Racism, drug policy, and AIDS

Political Science Quarterly

Volumn 113, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 427-446

  Schneider, Cathy Lisa ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039530821     PISSN: 00323195     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2658075     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. National Commission on AIDS, The Challenge of HIV/AIDS in Communities of Color (Washington, DC: National Commission on Aids, December 1992), 4.
2. Reuters, "AIDS Virus Infecting Fewer Young White Men," New York Times, 17 June 1998. Article cites a National Cancer Institute report that calculates that between 1988 and 1993 HIV rates declined 50 percent among young white men and increased 60 percent among young black women.
3. Dawn Day, Health Emergency 1997 (Princeton: Dogwood Center, 1997), 22. See also Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), "HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report for Cases through December 1997," 1998.
4. Dawn Day, Health Emergency 1997 (Princeton: Dogwood Center, 1997), 22. See also Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), "HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report for Cases through December 1997," 1998.
5. National Commission on AIDS, Challenge of HIV/AIDS, 4.
6. Sheryl Gay Stolberg, "U.S. Says AIDS Cases Fell in 1996, Ending 16 Year Rise," New York Times, 19 September 1997.
7. Lynda Richardson, "Whites Have More Effective New AIDS Drugs, Survey Shows," New York Times, 27 January 1997.
8. James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 14.
9. James Q. Wilson, "Drugs and Crime" in Michael Tonry and James Q. Wilson, eds., Drugs and Crime (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 530.
10. Ibid., 543. (Emphasis added.)
11. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 33.
12. Robert Fullilove, "Testimony before the National Commission on AIDS," Washington, DC, 17 January 1991: 61-65; see also National Commission on AIDS, Challenge of HIV/AIDS, 11.
13. Robert Fullilove, "Testimony before the National Commission on AIDS," Washington, DC, 17 January 1991: 61-65; see also National Commission on AIDS, Challenge of HIV/AIDS, 11.
14. Ibid., 8.
15. Clarence Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues: Racism and the War on Drugs (Boston: South End Press, 1991), 48.
16. Richard Pérez-Peña, "Income Gap Between the Rich and Poor in New York Is the Nation's Largest," New York Times, 17 December 1997.
17. Ibid.
18. Celia W. Dugger, "Study Shows Dominicans Sink Deeper into Poverty: In New York City Their Hopes Are Elusive," New York Times, 10 November 1997.
19. Lusane, Pipe Dreams, 49.
20. Eliot Currie, Reckoning: Drugs, Cities and the American Future. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 90.
21. Michael Tonry, Malign Neglect: Race, Crime and Punishment in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 103.
22. Roderick Wallace, "Urban Desertification, Public Health, and Public Order: Planned Shrinkage, Violent Death, Substance Abuse and AIDS in the Bronx," Social Science and Medicine 31 (July 1990): 801-813; see also Currie, Reckoning; Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues; National Commission on AIDS, Challenge of HIV/AIDS.
23. Roderick Wallace, "Urban Desertification, Public Health, and Public Order: Planned Shrinkage, Violent Death, Substance Abuse and AIDS in the Bronx," Social Science and Medicine 31 (July 1990): 801-813; see also Currie, Reckoning; Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues; National Commission on AIDS, Challenge of HIV/AIDS.
24. Roderick Wallace, "Urban Desertification, Public Health, and Public Order: Planned Shrinkage, Violent Death, Substance Abuse and AIDS in the Bronx," Social Science and Medicine 31 (July 1990): 801-813; see also Currie, Reckoning; Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues; National Commission on AIDS, Challenge of HIV/AIDS.
25. Roderick Wallace, "Urban Desertification, Public Health, and Public Order: Planned Shrinkage, Violent Death, Substance Abuse and AIDS in the Bronx," Social Science and Medicine 31 (July 1990): 801-813; see also Currie, Reckoning; Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues; National Commission on AIDS, Challenge of HIV/AIDS.
26. National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Population Estimates 1990, (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, [GPO], 1991); see also Lusane, Pipe Dreams, 50.
27. National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Population Estimates 1990, (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, [GPO], 1991); see also Lusane, Pipe Dreams, 50.
28. Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues, 50. Tonry, Malign Neglect, argues that NIDA data is not entirely reliable and undercounts the young and mobile. He prefers the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) data and Drug Use Forecasting Program (DUF) data. The first shows that most emergency room admissions are black. The second shows that most felons that are black test positively for drugs (80 percent of those arrested in Manhattan). What the DAWN and DUF data measure, I argue, is not minority drug use, but minority drug-related arrests and minority drug-related emergencies. Both are much higher among black and Latino drug users than among white drug users.
29. Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues, 50. Tonry, Malign Neglect, argues that NIDA data is not entirely reliable and undercounts the young and mobile. He prefers the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) data and Drug Use Forecasting Program (DUF) data. The first shows that most emergency room admissions are black. The second shows that most felons that are black test positively for drugs (80 percent of those arrested in Manhattan). What the DAWN and DUF data measure, I argue, is not minority drug use, but minority drug-related arrests and minority drug-related emergencies. Both are much higher among black and Latino drug users than among white drug users.
30. S. R. Friedman, J. L. Southeran, A. Abdul-Quadar, et al., "The AIDS Epidemic among Blacks and Hispanics," Millbank Quarterly 65 (Suppl 2, 1987): 455-459; D. M. Novick, H. L. Trigg, D. C. Des Jarlais, S. R. Friedman, D. Vlahov, and M. J. Kreek, "Cocaine Injection and Ethnicity in Parenteral Drug Users during the Early Years of the HIV Epidemic in New York City," Journal of Medical Virology 29 (November 1989): 181-185; R. J. Battjes, R. W. Pickens, H. W. Haverlos, and Z. Sloboda, "HIV Risk Factors among Injecting Drug Users in Five U.S. Cities," AIDS 8 (May 1994): 681-687; J. K. Watters and D. K. Lewis, "HIV Infection, Race and Drug Treatment History [letter]," AIDS 4 (July 1990): 697; Alex H. Kral, Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Robert E. Booth, and John K. Watters, "HIV Seroprevalence among Street-recruited Injection Drug and Crack Cocaine Users in 16 U.S. Municipalities," American Journal of Public Health (January 1998): 108-113; Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Alex H. Kral, Jennifer Lorvick, and John K. Watters, "Impact of Law Enforcement on Syringe Exchange Programs: A Look at Oakland and San Francisco," Medical Anthropology 18 (December 1997): 61-83.
31. S. R. Friedman, J. L. Southeran, A. Abdul-Quadar, et al., "The AIDS Epidemic among Blacks and Hispanics," Millbank Quarterly 65 (Suppl 2, 1987): 455-459; D. M. Novick, H. L. Trigg, D. C. Des Jarlais, S. R. Friedman, D. Vlahov, and M. J. Kreek, "Cocaine Injection and Ethnicity in Parenteral Drug Users during the Early Years of the HIV Epidemic in New York City," Journal of Medical Virology 29 (November 1989): 181-185; R. J. Battjes, R. W. Pickens, H. W. Haverlos, and Z. Sloboda, "HIV Risk Factors among Injecting Drug Users in Five U.S. Cities," AIDS 8 (May 1994): 681-687; J. K. Watters and D. K. Lewis, "HIV Infection, Race and Drug Treatment History [letter]," AIDS 4 (July 1990): 697; Alex H. Kral, Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Robert E. Booth, and John K. Watters, "HIV Seroprevalence among Street-recruited Injection Drug and Crack Cocaine Users in 16 U.S. Municipalities," American Journal of Public Health (January 1998): 108-113; Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Alex H. Kral, Jennifer Lorvick, and John K. Watters, "Impact of Law Enforcement on Syringe Exchange Programs: A Look at Oakland and San Francisco," Medical Anthropology 18 (December 1997): 61-83.
32. S. R. Friedman, J. L. Southeran, A. Abdul-Quadar, et al., "The AIDS Epidemic among Blacks and Hispanics," Millbank Quarterly 65 (Suppl 2, 1987): 455-459; D. M. Novick, H. L. Trigg, D. C. Des Jarlais, S. R. Friedman, D. Vlahov, and M. J. Kreek, "Cocaine Injection and Ethnicity in Parenteral Drug Users during the Early Years of the HIV Epidemic in New York City," Journal of Medical Virology 29 (November 1989): 181-185; R. J. Battjes, R. W. Pickens, H. W. Haverlos, and Z. Sloboda, "HIV Risk Factors among Injecting Drug Users in Five U.S. Cities," AIDS 8 (May 1994): 681-687; J. K. Watters and D. K. Lewis, "HIV Infection, Race and Drug Treatment History [letter]," AIDS 4 (July 1990): 697; Alex H. Kral, Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Robert E. Booth, and John K. Watters, "HIV Seroprevalence among Street-recruited Injection Drug and Crack Cocaine Users in 16 U.S. Municipalities," American Journal of Public Health (January 1998): 108-113; Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Alex H. Kral, Jennifer Lorvick, and John K. Watters, "Impact of Law Enforcement on Syringe Exchange Programs: A Look at Oakland and San Francisco," Medical Anthropology 18 (December 1997): 61-83.
33. S. R. Friedman, J. L. Southeran, A. Abdul-Quadar, et al., "The AIDS Epidemic among Blacks and Hispanics," Millbank Quarterly 65 (Suppl 2, 1987): 455-459; D. M. Novick, H. L. Trigg, D. C. Des Jarlais, S. R. Friedman, D. Vlahov, and M. J. Kreek, "Cocaine Injection and Ethnicity in Parenteral Drug Users during the Early Years of the HIV Epidemic in New York City," Journal of Medical Virology 29 (November 1989): 181-185; R. J. Battjes, R. W. Pickens, H. W. Haverlos, and Z. Sloboda, "HIV Risk Factors among Injecting Drug Users in Five U.S. Cities," AIDS 8 (May 1994): 681-687; J. K. Watters and D. K. Lewis, "HIV Infection, Race and Drug Treatment History [letter]," AIDS 4 (July 1990): 697; Alex H. Kral, Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Robert E. Booth, and John K. Watters, "HIV Seroprevalence among Street-recruited Injection Drug and Crack Cocaine Users in 16 U.S. Municipalities," American Journal of Public Health (January 1998): 108-113; Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Alex H. Kral, Jennifer Lorvick, and John K. Watters, "Impact of Law Enforcement on Syringe Exchange Programs: A Look at Oakland and San Francisco," Medical Anthropology 18 (December 1997): 61-83.
34. S. R. Friedman, J. L. Southeran, A. Abdul-Quadar, et al., "The AIDS Epidemic among Blacks and Hispanics," Millbank Quarterly 65 (Suppl 2, 1987): 455-459; D. M. Novick, H. L. Trigg, D. C. Des Jarlais, S. R. Friedman, D. Vlahov, and M. J. Kreek, "Cocaine Injection and Ethnicity in Parenteral Drug Users during the Early Years of the HIV Epidemic in New York City," Journal of Medical Virology 29 (November 1989): 181-185; R. J. Battjes, R. W. Pickens, H. W. Haverlos, and Z. Sloboda, "HIV Risk Factors among Injecting Drug Users in Five U.S. Cities," AIDS 8 (May 1994): 681-687; J. K. Watters and D. K. Lewis, "HIV Infection, Race and Drug Treatment History [letter]," AIDS 4 (July 1990): 697; Alex H. Kral, Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Robert E. Booth, and John K. Watters, "HIV Seroprevalence among Street-recruited Injection Drug and Crack Cocaine Users in 16 U.S. Municipalities," American Journal of Public Health (January 1998): 108-113; Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Alex H. Kral, Jennifer Lorvick, and John K. Watters, "Impact of Law Enforcement on Syringe Exchange Programs: A Look at Oakland and San Francisco," Medical Anthropology 18 (December 1997): 61-83.
35. S. R. Friedman, J. L. Southeran, A. Abdul-Quadar, et al., "The AIDS Epidemic among Blacks and Hispanics," Millbank Quarterly 65 (Suppl 2, 1987): 455-459; D. M. Novick, H. L. Trigg, D. C. Des Jarlais, S. R. Friedman, D. Vlahov, and M. J. Kreek, "Cocaine Injection and Ethnicity in Parenteral Drug Users during the Early Years of the HIV Epidemic in New York City," Journal of Medical Virology 29 (November 1989): 181-185; R. J. Battjes, R. W. Pickens, H. W. Haverlos, and Z. Sloboda, "HIV Risk Factors among Injecting Drug Users in Five U.S. Cities," AIDS 8 (May 1994): 681-687; J. K. Watters and D. K. Lewis, "HIV Infection, Race and Drug Treatment History [letter]," AIDS 4 (July 1990): 697; Alex H. Kral, Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Robert E. Booth, and John K. Watters, "HIV Seroprevalence among Street-recruited Injection Drug and Crack Cocaine Users in 16 U.S. Municipalities," American Journal of Public Health (January 1998): 108-113; Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Alex H. Kral, Jennifer Lorvick, and John K. Watters, "Impact of Law Enforcement on Syringe Exchange Programs: A Look at Oakland and San Francisco," Medical Anthropology 18 (December 1997): 61-83.
36. Watters et al., "HIV Infection, Race and Drug Treatment History [letter]."
37. Alex H. Kral, Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Robert E. Booth, and John K. Watters, "HIV Seroprevalence among Street-recruited Injection Drug and Crack Cocaine Users in 16 U.S. Municipalities," American Journal of Public Health 88 (January 1998): 108-113.
38. Ibid.
39. Day, Health Emergency, I. Data do not separate Caribbean Latinos from other Latinos.
40. Eva Bertram, Morris J. Blachman, Kenneth Sharpe, and Peter Andreas, Drug War Politics: The Price of Denial, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 37.
41. Day, Health Emergency, 8.
42. Dawn Day, unpublished analysis of 1996 CDC data, sent at my request, January 1998; see also Center for Disease Control and Prevention, "HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report for Cases through December 1995," 1996. Day's analysis of CDC data combines data on women who get AIDS from injection drug use and women who get AIDS from partners who use drugs. It also assumes that cases of unknown origin fall roughly along the same lines as cases of known origin.
43. Dawn Day, unpublished analysis of 1996 CDC data, sent at my request, January 1998; see also Center for Disease Control and Prevention, "HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report for Cases through December 1995," 1996. Day's analysis of CDC data combines data on women who get AIDS from injection drug use and women who get AIDS from partners who use drugs. It also assumes that cases of unknown origin fall roughly along the same lines as cases of known origin.
44. Bertram et al., Drug War Politics, 37.
45. Ibid., 41.
46. Cited by Sam Meddis, "No 'Conspiracy' in Black Drug Arrests," USA Today, 26 July 1993.
47. Pierre Thomas, and Patricia Davis, "Young Dealers Slip Through the Loopholes: Drug Laws, Parental Denial Leave Teens Few Deterrents," Washington Post, 15 December 1997.
48. Tonry, Malign Neglect, 103-110.
49. Charles Tilly, Durable Inequality (Berkeley: University of California, 1998); Desmond King, Separate and Unequal: Black Americans and the U.S. Federal Government (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues; Adolph Reed, Jr., "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution of Domination" in Adolph Reed, Jr., ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986).
50. Charles Tilly, Durable Inequality (Berkeley: University of California, 1998); Desmond King, Separate and Unequal: Black Americans and the U.S. Federal Government (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues; Adolph Reed, Jr., "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution of Domination" in Adolph Reed, Jr., ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986).
51. Charles Tilly, Durable Inequality (Berkeley: University of California, 1998); Desmond King, Separate and Unequal: Black Americans and the U.S. Federal Government (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues; Adolph Reed, Jr., "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution of Domination" in Adolph Reed, Jr., ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986).
52. Charles Tilly, Durable Inequality (Berkeley: University of California, 1998); Desmond King, Separate and Unequal: Black Americans and the U.S. Federal Government (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues; Adolph Reed, Jr., "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution of Domination" in Adolph Reed, Jr., ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986).
53. Tilly, Durable Inequality, 8.
54. Ibid., 9.
55. Eric E. Sterling, "The Sentencing Boomerang: Drug Prohibition, Politics and Reform," Villanova Law Review 40 (January 1995): 392;
56. see also David F. Musto, MD, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), 254.
57. Sterling, "Sentencing Boomerang," 392; see also Musto, American Disease, 254.
58. Sterling, "Sentencing Boomerang," 392; see also Musto, American Disease, 254.
59. Sterling "Sentencing Boomerang," 394; see also Musto, American Disease, 43-44.
60. Sterling "Sentencing Boomerang," 394; see also Musto, American Disease, 43-44.
61. Sterling, "Sentencing Boomerang," 395; see also Musto, American Disease, 219-220.
62. Sterling, "Sentencing Boomerang," 395; see also Musto, American Disease, 219-220.
63. Sterling, "Sentencing Boomerang," 392.
64. Musto, American Disease, 245. (Emphasis added.)
65. Dorothy K. Hatsukami and Marian W. Fishman, "Crack Cocaine and Cocaine Hydrochloride: Are the Differences Myth or Reality?" JAMA 276 (20 November 1996): 1582.
66. Craig Reinerman and Harry G. Levine, "The Crack Attack: America's Latest Drug Scare, 1986-1992" in Joel Best, ed., Images of Issues (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1995), 149.
67. Ibid., 152 and 151.
68. Ibid.
69. United States Sentencing Commission, Cocaine and Federal Sentencing Policy: Special Report to the Congress (Washington, DC: GPO, February 1995), 117.
70. Ibid., viii.
71. Ibid., 193.
72. Ibid.
73. Randall Kennedy, Race, Crime and the Law (New York: Pantheon, 1997), 381.
74. Ibid., 381.
75. Clarence Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion: The Continuing Significance of Race and America's Drug Crisis," University of Chicago Law Review (January 1994): 96.
76. United States Sentencing Commission, Cocaine and Federal Sentencing Policy, xi.
77. Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion," 97.
78. Ibid.; see also United States Sentencing Commission, Cocaine and Federal Sentencing Policy.
79. Ibid.; see also United States Sentencing Commission, Cocaine and Federal Sentencing Policy.
80. Ibid.
81. Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues, 45.
82. Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion," 99; see also Sam Meddis, "More White Users, Black Arrests," USA Today, 23 July 1993.
83. Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion," 99; see also Sam Meddis, "More White Users, Black Arrests," USA Today, 23 July 1993.
84. Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion," 99; see also Meddis, "No Conspiracy in Black Arrests," USA Today, 26 July 1993.
85. Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion," 99; see also Meddis, "No Conspiracy in Black Arrests," USA Today, 26 July 1993.
86. Bertram et al., Drug War Politics, 42; see also Sam Meddis, "In Twin Cities: A Tale of Two Standards," USA Today, 26 July 1993.
87. Bertram et al., Drug War Politics, 42; see also Sam Meddis, "In Twin Cities: A Tale of Two Standards," USA Today, 26 July 1993.
88. Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion," 99; see also Meddis "In Twin Cities." Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion," 100.
89. Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion," 99; see also Meddis "In Twin Cities." Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion," 100.
90. Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion," 99; see also Meddis "In Twin Cities." Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion," 100.
91. Ibid., 99; see also Meddis, "In Twin Cities."
92. Ibid., 99; see also Meddis, "In Twin Cities."
93. Bertram et al., Drug War Politics, 39, figure is 42 percent of all black males. Tim Russert, on Face the Nation, 12 October 1997, cited a more recent study which estimates that over 50 percent of all black males in Washington, DC, are enmeshed in the criminal justice system.
94. Bertram et al., Drug War Politics, 39, figure is 42 percent of all black males. Tim Russert, on Face the Nation, 12 October 1997, cited a more recent study which estimates that over 50 percent of all black males in Washington, DC, are enmeshed in the criminal justice system.
95. Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues, 44.
96. Ibid., 46.
97. United States Sentencing Commission, Cocaine and Federal Sentencing Policy, 202.
98. Ibid., 203.
99. Sterling, "The Sentencing Boomerang," 385.
100. Bertram et al., Drug War Politics, 52.
101. Ibid.;
102. see also U.S. Department of Justice, "Bureau of Justice Statistics: Criminal Offender's Statistics," (Washington, DC: GPO, 1997), 1.
103. Campaign for an Effective Crime Policy, Evaluating Mandatory Minimum Sentences, 6 October 1993; see also Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion," 97.
104. Campaign for an Effective Crime Policy, Evaluating Mandatory Minimum Sentences, 6 October 1993; see also Lusane, "In Perpetual Motion," 97.
105. Franklin E. Zimring and Gordon Hawkins, Crime is Not the Problem: Lethal Violence in America (New York: Oxford, 1997), 181.
106. Bertram et al., Drug War Politics, 39.
107. Tonry, Malign Neglect, 115.
108. Coletta Youngers, "The Only War We've Got: Drug Enforcement in Latin America," NACLA: Report on the Americas 31 (September/October 1997): 14.
109. Peter Andreas, Eva C. Bertram, Morris J. Blachman, and Kenneth Sharpe, "Dead End Drug Wars," Foreign Policy 85 (Winter 1991-1992): 109.
110. "Needle Exchange Programs Are Shown to Curb Infection by HIV among Addicts," New York Times, 26 November 1995.
111. Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues, 168.
112. Day, Health Emergency, i.
113. Author's personal communication with Ricky N. Bluthenthal, associate specialist, Urban Health Study, Institute for Health Policy Studies, October 1997; see also Michael Marmor, Donald Des Jarlais, Henry Cohen, Samuel Friedman, Sara T. Beatrice, Neil Dubin, Wafaa El-Sadr, Donna Mildvan, Stanley Yancovitz, Usha Mathur, and Robert Holtzman, "Risk Factors for Infection with Human Immunodeficiency Virus among Intravenous Drug Abusers in New York City," AIDS 1 (May 1987): 39-44; Ellie E. Schoenbaum, Diana Hartel, Peter Selwyn, Robert Klein, Katherine Davenny, Martha Rogers, Cheryl Feiner, and Gerald Friedland, " Risk Factors for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Intravenous Drug Users," New England Journal of Medicine 321 (September 1989): 874-879; Dale Chitwood, Clyde B. McCoy, James Inciardi, Duane C. McBride, Mary Comerford, Edward Trapido, Virginia McCoy, J. Bryan Page, James Griffen, Mary Ann Fletcher, and Margarita A. Ashman, "HIV Seropositivity of Needles from Shooting Galleries in South Florida," American Journal of Public Health 80 (February 1990): 150-152; Robert J. Battjes, Zili Sloboda, and William Grace, eds., The Context of HIV Risk among Drug Users and Their Sexual Partners, vol. 143 (Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1994); Carl Latkin, William Mandell, David Vlahov, M. Oziemkowska, Amy Knowlton and David Celentano. "My Place, Your Place, and No Place: Behavior Settings as Risk Factors for HIV-Related Injection Practices of Drug Users in Baltimore, Maryland," American Journal of Community Psychology 22 (June 1994): 415-430.
114. Author's personal communication with Ricky N. Bluthenthal, associate specialist, Urban Health Study, Institute for Health Policy Studies, October 1997; see also Michael Marmor, Donald Des Jarlais, Henry Cohen, Samuel Friedman, Sara T. Beatrice, Neil Dubin, Wafaa El-Sadr, Donna Mildvan, Stanley Yancovitz, Usha Mathur, and Robert Holtzman, "Risk Factors for Infection with Human Immunodeficiency Virus among Intravenous Drug Abusers in New York City," AIDS 1 (May 1987): 39-44; Ellie E. Schoenbaum, Diana Hartel, Peter Selwyn, Robert Klein, Katherine Davenny, Martha Rogers, Cheryl Feiner, and Gerald Friedland, " Risk Factors for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Intravenous Drug Users," New England Journal of Medicine 321 (September 1989): 874-879; Dale Chitwood, Clyde B. McCoy, James Inciardi, Duane C. McBride, Mary Comerford, Edward Trapido, Virginia McCoy, J. Bryan Page, James Griffen, Mary Ann Fletcher, and Margarita A. Ashman, "HIV Seropositivity of Needles from Shooting Galleries in South Florida," American Journal of Public Health 80 (February 1990): 150-152; Robert J. Battjes, Zili Sloboda, and William Grace, eds., The Context of HIV Risk among Drug Users and Their Sexual Partners, vol. 143 (Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1994); Carl Latkin, William Mandell, David Vlahov, M. Oziemkowska, Amy Knowlton and David Celentano. "My Place, Your Place, and No Place: Behavior Settings as Risk Factors for HIV-Related Injection Practices of Drug Users in Baltimore, Maryland," American Journal of Community Psychology 22 (June 1994): 415-430.
115. Author's personal communication with Ricky N. Bluthenthal, associate specialist, Urban Health Study, Institute for Health Policy Studies, October 1997; see also Michael Marmor, Donald Des Jarlais, Henry Cohen, Samuel Friedman, Sara T. Beatrice, Neil Dubin, Wafaa El-Sadr, Donna Mildvan, Stanley Yancovitz, Usha Mathur, and Robert Holtzman, "Risk Factors for Infection with Human Immunodeficiency Virus among Intravenous Drug Abusers in New York City," AIDS 1 (May 1987): 39-44; Ellie E. Schoenbaum, Diana Hartel, Peter Selwyn, Robert Klein, Katherine Davenny, Martha Rogers, Cheryl Feiner, and Gerald Friedland, " Risk Factors for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Intravenous Drug Users," New England Journal of Medicine 321 (September 1989): 874-879; Dale Chitwood, Clyde B. McCoy, James Inciardi, Duane C. McBride, Mary Comerford, Edward Trapido, Virginia McCoy, J. Bryan Page, James Griffen, Mary Ann Fletcher, and Margarita A. Ashman, "HIV Seropositivity of Needles from Shooting Galleries in South Florida," American Journal of Public Health 80 (February 1990): 150-152; Robert J. Battjes, Zili Sloboda, and William Grace, eds., The Context of HIV Risk among Drug Users and Their Sexual Partners, vol. 143 (Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1994); Carl Latkin, William Mandell, David Vlahov, M. Oziemkowska, Amy Knowlton and David Celentano. "My Place, Your Place, and No Place: Behavior Settings as Risk Factors for HIV-Related Injection Practices of Drug Users in Baltimore, Maryland," American Journal of Community Psychology 22 (June 1994): 415-430.
116. Author's personal communication with Ricky N. Bluthenthal, associate specialist, Urban Health Study, Institute for Health Policy Studies, October 1997; see also Michael Marmor, Donald Des Jarlais, Henry Cohen, Samuel Friedman, Sara T. Beatrice, Neil Dubin, Wafaa El-Sadr, Donna Mildvan, Stanley Yancovitz, Usha Mathur, and Robert Holtzman, "Risk Factors for Infection with Human Immunodeficiency Virus among Intravenous Drug Abusers in New York City," AIDS 1 (May 1987): 39-44; Ellie E. Schoenbaum, Diana Hartel, Peter Selwyn, Robert Klein, Katherine Davenny, Martha Rogers, Cheryl Feiner, and Gerald Friedland, " Risk Factors for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Intravenous Drug Users," New England Journal of Medicine 321 (September 1989): 874-879; Dale Chitwood, Clyde B. McCoy, James Inciardi, Duane C. McBride, Mary Comerford, Edward Trapido, Virginia McCoy, J. Bryan Page, James Griffen, Mary Ann Fletcher, and Margarita A. Ashman, "HIV Seropositivity of Needles from Shooting Galleries in South Florida," American Journal of Public Health 80 (February 1990): 150-152; Robert J. Battjes, Zili Sloboda, and William Grace, eds., The Context of HIV Risk among Drug Users and Their Sexual Partners, vol. 143 (Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1994); Carl Latkin, William Mandell, David Vlahov, M. Oziemkowska, Amy Knowlton and David Celentano. "My Place, Your Place, and No Place: Behavior Settings as Risk Factors for HIV-Related Injection Practices of Drug Users in Baltimore, Maryland," American Journal of Community Psychology 22 (June 1994): 415-430.
117. Author's personal communication with Ricky N. Bluthenthal, associate specialist, Urban Health Study, Institute for Health Policy Studies, October 1997; see also Michael Marmor, Donald Des Jarlais, Henry Cohen, Samuel Friedman, Sara T. Beatrice, Neil Dubin, Wafaa El-Sadr, Donna Mildvan, Stanley Yancovitz, Usha Mathur, and Robert Holtzman, "Risk Factors for Infection with Human Immunodeficiency Virus among Intravenous Drug Abusers in New York City," AIDS 1 (May 1987): 39-44; Ellie E. Schoenbaum, Diana Hartel, Peter Selwyn, Robert Klein, Katherine Davenny, Martha Rogers, Cheryl Feiner, and Gerald Friedland, " Risk Factors for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Intravenous Drug Users," New England Journal of Medicine 321 (September 1989): 874-879; Dale Chitwood, Clyde B. McCoy, James Inciardi, Duane C. McBride, Mary Comerford, Edward Trapido, Virginia McCoy, J. Bryan Page, James Griffen, Mary Ann Fletcher, and Margarita A. Ashman, "HIV Seropositivity of Needles from Shooting Galleries in South Florida," American Journal of Public Health 80 (February 1990): 150-152; Robert J. Battjes, Zili Sloboda, and William Grace, eds., The Context of HIV Risk among Drug Users and Their Sexual Partners, vol. 143 (Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1994); Carl Latkin, William Mandell, David Vlahov, M. Oziemkowska, Amy Knowlton and David Celentano. "My Place, Your Place, and No Place: Behavior Settings as Risk Factors for HIV-Related Injection Practices of Drug Users in Baltimore, Maryland," American Journal of Community Psychology 22 (June 1994): 415-430.
118. Author's personal communication with Ricky N. Bluthenthal, associate specialist, Urban Health Study, Institute for Health Policy Studies, October 1997; see also Michael Marmor, Donald Des Jarlais, Henry Cohen, Samuel Friedman, Sara T. Beatrice, Neil Dubin, Wafaa El-Sadr, Donna Mildvan, Stanley Yancovitz, Usha Mathur, and Robert Holtzman, "Risk Factors for Infection with Human Immunodeficiency Virus among Intravenous Drug Abusers in New York City," AIDS 1 (May 1987): 39-44; Ellie E. Schoenbaum, Diana Hartel, Peter Selwyn, Robert Klein, Katherine Davenny, Martha Rogers, Cheryl Feiner, and Gerald Friedland, " Risk Factors for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Intravenous Drug Users," New England Journal of Medicine 321 (September 1989): 874-879; Dale Chitwood, Clyde B. McCoy, James Inciardi, Duane C. McBride, Mary Comerford, Edward Trapido, Virginia McCoy, J. Bryan Page, James Griffen, Mary Ann Fletcher, and Margarita A. Ashman, "HIV Seropositivity of Needles from Shooting Galleries in South Florida," American Journal of Public Health 80 (February 1990): 150-152; Robert J. Battjes, Zili Sloboda, and William Grace, eds., The Context of HIV Risk among Drug Users and Their Sexual Partners, vol. 143 (Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1994); Carl Latkin, William Mandell, David Vlahov, M. Oziemkowska, Amy Knowlton and David Celentano. "My Place, Your Place, and No Place: Behavior Settings as Risk Factors for HIV-Related Injection Practices of Drug Users in Baltimore, Maryland," American Journal of Community Psychology 22 (June 1994): 415-430.
119. Ricky Bluthenthal, Alex Kral, Jennifer Lorvick, and John K. Watters, "Impact of Law Enforcement on Syringe Exchange Programs," Medical Anthropology 18 (December 1997): 9; see also Marmor et al., "Risk Factors for Infection"; Schoenbaum et al., "Risk Factors for Human Immunodeficiency virus"; Chitwood et al., "HIV Seropositivity of Needles for Shooting Galleries"; Battjes et al., "The Context of HIV Risk Among Drug Users and their Partners"; Latkin et al., "My Place, Your Place and No Place."
120. Ricky Bluthenthal, Alex Kral, Jennifer Lorvick, and John K. Watters, "Impact of Law Enforcement on Syringe Exchange Programs," Medical Anthropology 18 (December 1997): 9; see also Marmor et al., "Risk Factors for Infection"; Schoenbaum et al., "Risk Factors for Human Immunodeficiency virus"; Chitwood et al., "HIV Seropositivity of Needles for Shooting Galleries"; Battjes et al., "The Context of HIV Risk Among Drug Users and their Partners"; Latkin et al., "My Place, Your Place and No Place."
121. Ricky Bluthenthal, Alex Kral, Jennifer Lorvick, and John K. Watters, "Impact of Law Enforcement on Syringe Exchange Programs," Medical Anthropology 18 (December 1997): 9; see also Marmor et al., "Risk Factors for Infection"; Schoenbaum et al., "Risk Factors for Human Immunodeficiency virus"; Chitwood et al., "HIV Seropositivity of Needles for Shooting Galleries"; Battjes et al., "The Context of HIV Risk Among Drug Users and their Partners"; Latkin et al., "My Place, Your Place and No Place."
122. Ricky Bluthenthal, Alex Kral, Jennifer Lorvick, and John K. Watters, "Impact of Law Enforcement on Syringe Exchange Programs," Medical Anthropology 18 (December 1997): 9; see also Marmor et al., "Risk Factors for Infection"; Schoenbaum et al., "Risk Factors for Human Immunodeficiency virus"; Chitwood et al., "HIV Seropositivity of Needles for Shooting Galleries"; Battjes et al., "The Context of HIV Risk Among Drug Users and their Partners"; Latkin et al., "My Place, Your Place and No Place."
123. Ricky Bluthenthal, Alex Kral, Jennifer Lorvick, and John K. Watters, "Impact of Law Enforcement on Syringe Exchange Programs," Medical Anthropology 18 (December 1997): 9; see also Marmor et al., "Risk Factors for Infection"; Schoenbaum et al., "Risk Factors for Human Immunodeficiency virus"; Chitwood et al., "HIV Seropositivity of Needles for Shooting Galleries"; Battjes et al., "The Context of HIV Risk Among Drug Users and their Partners"; Latkin et al., "My Place, Your Place and No Place."
124. Ricky Bluthenthal, Alex Kral, Jennifer Lorvick, and John K. Watters, "Impact of Law Enforcement on Syringe Exchange Programs," Medical Anthropology 18 (December 1997): 9; see also Marmor et al., "Risk Factors for Infection"; Schoenbaum et al., "Risk Factors for Human Immunodeficiency virus"; Chitwood et al., "HIV Seropositivity of Needles for Shooting Galleries"; Battjes et al., "The Context of HIV Risk Among Drug Users and their Partners"; Latkin et al., "My Place, Your Place and No Place."
125. Day, Health Emergency, 3.
126. Bluthenthal et al., "Impact of Law Enforcement on Syringe Exchange Programs, 61-83.
127. Ernest Drucker, "Epidemic in the War Zone: AIDS and Community Survival in New York, Centro de Estudios Puertoriquenos (Spring 1994).
128. Editorial, "The Changing Face of AIDS," New York Newsday, 9 April 1995.
129. Ibid.
130. National Commission on AIDS, "Challenge of HIV in Communities of Color," 5.
131. Day, unpublished data calculated from Center for Disease Control, "HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report," 1996.
132. Mathew W. Purdy, "As AIDS Increases Behind Bars, Costs Dim Promise of New Drugs," New York Times, 26 May 1997.
133. Gil C. Alicea with Carmine De Sena, The Air Down Here: True Tales form a South Bronx Boyhood (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1995).
134. Day, Health Emergency, 7.
135. Day, unpublished data. According to Day's analysis of CDC data, 93 percent of AIDS cases among black women, 92 percent of AIDS among Latina women, and 78 percent of AIDS among white women have their origins in an HIV infected syringe.
136. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged, 32.
137. Tonry, Malign Neglect, 79.
138. Kennedy, Race, Crime and The Law.
139. Tonry, Malign Neglect, 113
140. Day, Health Emergency 28, cites a 1996 study by Peter Lurie and Ernest Drucker, "An Opportunity Lost: Estimating the Number of HIV Infections Associated with the U.S. Government Opposition to Needle Exchange Programs," where they estimate that "if clean needles were immediately increased to reach 50 percent of persons who inject drugs, between 5,000 and 11,000 infections could be prevented by the year 2000." * Research for this article was gathered while I was an Aaron Diamond Post-doctoral fellow at the Hunter College Center on AIDS, Drugs, and Community Health. I would like to thank Peter Andreas, Ricky Bluthenthal, Dawn Day, Alex Kral, Clarence Lusane, Adolph Reed, Jr., and Charles Tilly for their research and insights.