, 'Welfare state, gender politics and equality policies - women's citizenship in the Scandinavian welfare states' in Elizabeth Meehan and Selma Sevenhuisen (eds), Equality Politics and Gender (London, Sage, 1991), pp. 175-92; H. Skjeie, 'The uneven advance of Norwegian women', New Left Review 187 (1991), 79-102. It is also important to appreciate the ways in which the Scandinavian nations differ from each other; see A. Leira, Welfare States and Working Mothers (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992).
11. There is a large and expanding literature and debate on the nature and extent of women's gains in Scandinavia. See for example the essays collected in E. Havio-Mannila, D. Dahlelrup, M. Eduards, E. Gudmundsdottir, B. Halsaa, H. Hernes, E. Hanninen-Salmelin, B. Sigmundsdottir, S. Sinkkonen and T. Skard (eds), Unfinished Democracy. Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford, Pergamon, 1985); H. Hernes, Welfare State and Woman Power. Essays in State feminism, (Oslo, Norwegian University Press, 1987); H. Holter (ed). Patriarchy in a Welfare Society (Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1984); A. S. Sassoon (ed.), Women and the State (London, Hutchinson, 1987); K. Jones and A. Jonasdottir, The Political Interests of Gender. Developing Theory and Research with a Feminist Face (London, Sage, 1988). See also V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996); D. Sainsbury, 'The Scandinavian model and women's interests: the issues of universalism and corporatism', Scandinavian Political Studies, 11, 4 (1988), 337-345; B. Siim, 'Welfare state, gender politics and equality policies - women's citizenship in the Scandinavian welfare states' in Elizabeth Meehan and Selma Sevenhuisen (eds), Equality Politics and Gender (London, Sage, 1991), pp. 175-92; H. Skjeie, 'The uneven advance of Norwegian women', New Left Review 187 (1991), 79-102. It is also important to appreciate the ways in which the Scandinavian nations differ from each other; see A. Leira, Welfare States and Working Mothers (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992).
12. There is a large and expanding literature and debate on the nature and extent of women's gains in Scandinavia. See for example the essays collected in E. Havio-Mannila, D. Dahlelrup, M. Eduards, E. Gudmundsdottir, B. Halsaa, H. Hernes, E. Hanninen-Salmelin, B. Sigmundsdottir, S. Sinkkonen and T. Skard (eds), Unfinished Democracy. Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford, Pergamon, 1985); H. Hernes, Welfare State and Woman Power. Essays in State feminism, (Oslo, Norwegian University Press, 1987); H. Holter (ed). Patriarchy in a Welfare Society (Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1984); A. S. Sassoon (ed.), Women and the State (London, Hutchinson, 1987); K. Jones and A. Jonasdottir, The Political Interests of Gender. Developing Theory and Research with a Feminist Face (London, Sage, 1988). See also V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996); D. Sainsbury, 'The Scandinavian model and women's interests: the issues of universalism and corporatism', Scandinavian Political Studies, 11, 4 (1988), 337-345; B. Siim, 'Welfare state, gender politics and equality policies - women's citizenship in the Scandinavian welfare states' in Elizabeth Meehan and Selma Sevenhuisen (eds), Equality Politics and Gender (London, Sage, 1991), pp. 175-92; H. Skjeie, 'The uneven advance of Norwegian women', New Left Review 187 (1991), 79-102. It is also important to appreciate the ways in which the Scandinavian nations differ from each other; see A. Leira, Welfare States and Working Mothers (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992).
13. There is a large and expanding literature and debate on the nature and extent of women's gains in Scandinavia. See for example the essays collected in E. Havio-Mannila, D. Dahlelrup, M. Eduards, E. Gudmundsdottir, B. Halsaa, H. Hernes, E. Hanninen-Salmelin, B. Sigmundsdottir, S. Sinkkonen and T. Skard (eds), Unfinished Democracy. Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford, Pergamon, 1985); H. Hernes, Welfare State and Woman Power. Essays in State feminism, (Oslo, Norwegian University Press, 1987); H. Holter (ed). Patriarchy in a Welfare Society (Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1984); A. S. Sassoon (ed.), Women and the State (London, Hutchinson, 1987); K. Jones and A. Jonasdottir, The Political Interests of Gender. Developing Theory and Research with a Feminist Face (London, Sage, 1988). See also V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996); D. Sainsbury, 'The Scandinavian model and women's interests: the issues of universalism and corporatism', Scandinavian Political Studies, 11, 4 (1988), 337-345; B. Siim, 'Welfare state, gender politics and equality policies - women's citizenship in the Scandinavian welfare states' in Elizabeth Meehan and Selma Sevenhuisen (eds), Equality Politics and Gender (London, Sage, 1991), pp. 175-92; H. Skjeie, 'The uneven advance of Norwegian women', New Left Review 187 (1991), 79-102. It is also important to appreciate the ways in which the Scandinavian nations differ from each other; see A. Leira, Welfare States and Working Mothers (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992).
14. There is a large and expanding literature and debate on the nature and extent of women's gains in Scandinavia. See for example the essays collected in E. Havio-Mannila, D. Dahlelrup, M. Eduards, E. Gudmundsdottir, B. Halsaa, H. Hernes, E. Hanninen-Salmelin, B. Sigmundsdottir, S. Sinkkonen and T. Skard (eds), Unfinished Democracy. Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford, Pergamon, 1985); H. Hernes, Welfare State and Woman Power. Essays in State feminism, (Oslo, Norwegian University Press, 1987); H. Holter (ed). Patriarchy in a Welfare Society (Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1984); A. S. Sassoon (ed.), Women and the State (London, Hutchinson, 1987); K. Jones and A. Jonasdottir, The Political Interests of Gender. Developing Theory and Research with a Feminist Face (London, Sage, 1988). See also V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996); D. Sainsbury, 'The Scandinavian model and women's interests: the issues of universalism and corporatism', Scandinavian Political Studies, 11, 4 (1988), 337-345; B. Siim, 'Welfare state, gender politics and equality policies - women's citizenship in the Scandinavian welfare states' in Elizabeth Meehan and Selma Sevenhuisen (eds), Equality Politics and Gender (London, Sage, 1991), pp. 175-92; H. Skjeie, 'The uneven advance of Norwegian women', New Left Review 187 (1991), 79-102. It is also important to appreciate the ways in which the Scandinavian nations differ from each other; see A. Leira, Welfare States and Working Mothers (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992).
15. There is a large and expanding literature and debate on the nature and extent of women's gains in Scandinavia. See for example the essays collected in E. Havio-Mannila, D. Dahlelrup, M. Eduards, E. Gudmundsdottir, B. Halsaa, H. Hernes, E. Hanninen-Salmelin, B. Sigmundsdottir, S. Sinkkonen and T. Skard (eds), Unfinished Democracy. Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford, Pergamon, 1985); H. Hernes, Welfare State and Woman Power. Essays in State feminism, (Oslo, Norwegian University Press, 1987); H. Holter (ed). Patriarchy in a Welfare Society (Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1984); A. S. Sassoon (ed.), Women and the State (London, Hutchinson, 1987); K. Jones and A. Jonasdottir, The Political Interests of Gender. Developing Theory and Research with a Feminist Face (London, Sage, 1988). See also V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996); D. Sainsbury, 'The Scandinavian model and women's interests: the issues of universalism and corporatism', Scandinavian Political Studies, 11, 4 (1988), 337-345; B. Siim, 'Welfare state, gender politics and equality policies - women's citizenship in the Scandinavian welfare states' in Elizabeth Meehan and Selma Sevenhuisen (eds), Equality Politics and Gender (London, Sage, 1991), pp. 175-92; H. Skjeie, 'The uneven advance of Norwegian women', New Left Review 187 (1991), 79-102. It is also important to appreciate the ways in which the Scandinavian nations differ from each other; see A. Leira, Welfare States and Working Mothers (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992).
16. There is a large and expanding literature and debate on the nature and extent of women's gains in Scandinavia. See for example the essays collected in E. Havio-Mannila, D. Dahlelrup, M. Eduards, E. Gudmundsdottir, B. Halsaa, H. Hernes, E. Hanninen-Salmelin, B. Sigmundsdottir, S. Sinkkonen and T. Skard (eds), Unfinished Democracy. Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford, Pergamon, 1985); H. Hernes, Welfare State and Woman Power. Essays in State feminism, (Oslo, Norwegian University Press, 1987); H. Holter (ed). Patriarchy in a Welfare Society (Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1984); A. S. Sassoon (ed.), Women and the State (London, Hutchinson, 1987); K. Jones and A. Jonasdottir, The Political Interests of Gender. Developing Theory and Research with a Feminist Face (London, Sage, 1988). See also V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996); D. Sainsbury, 'The Scandinavian model and women's interests: the issues of universalism and corporatism', Scandinavian Political Studies, 11, 4 (1988), 337-345; B. Siim, 'Welfare state, gender politics and equality policies - women's citizenship in the Scandinavian welfare states' in Elizabeth Meehan and Selma Sevenhuisen (eds), Equality Politics and Gender (London, Sage, 1991), pp. 175-92; H. Skjeie, 'The uneven advance of Norwegian women', New Left Review 187 (1991), 79-102. It is also important to appreciate the ways in which the Scandinavian nations differ from each other; see A. Leira, Welfare States and Working Mothers (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992).
17. There is a large and expanding literature and debate on the nature and extent of women's gains in Scandinavia. See for example the essays collected in E. Havio-Mannila, D. Dahlelrup, M. Eduards, E. Gudmundsdottir, B. Halsaa, H. Hernes, E. Hanninen-Salmelin, B. Sigmundsdottir, S. Sinkkonen and T. Skard (eds), Unfinished Democracy. Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford, Pergamon, 1985); H. Hernes, Welfare State and Woman Power. Essays in State feminism, (Oslo, Norwegian University Press, 1987); H. Holter (ed). Patriarchy in a Welfare Society (Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1984); A. S. Sassoon (ed.), Women and the State (London, Hutchinson, 1987); K. Jones and A. Jonasdottir, The Political Interests of Gender. Developing Theory and Research with a Feminist Face (London, Sage, 1988). See also V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996); D. Sainsbury, 'The Scandinavian model and women's interests: the issues of universalism and corporatism', Scandinavian Political Studies, 11, 4 (1988), 337-345; B. Siim, 'Welfare state, gender politics and equality policies -women's citizenship in the Scandinavian welfare states' in Elizabeth Meehan and Selma Sevenhuisen (eds), Equality Politics and Gender (London, Sage, 1991), pp. 175-92; H. Skjeie, 'The uneven advance of Norwegian women', New Left Review 187 (1991), 79-102. It is also important to appreciate the ways in which the Scandinavian nations differ from each other; see A. Leira, Welfare States and Working Mothers (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992).
18. There is a large and expanding literature and debate on the nature and extent of women's gains in Scandinavia. See for example the essays collected in E. Havio-Mannila, D. Dahlelrup, M. Eduards, E. Gudmundsdottir, B. Halsaa, H. Hernes, E. Hanninen-Salmelin, B. Sigmundsdottir, S. Sinkkonen and T. Skard (eds), Unfinished Democracy. Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford, Pergamon, 1985); H. Hernes, Welfare State and Woman Power. Essays in State feminism, (Oslo, Norwegian University Press, 1987); H. Holter (ed). Patriarchy in a Welfare Society (Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1984); A. S. Sassoon (ed.), Women and the State (London, Hutchinson, 1987); K. Jones and A. Jonasdottir, The Political Interests of Gender. Developing Theory and Research with a Feminist Face (London, Sage, 1988). See also V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996); D. Sainsbury, 'The Scandinavian model and women's interests: the issues of universalism and corporatism', Scandinavian Political Studies, 11, 4 (1988), 337-345; B. Siim, 'Welfare state, gender politics and equality policies - women's citizenship in the Scandinavian welfare states' in Elizabeth Meehan and Selma Sevenhuisen (eds), Equality Politics and Gender (London, Sage, 1991), pp. 175-92; H. Skjeie, 'The uneven advance of Norwegian women', New Left Review 187 (1991), 79-102. It is also important to appreciate the ways in which the Scandinavian nations differ from each other; see A. Leira, Welfare States and Working Mothers (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992).
19. There is a large and expanding literature and debate on the nature and extent of women's gains in Scandinavia. See for example the essays collected in E. Havio-Mannila, D. Dahlelrup, M. Eduards, E. Gudmundsdottir, B. Halsaa, H. Hernes, E. Hanninen-Salmelin, B. Sigmundsdottir, S. Sinkkonen and T. Skard (eds), Unfinished Democracy. Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford, Pergamon, 1985); H. Hernes, Welfare State and Woman Power. Essays in State feminism, (Oslo, Norwegian University Press, 1987); H. Holter (ed). Patriarchy in a Welfare Society (Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1984); A. S. Sassoon (ed.), Women and the State (London, Hutchinson, 1987); K. Jones and A. Jonasdottir, The Political Interests of Gender. Developing Theory and Research with a Feminist Face (London, Sage, 1988). See also V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996); D. Sainsbury, 'The Scandinavian model and women's interests: the issues of universalism and corporatism', Scandinavian Political Studies, 11, 4 (1988), 337-345; B. Siim, 'Welfare state, gender politics and equality policies - women's citizenship in the Scandinavian welfare states' in Elizabeth Meehan and Selma Sevenhuisen (eds), Equality Politics and Gender (London, Sage, 1991), pp. 175-92; H. Skjeie, 'The uneven advance of Norwegian women', New Left Review 187 (1991), 79-102. It is also important to appreciate the ways in which the Scandinavian nations differ from each other; see A. Leira, Welfare States and Working Mothers (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992).
20. Jewish women themselves are a far from homogeneous group and there are important ethnic (Ashkenazie, Oriental and African), religious (ranging from Ultra Orthodox to secular Judaism) and class differences. See B. Swirski and M. Safir, 'Living in a Jewish state: national, ethnic and religious implications' and D. Bernstein, 'Oriental and Ashkenazie Jewish women in the labor market', both in B. Swirski and M. R. Safir (eds), Calling the Equality Bluff. Women in Israel (New York and London, Teachers College Press Athene Series, 1993), pp. 7-17 and 192-6.
21. M. P. Safir, 'Religion, tradition and public policy give the family first priority' in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 57-65, p. 57.
22. There are however some obvious parallels with the situation in Eire and Northern Ireland, and with some former communist nations.
23. See P. Lahav, 'Raising the status of women through law: the case of Israel', Signs, 3, 1 (1978), 193-209.
24. B. Swirski, 'Israeli feminism old and new'; D. Izraeli, 'Women and work: from collective to career'; J. Pope, 'A conflict of interests: a case study of Na'amat', all in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 285-302, 165-77 and 225-33.
25. B. Swirski, 'Israeli feminism old and new'; D. Izraeli, 'Women and work: from collective to career'; J. Pope, 'A conflict of interests: a case study of Na'amat', all in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 285-302, 165-77 and 225-33.
26. B. Swirski, 'Israeli feminism old and new'; D. Izraeli, 'Women and work: from collective to career'; J. Pope, 'A conflict of interests: a case study of Na'amat', all in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 285-302, 165-77 and 225-33.
27. M. Safir, 'Was the Kibbutz an experiment in social and sex equality?' in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 251-60.
28. The idea that motherhood and domestic duties can be seen as a form of citizenship has a long history in feminist thought which goes back at least to Mary Wollstonecraft. See V. Bryson, Feminist Political Theory. An Introduction (Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1992), pp. 22-7.
29. See Lahav, 'Raising the status of women through law'; Izraeli, 'Women and work'; and F. Raday, 'Women, work and the law', in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 178-86.
30. See Lahav, 'Raising the status of women through law'; Izraeli, 'Women and work'; and F. Raday, 'Women, work and the law', in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 178-86.
31. See Lahav, 'Raising the status of women through law'; Izraeli, 'Women and work'; and F. Raday, 'Women, work and the law', in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 178-86.
32. This partly reflects the state's acceptance of responsibility for the welfare needs of Jewish immigrants: whole families arriving with no wage-earner are entitled to many benefits on the same basis as established citizens.
33. R. Katz, 'Jewish and Druze war widows' in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 124-7.
34. Following vigorous lobbying by feminist groups, legislation in 1994 extended this benefit to unmarried mothers.
35. Swirski, 'Israeli feminism old and new'; J. B. Agassi, 'How much power do Israeli women have?' in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 203-12.
36. Swirski, 'Israeli feminism old and new'; J. B. Agassi, 'How much power do Israeli women have?' in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 203-12.
37. See P. Norris, Politics and Sexual Equality. The Comparative Position of Women in Western Democracies (Edinburgh, Polygon, 1991); A. Phillips, Engendering Democracy (Cambridge, Polity, 1989).
38. See P. Norris, Politics and Sexual Equality. The Comparative Position of Women in Western Democracies (Edinburgh, Polygon, 1991); A. Phillips, Engendering Democracy (Cambridge, Polity, 1989).
39. Swirski, 'Israeli feminism old and new'; J. Pope, 'The place of women in Israeli society' in K. Kyle and J. Peters (eds), Whither Israel? The Domestic Challenges (London and New York, Taurus, 1993), pp. 202-22.
40. Swirski, 'Israeli feminism old and new'; J. Pope, 'The place of women in Israeli society' in K. Kyle and J. Peters (eds), Whither Israel? The Domestic Challenges (London and New York, Taurus, 1993), pp. 202-22.
41. J. Pope, 'The emergence of a joint Israeli-Palestinian women's peace movement during the intifada' in H. Afshar (ed.), Women in the Middle East (Basingstoke, MacMillan, 1992), pp. 172-83; N. Chazan, 'Israeli women and peace activism' in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 152-61.
42. J. Pope, 'The emergence of a joint Israeli-Palestinian women's peace movement during the intifada' in H. Afshar (ed.), Women in the Middle East (Basingstoke, MacMillan, 1992), pp. 172-83; N. Chazan, 'Israeli women and peace activism' in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 152-61.
43. For example, the Isha L'Isha women's centre in Haifa.
44. See Pope, 'The place of women'.
45. Pope, 'A conflict of interests'.
46. E. Goodman-Thau, 'Challenging the roots of religious patriarchy and shaping identity and community' in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 45-53.
47. Talk given to the Women's Studies Tour by Council Member Anat Hoffman.
48. B. Swirski and M. P. Safir, 'Living in a Jewish state' in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 7-17, p. 12.
49. Networking For Women, 6, 4, (Jerusalem, Israel Women's Network, 1993), pp. 1-3.
50. Legislation in 1994 enabled separated women to receive single parent welfare benefits and in February 1995 a new law enabled rabbis to impose a range of sanctions (including loss of job, bank account or driving licence) on men who refuse divorce (The Guardian, 27 February 95, section 2, p. 2). All the current women members of the Knesset are committed to some reform of the divorce laws, which many believe are not inherent in Judiaism but only in current rabbinical interrelations; even in the Orthodox community, some women are beginning to demand civil divorce.
51. A. Bloom, 'Women in the defence forces' in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 128-38.
52. R. Waintrater, 'Living in a state of seige' in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 117-23, p. 118.
53. Pope, 'The emergence of a joint Israeli-Palestinian women's peace group'; Chazam, 'Israeli women and peace activism'.
54. Pope, 'The emergence of a joint Israeli-Palestinian women's peace group'; Chazam, 'Israeli women and peace activism'.
55. When I asked the official Knesset guide whether there was any representation of Arab history, she did not appear to understand my question.
56. Israel Women's Network, 'For justice and equality', (Israel Women's Network Information Pamplet, Jerusalem, 1993).
57. Izraeli, 'Women and work', pp. 169-71.
58. V. Silver, 'Male and female created he them' in Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, pp. 270-5.
59. Izraeli, 'Women and work', p. 172.
60. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia.
61. Agassi, 'How much power do Israeli women have?', pp. 208-9.
62. Izraeii, 'Women and work', p. 169.
63. Israel Women's Network, 'For justice and equality'.
64. See Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia and V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in the United States (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996). For details of women's employment in Britain, see Equal Opportunities Commission, Women and Men in Britain (Equal Opportunities Commission, Manchester, 1992) and T. Rees, Women and the Labour Market (London, Routledge, 1992). Note that differences in the bases of employment figures and wage levels make precise international comparison difficult.
65. See Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia and V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in the United States (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996). For details of women's employment in Britain, see Equal Opportunities Commission, Women and Men in Britain (Equal Opportunities Commission, Manchester, 1992) and T. Rees, Women and the Labour Market (London, Routledge, 1992). Note that differences in the bases of employment figures and wage levels make precise international comparison difficult.
66. See Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia and V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in the United States (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996). For details of women's employment in Britain, see Equal Opportunities Commission, Women and Men in Britain (Equal Opportunities Commission, Manchester, 1992) and T. Rees, Women and the Labour Market (London, Routledge, 1992). Note that differences in the bases of employment figures and wage levels make precise international comparison difficult.
67. See Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in Scandinavia and V. Bryson, The Citizenship of Women in the United States (Huddersfield University Politics Departmental Paper, 1996). For details of women's employment in Britain, see Equal Opportunities Commission, Women and Men in Britain (Equal Opportunities Commission, Manchester, 1992) and T. Rees, Women and the Labour Market (London, Routledge, 1992). Note that differences in the bases of employment figures and wage levels make precise international comparison difficult.
68. Pope, 'A conflict of interests', p. 230.
69. Talk given to the Women's Studies Tour.
70. See for example Mintel, Man 2,000 (London, Mintel Lifestyle Report, 1994); J. Gershuny, I. Miles, S. Jones, C. Mullings, G. Thomas and S. Wyatt, 'Time budgets: preliminary analyses of a national survey', Quarterly Journal of Social Affairs, 2, 1 (1986), 13-39. Even in Sweden, where official policies have gone furthest in promoting domestic equality, women retain their domestic responsibilities. See National Council on Equality between Men and Women in Sweden, Side By Side. A Report on Equality between Women and Men in Sweden (National Council on Equality between Men and Women in Sweden, Stockholm, 1985).
71. See for example Mintel, Man 2,000 (London, Mintel Lifestyle Report, 1994); J. Gershuny, I. Miles, S. Jones, C. Mullings, G. Thomas and S. Wyatt, 'Time budgets: preliminary analyses of a national survey', Quarterly Journal of Social Affairs, 2, 1 (1986), 13-39. Even in Sweden, where official policies have gone furthest in promoting domestic equality, women retain their domestic responsibilities. See National Council on Equality between Men and Women in Sweden, Side By Side. A Report on Equality between Women and Men in Sweden (National Council on Equality between Men and Women in Sweden, Stockholm, 1985).
72. See for example Mintel, Man 2,000 (London, Mintel Lifestyle Report, 1994); J. Gershuny, I. Miles, S. Jones, C. Mullings, G. Thomas and S. Wyatt, 'Time budgets: preliminary analyses of a national survey', Quarterly Journal of Social Affairs, 2, 1 (1986), 13-39. Even in Sweden, where official policies have gone furthest in promoting domestic equality, women retain their domestic responsibilities. See National Council on Equality between Men and Women in Sweden, Side By Side. A Report on Equality between Women and Men in Sweden (National Council on Equality between Men and Women in Sweden, Stockholm, 1985).
73. Safir, 'Religion, tradition and public policy', p. 58.
74. See J. Pahl, Money and Marriage (Basingstoke, MacMillan, 1989).
75. See Swirski and Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff, Section 6.
76. See L. Balbo, 'Crazy quilts: rethinking the welfare state debate from a woman's point of view', in Sassoon, Women and the State, pp. 45-71.
77. Safir, 'Religion, tradition and public policy', p. 64.
78. Lister, 'Women, economic dependency and citizenship', p. 456. See also B. Adam, 'Feminist social theory needs time', Sociological Review, 37, 3 (1989), 458-73.
79. Lister, 'Women, economic dependency and citizenship', p. 456. See also B. Adam, 'Feminist social theory needs time', Sociological Review, 37, 3 (1989), 458-73.
80. Some, but not all, of the members of the Israel Women's Network whom we met did seem to make this equation. For criticism of both Israeli and Western feminisms as elitist see Swirski, 'Israeli feminism'.
81. For an influential feminist approach which does try to incorporate various forms of difference, see Iris Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1990).
82. For a recent discussion of this issue see R. Lister, 'Dilemmas in engendering citizenship', Paper presented at Annual Women's Studies Network (UK) Association Conference: Women's Studies in an International Context, Portsmouth, 8-10 July, 1994.