Imagining Iceland: Narratives of nature and history in the North Atlantic

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 35, Issue 3, 2002, Pages 313-334

  Oslund, Karen ^a  

^a Department of Obstetrics Gynecology   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039488228     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S000708740200465X     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory, New York, 1995; William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England, New York, 1983; see also the discussion in Environmental History (1996), 1: William Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness; or, getting back to the wrong nature', 7-28, Samuel P. Hays, 'Comment: the trouble with Bill Cronon's wilderness', 29-32, Michael P. Cohen, 'Comment: resistance to wilderness', 33-42, Thomas R. Dunlap, 'Comment: but what did you go out in the wilderness to see?', 43-6, Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness: a response', 47-55. The classic study of wilderness in American society is Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, New Haven, 1973.
2. Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory, New York, 1995; William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England, New York, 1983; see also the discussion in Environmental History (1996), 1: William Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness; or, getting back to the wrong nature', 7-28, Samuel P. Hays, 'Comment: the trouble with Bill Cronon's wilderness', 29-32, Michael P. Cohen, 'Comment: resistance to wilderness', 33-42, Thomas R. Dunlap, 'Comment: but what did you go out in the wilderness to see?', 43-6, Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness: a response', 47-55. The classic study of wilderness in American society is Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, New Haven, 1973.
3. Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory, New York, 1995; William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England, New York, 1983; see also the discussion in Environmental History (1996), 1: William Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness; or, getting back to the wrong nature', 7-28, Samuel P. Hays, 'Comment: the trouble with Bill Cronon's wilderness', 29-32, Michael P. Cohen, 'Comment: resistance to wilderness', 33-42, Thomas R. Dunlap, 'Comment: but what did you go out in the wilderness to see?', 43-6, Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness: a response', 47-55. The classic study of wilderness in American society is Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, New Haven, 1973.
4. Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory, New York, 1995; William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England, New York, 1983; see also the discussion in Environmental History (1996), 1: William Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness; or, getting back to the wrong nature', 7-28, Samuel P. Hays, 'Comment: the trouble with Bill Cronon's wilderness', 29-32, Michael P. Cohen, 'Comment: resistance to wilderness', 33-42, Thomas R. Dunlap, 'Comment: but what did you go out in the wilderness to see?', 43-6, Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness: a response', 47-55. The classic study of wilderness in American society is Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, New Haven, 1973.
5. Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory, New York, 1995; William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England, New York, 1983; see also the discussion in Environmental History (1996), 1: William Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness; or, getting back to the wrong nature', 7-28, Samuel P. Hays, 'Comment: the trouble with Bill Cronon's wilderness', 29-32, Michael P. Cohen, 'Comment: resistance to wilderness', 33-42, Thomas R. Dunlap, 'Comment: but what did you go out in the wilderness to see?', 43-6, Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness: a response', 47-55. The classic study of wilderness in American society is Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, New Haven, 1973.
6. Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory, New York, 1995; William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England, New York, 1983; see also the discussion in Environmental History (1996), 1: William Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness; or, getting back to the wrong nature', 7-28, Samuel P. Hays, 'Comment: the trouble with Bill Cronon's wilderness', 29-32, Michael P. Cohen, 'Comment: resistance to wilderness', 33-42, Thomas R. Dunlap, 'Comment: but what did you go out in the wilderness to see?', 43-6, Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness: a response', 47-55. The classic study of wilderness in American society is Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, New Haven, 1973.
7. Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory, New York, 1995; William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England, New York, 1983; see also the discussion in Environmental History (1996), 1: William Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness; or, getting back to the wrong nature', 7-28, Samuel P. Hays, 'Comment: the trouble with Bill Cronon's wilderness', 29-32, Michael P. Cohen, 'Comment: resistance to wilderness', 33-42, Thomas R. Dunlap, 'Comment: but what did you go out in the wilderness to see?', 43-6, Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness: a response', 47-55. The classic study of wilderness in American society is Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, New Haven, 1973.
8. Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory, New York, 1995; William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England, New York, 1983; see also the discussion in Environmental History (1996), 1: William Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness; or, getting back to the wrong nature', 7-28, Samuel P. Hays, 'Comment: the trouble with Bill Cronon's wilderness', 29-32, Michael P. Cohen, 'Comment: resistance to wilderness', 33-42, Thomas R. Dunlap, 'Comment: but what did you go out in the wilderness to see?', 43-6, Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness: a response', 47-55. The classic study of wilderness in American society is Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, New Haven, 1973.
9. Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory, New York, 1995; William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England, New York, 1983; see also the discussion in Environmental History (1996), 1: William Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness; or, getting back to the wrong nature', 7-28, Samuel P. Hays, 'Comment: the trouble with Bill Cronon's wilderness', 29-32, Michael P. Cohen, 'Comment: resistance to wilderness', 33-42, Thomas R. Dunlap, 'Comment: but what did you go out in the wilderness to see?', 43-6, Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness: a response', 47-55. The classic study of wilderness in American society is Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, New Haven, 1973.
10. Mark David Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness: Indian Removal and the Making of the National Parks, New York, 1999.
11. Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance, Cambridge, 1990. See also idem, The Social Construction of What?, Cambridge, 1999.
12. Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance, Cambridge, 1990. See also idem, The Social Construction of What?, Cambridge, 1999.
13. Important work has been done along these lines by Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England, Chicago, 1994 and by Mario Biagoli, Galileo, Courtier, Chicago, 1993. For a very different perspective, but one also engaged with the theme of nature and the social, see Carolyn Merchant's The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution, San Francisco, 1980.
14. Important work has been done along these lines by Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England, Chicago, 1994 and by Mario Biagoli, Galileo, Courtier, Chicago, 1993. For a very different perspective, but one also engaged with the theme of nature and the social, see Carolyn Merchant's The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution, San Francisco, 1980.
15. Important work has been done along these lines by Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England, Chicago, 1994 and by Mario Biagoli, Galileo, Courtier, Chicago, 1993. For a very different perspective, but one also engaged with the theme of nature and the social, see Carolyn Merchant's The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution, San Francisco, 1980.
16. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus (ed. James Rieger), Chicago, 1982, 9-10.
17. Mark Nutall, Protecting the Arctic: Indigenous Peoples and Cultural Survival, Amsterdam, 1998.
18. Henry Holland, letter to his father, Peter Holland, 2 August 1811. Manuscript in Landbókasafn Íslands (the National Library of Iceland), LbsÍ. 4925 4to. Ingi Sigurosson disagrees strongly with Holland in his 'Viohorf Íslendinga til Skotlands og Skota á 19. og 20. öld', Saga (1980), 18, 115-78, arguing that many Icelanders found Scottish landscapes familiar, and pointing out the frequency of travel between Iceland and Scotland in this period. On the motif of 'wonder' as part of perceptions of the Other, see Stephen Greenblatt, Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World, Chicago, 1991.
19. Henry Holland, letter to his father, Peter Holland, 2 August 1811. Manuscript in Landbókasafn Íslands (the National Library of Iceland), LbsÍ. 4925 4to. Ingi Sigurosson disagrees strongly with Holland in his 'Viohorf Íslendinga til Skotlands og Skota á 19. og 20. öld', Saga (1980), 18, 115-78, arguing that many Icelanders found Scottish landscapes familiar, and pointing out the frequency of travel between Iceland and Scotland in this period. On the motif of 'wonder' as part of perceptions of the Other, see Stephen Greenblatt, Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World, Chicago, 1991.
20. Brian Dolan, Exploring European Frontiers: British Travellers in the Age of Enlightenment, London, 2000, 8-11. On this theme, see also Larry Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment, Stanford, 1994.
21. Brian Dolan, Exploring European Frontiers: British Travellers in the Age of Enlightenment, London, 2000, 8-11. On this theme, see also Larry Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment, Stanford, 1994.
22. Much of this account is derived from the extremely valuable collection of articles and sources in Gísli Ágúst Gunnlaugsson, Gylfi Már Guobergsson, Sigurour Pórarinsson, Sveinbjörn Rafnsson and Porleifur Einarsson (ed.), Skaftáreldar 1783-1784: ritgeroir og heimildir, Reykjavík, 1984.
23. See the discussion in Thorkild Kjærgaard, The Danish Revolution, 1500-1800: An Ecohistorial Interpretation (tr. David Hohnen), Cambridge, 1994. Kjærgaard's book has been controversial because of his claim that eighteenth-century land reforms, previously held to have been 'successful', were in fact ecologically disastrous. For the more traditional view, see Thomas Munck, 'The Danish reformers', in Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth-Century Europe (ed. H. M. Scott), London, 1990, 245-63.
24. See the discussion in Thorkild Kjærgaard, The Danish Revolution, 1500-1800: An Ecohistorial Interpretation (tr. David Hohnen), Cambridge, 1994. Kjærgaard's book has been controversial because of his claim that eighteenth-century land reforms, previously held to have been 'successful', were in fact ecologically disastrous. For the more traditional view, see Thomas Munck, 'The Danish reformers', in Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth-Century Europe (ed. H. M. Scott), London, 1990, 245-63.
25. An updated look at the effects of the monopoly of trade in Iceland is Gísli Gunnarsson, Monopoly Trade and Economic Stagnation: Studies in the Foreign Trade of Iceland 1602-1787, Lund, 1983.
26. Kjærgaard, op. cit. (10), 139-44.
27. In Mountain Gloom and Mountain Glory: The Development of the Aesthetics of the Infinite, Ithaca, 1959, Marjorie Hope Nicolson explores the transformation in perceptions of mountains, mainly in British poetry, from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century. Although the time frame is slightly different, some of my themes - such as the development of a 'scientifically ordered' world - resonate with hers. Along similar lines, see also Alain Corbin, The Lure of the Sea: The Discovery of the Seaside in the Western World 1750-1840 (tr. Jocelyn Phelps), Cambridge, 1994. Sumarlioi R. Ísleifsson discusses Icelanders' changing perceptions of their own nature and the influence of foreign travellers in this change in 'Erlend myndlist og breytt viohorf til íslenskrar náttúru á 19. og 20. öld', in Íslenska Sögupingio 28.-31. maí 1997 (ed. Guomundur J. Guomundsson and Eiríkur K. Björnsson), 2 vols., Reykjavík, 1998, i, 180-8.
28. In Mountain Gloom and Mountain Glory: The Development of the Aesthetics of the Infinite, Ithaca, 1959, Marjorie Hope Nicolson explores the transformation in perceptions of mountains, mainly in British poetry, from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century. Although the time frame is slightly different, some of my themes - such as the development of a 'scientifically ordered' world - resonate with hers. Along similar lines, see also Alain Corbin, The Lure of the Sea: The Discovery of the Seaside in the Western World 1750-1840 (tr. Jocelyn Phelps), Cambridge, 1994. Sumarlioi R. Ísleifsson discusses Icelanders' changing perceptions of their own nature and the influence of foreign travellers in this change in 'Erlend myndlist og breytt viohorf til íslenskrar náttúru á 19. og 20. öld', in Íslenska Sögupingio 28.-31. maí 1997 (ed. Guomundur J. Guomundsson and Eiríkur K. Björnsson), 2 vols., Reykjavík, 1998, i, 180-8.
29. In Mountain Gloom and Mountain Glory: The Development of the Aesthetics of the Infinite, Ithaca, 1959, Marjorie Hope Nicolson explores the transformation in perceptions of mountains, mainly in British poetry, from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century. Although the time frame is slightly different, some of my themes - such as the development of a 'scientifically ordered' world - resonate with hers. Along similar lines, see also Alain Corbin, The Lure of the Sea: The Discovery of the Seaside in the Western World 1750-1840 (tr. Jocelyn Phelps), Cambridge, 1994. Sumarlioi R. Ísleifsson discusses Icelanders' changing perceptions of their own nature and the influence of foreign travellers in this change in 'Erlend myndlist og breytt viohorf til íslenskrar náttúru á 19. og 20. öld', in Íslenska Sögupingio 28.-31. maí 1997 (ed. Guomundur J. Guomundsson and Eiríkur K. Björnsson), 2 vols., Reykjavík, 1998, i, 180-8.
30. Stanley's papers, John Rylands Library, University of Manchester, MS JRL 722, p. 95, quoted in Andrew Wawn, 'John Thomas Stanley and Iceland: the sense and sensibility of an eighteenth-century explorer', Scandinavian Studies (1981), 53, 53. See also A. Wawn, 'The Enlightenment traveller and the idea of Iceland: the Stanley expedition of 1789 reconsidered', in Scandinavica (1989), 28, 5-16. The published journals from the Stanley expedition are The Journals of the Stanley Expedition to the Faroe Islands and Iceland (ed. John F. West), Tórshavn, 1970, and the scientific papers are in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1794), 3, 'An account of the hot springs near Rykum in Iceland', 127-3 and 'An account of the hot springs near Haukadal in Iceland', 138-53.
31. Stanley's papers, John Rylands Library, University of Manchester, MS JRL 722, p. 95, quoted in Andrew Wawn, 'John Thomas Stanley and Iceland: the sense and sensibility of an eighteenth-century explorer', Scandinavian Studies (1981), 53, 53. See also A. Wawn, 'The Enlightenment traveller and the idea of Iceland: the Stanley expedition of 1789 reconsidered', in Scandinavica (1989), 28, 5-16. The published journals from the Stanley expedition are The Journals of the Stanley Expedition to the Faroe Islands and Iceland (ed. John F. West), Tórshavn, 1970, and the scientific papers are in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1794), 3, 'An account of the hot springs near Rykum in Iceland', 127-3 and 'An account of the hot springs near Haukadal in Iceland', 138-53.
32. Stanley's papers, John Rylands Library, University of Manchester, MS JRL 722, p. 95, quoted in Andrew Wawn, 'John Thomas Stanley and Iceland: the sense and sensibility of an eighteenth-century explorer', Scandinavian Studies (1981), 53, 53. See also A. Wawn, 'The Enlightenment traveller and the idea of Iceland: the Stanley expedition of 1789 reconsidered', in Scandinavica (1989), 28, 5-16. The published journals from the Stanley expedition are The Journals of the Stanley Expedition to the Faroe Islands and Iceland (ed. John F. West), Tórshavn, 1970, and the scientific papers are in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1794), 3, 'An account of the hot springs near Rykum in Iceland', 127-3 and 'An account of the hot springs near Haukadal in Iceland', 138-53.
33. Stanley's papers, John Rylands Library, University of Manchester, MS JRL 722, p. 95, quoted in Andrew Wawn, 'John Thomas Stanley and Iceland: the sense and sensibility of an eighteenth-century explorer', Scandinavian Studies (1981), 53, 53. See also A. Wawn, 'The Enlightenment traveller and the idea of Iceland: the Stanley expedition of 1789 reconsidered', in Scandinavica (1989), 28, 5-16. The published journals from the Stanley expedition are The Journals of the Stanley Expedition to the Faroe Islands and Iceland (ed. John F. West), Tórshavn, 1970, and the scientific papers are in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1794), 3, 'An account of the hot springs near Rykum in Iceland', 127-3 and 'An account of the hot springs near Haukadal in Iceland', 138-53.
34. There are three excellent pictorial histories of travellers' visions of Iceland: Frank Ponzi, Ísland á átjándu öld: Myndir úr leioöngrum Banks og Stanleys, Reykjavík, 1980; F. Ponzi, Ísland á nítjándu öld: leioangrar og listamenn, Reykjavík, 1986; and Sumarlioi R. Ísleifsson, Ísland: framandi land, Reykjavík, 1996.
35. There are three excellent pictorial histories of travellers' visions of Iceland: Frank Ponzi, Ísland á átjándu öld: Myndir úr leioöngrum Banks og Stanleys, Reykjavík, 1980; F. Ponzi, Ísland á nítjándu öld: leioangrar og listamenn, Reykjavík, 1986; and Sumarlioi R. Ísleifsson, Ísland: framandi land, Reykjavík, 1996.
36. There are three excellent pictorial histories of travellers' visions of Iceland: Frank Ponzi, Ísland á átjándu öld: Myndir úr leioöngrum Banks og Stanleys, Reykjavík, 1980; F. Ponzi, Ísland á nítjándu öld: leioangrar og listamenn, Reykjavík, 1986; and Sumarlioi R. Ísleifsson, Ísland: framandi land, Reykjavík, 1996.
37. See the articles on Banks's role in David Philip Miller and Peter Hanns Reill (eds.), Visions of Empire: Voyages, Botany, and the Representation of Nature, Cambridge, 1996: David Philip Miller, 'Joseph Banks, empire, and "centers of calculation" in late Hanoverian London', 21-37 and David Mackay, 'Agents of empire: the Banksian collectors and evaluation of new lands', 38-57; and John Gascoigne, Joseph Banks and the English Enlightenment: Useful Knowledge and Polite Culture, Cambridge, 1994. Banks's Iceland diaries are incompletely published as Roy Rauschenberg, 'The journals of Joseph Banks' voyage', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (1973), 113, 184-216. Anna Agnarsdóttir has done considerable research on Banks and Iceland, see her 'Sir Joseph Banks and the exploration of Iceland', in Sir Joseph Banks: A Global Perspective (ed. R. E. R. Banks, B. Elliott, J. G. Hawkes, D. King-Hele and G. L. L. Lucas), London, 1994, 31-48, and 'Great Britain and Iceland 1800-1820', Ph.D. thesis, Department of International History, London School of Economics, 1989. Older, but still useful, is Halldór Hermannsson, Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, Ithaca, 1928. Some of the Banks manuscript material is contained in New Source Material on Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, San Francisco, Sutro Branch, California State Library, Occasional Papers, Manuscript series 5, 1941.
38. See the articles on Banks's role in David Philip Miller and Peter Hanns Reill (eds.), Visions of Empire: Voyages, Botany, and the Representation of Nature, Cambridge, 1996: David Philip Miller, 'Joseph Banks, empire, and "centers of calculation" in late Hanoverian London', 21-37 and David Mackay, 'Agents of empire: the Banksian collectors and evaluation of new lands', 38-57; and John Gascoigne, Joseph Banks and the English Enlightenment: Useful Knowledge and Polite Culture, Cambridge, 1994. Banks's Iceland diaries are incompletely published as Roy Rauschenberg, 'The journals of Joseph Banks' voyage', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (1973), 113, 184-216. Anna Agnarsdóttir has done considerable research on Banks and Iceland, see her 'Sir Joseph Banks and the exploration of Iceland', in Sir Joseph Banks: A Global Perspective (ed. R. E. R. Banks, B. Elliott, J. G. Hawkes, D. King-Hele and G. L. L. Lucas), London, 1994, 31-48, and 'Great Britain and Iceland 1800-1820', Ph.D. thesis, Department of International History, London School of Economics, 1989. Older, but still useful, is Halldór Hermannsson, Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, Ithaca, 1928. Some of the Banks manuscript material is contained in New Source Material on Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, San Francisco, Sutro Branch, California State Library, Occasional Papers, Manuscript series 5, 1941.
39. See the articles on Banks's role in David Philip Miller and Peter Hanns Reill (eds.), Visions of Empire: Voyages, Botany, and the Representation of Nature, Cambridge, 1996: David Philip Miller, 'Joseph Banks, empire, and "centers of calculation" in late Hanoverian London', 21-37 and David Mackay, 'Agents of empire: the Banksian collectors and evaluation of new lands', 38-57; and John Gascoigne, Joseph Banks and the English Enlightenment: Useful Knowledge and Polite Culture, Cambridge, 1994. Banks's Iceland diaries are incompletely published as Roy Rauschenberg, 'The journals of Joseph Banks' voyage', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (1973), 113, 184-216. Anna Agnarsdóttir has done considerable research on Banks and Iceland, see her 'Sir Joseph Banks and the exploration of Iceland', in Sir Joseph Banks: A Global Perspective (ed. R. E. R. Banks, B. Elliott, J. G. Hawkes, D. King-Hele and G. L. L. Lucas), London, 1994, 31-48, and 'Great Britain and Iceland 1800-1820', Ph.D. thesis, Department of International History, London School of Economics, 1989. Older, but still useful, is Halldór Hermannsson, Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, Ithaca, 1928. Some of the Banks manuscript material is contained in New Source Material on Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, San Francisco, Sutro Branch, California State Library, Occasional Papers, Manuscript series 5, 1941.
40. See the articles on Banks's role in David Philip Miller and Peter Hanns Reill (eds.), Visions of Empire: Voyages, Botany, and the Representation of Nature, Cambridge, 1996: David Philip Miller, 'Joseph Banks, empire, and "centers of calculation" in late Hanoverian London', 21-37 and David Mackay, 'Agents of empire: the Banksian collectors and evaluation of new lands', 38-57; and John Gascoigne, Joseph Banks and the English Enlightenment: Useful Knowledge and Polite Culture, Cambridge, 1994. Banks's Iceland diaries are incompletely published as Roy Rauschenberg, 'The journals of Joseph Banks' voyage', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (1973), 113, 184-216. Anna Agnarsdóttir has done considerable research on Banks and Iceland, see her 'Sir Joseph Banks and the exploration of Iceland', in Sir Joseph Banks: A Global Perspective (ed. R. E. R. Banks, B. Elliott, J. G. Hawkes, D. King-Hele and G. L. L. Lucas), London, 1994, 31-48, and 'Great Britain and Iceland 1800-1820', Ph.D. thesis, Department of International History, London School of Economics, 1989. Older, but still useful, is Halldór Hermannsson, Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, Ithaca, 1928. Some of the Banks manuscript material is contained in New Source Material on Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, San Francisco, Sutro Branch, California State Library, Occasional Papers, Manuscript series 5, 1941.
41. See the articles on Banks's role in David Philip Miller and Peter Hanns Reill (eds.), Visions of Empire: Voyages, Botany, and the Representation of Nature, Cambridge, 1996: David Philip Miller, 'Joseph Banks, empire, and "centers of calculation" in late Hanoverian London', 21-37 and David Mackay, 'Agents of empire: the Banksian collectors and evaluation of new lands', 38-57; and John Gascoigne, Joseph Banks and the English Enlightenment: Useful Knowledge and Polite Culture, Cambridge, 1994. Banks's Iceland diaries are incompletely published as Roy Rauschenberg, 'The journals of Joseph Banks' voyage', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (1973), 113, 184-216. Anna Agnarsdóttir has done considerable research on Banks and Iceland, see her 'Sir Joseph Banks and the exploration of Iceland', in Sir Joseph Banks: A Global Perspective (ed. R. E. R. Banks, B. Elliott, J. G. Hawkes, D. King-Hele and G. L. L. Lucas), London, 1994, 31-48, and 'Great Britain and Iceland 1800-1820', Ph.D. thesis, Department of International History, London School of Economics, 1989. Older, but still useful, is Halldór Hermannsson, Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, Ithaca, 1928. Some of the Banks manuscript material is contained in New Source Material on Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, San Francisco, Sutro Branch, California State Library, Occasional Papers, Manuscript series 5, 1941.
42. See the articles on Banks's role in David Philip Miller and Peter Hanns Reill (eds.), Visions of Empire: Voyages, Botany, and the Representation of Nature, Cambridge, 1996: David Philip Miller, 'Joseph Banks, empire, and "centers of calculation" in late Hanoverian London', 21-37 and David Mackay, 'Agents of empire: the Banksian collectors and evaluation of new lands', 38-57; and John Gascoigne, Joseph Banks and the English Enlightenment: Useful Knowledge and Polite Culture, Cambridge, 1994. Banks's Iceland diaries are incompletely published as Roy Rauschenberg, 'The journals of Joseph Banks' voyage', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (1973), 113, 184-216. Anna Agnarsdóttir has done considerable research on Banks and Iceland, see her 'Sir Joseph Banks and the exploration of Iceland', in Sir Joseph Banks: A Global Perspective (ed. R. E. R. Banks, B. Elliott, J. G. Hawkes, D. King-Hele and G. L. L. Lucas), London, 1994, 31-48, and 'Great Britain and Iceland 1800-1820', Ph.D. thesis, Department of International History, London School of Economics, 1989. Older, but still useful, is Halldór Hermannsson, Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, Ithaca, 1928. Some of the Banks manuscript material is contained in New Source Material on Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, San Francisco, Sutro Branch, California State Library, Occasional Papers, Manuscript series 5, 1941.
43. See the articles on Banks's role in David Philip Miller and Peter Hanns Reill (eds.), Visions of Empire: Voyages, Botany, and the Representation of Nature, Cambridge, 1996: David Philip Miller, 'Joseph Banks, empire, and "centers of calculation" in late Hanoverian London', 21-37 and David Mackay, 'Agents of empire: the Banksian collectors and evaluation of new lands', 38-57; and John Gascoigne, Joseph Banks and the English Enlightenment: Useful Knowledge and Polite Culture, Cambridge, 1994. Banks's Iceland diaries are incompletely published as Roy Rauschenberg, 'The journals of Joseph Banks' voyage', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (1973), 113, 184-216. Anna Agnarsdóttir has done considerable research on Banks and Iceland, see her 'Sir Joseph Banks and the exploration of Iceland', in Sir Joseph Banks: A Global Perspective (ed. R. E. R. Banks, B. Elliott, J. G. Hawkes, D. King-Hele and G. L. L. Lucas), London, 1994, 31-48, and 'Great Britain and Iceland 1800-1820', Ph.D. thesis, Department of International History, London School of Economics, 1989. Older, but still useful, is Halldór Hermannsson, Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, Ithaca, 1928. Some of the Banks manuscript material is contained in New Source Material on Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, San Francisco, Sutro Branch, California State Library, Occasional Papers, Manuscript series 5, 1941.
44. See the articles on Banks's role in David Philip Miller and Peter Hanns Reill (eds.), Visions of Empire: Voyages, Botany, and the Representation of Nature, Cambridge, 1996: David Philip Miller, 'Joseph Banks, empire, and "centers of calculation" in late Hanoverian London', 21-37 and David Mackay, 'Agents of empire: the Banksian collectors and evaluation of new lands', 38-57; and John Gascoigne, Joseph Banks and the English Enlightenment: Useful Knowledge and Polite Culture, Cambridge, 1994. Banks's Iceland diaries are incompletely published as Roy Rauschenberg, 'The journals of Joseph Banks' voyage', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (1973), 113, 184-216. Anna Agnarsdóttir has done considerable research on Banks and Iceland, see her 'Sir Joseph Banks and the exploration of Iceland', in Sir Joseph Banks: A Global Perspective (ed. R. E. R. Banks, B. Elliott, J. G. Hawkes, D. King-Hele and G. L. L. Lucas), London, 1994, 31-48, and 'Great Britain and Iceland 1800-1820', Ph.D. thesis, Department of International History, London School of Economics, 1989. Older, but still useful, is Halldór Hermannsson, Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, Ithaca, 1928. Some of the Banks manuscript material is contained in New Source Material on Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, San Francisco, Sutro Branch, California State Library, Occasional Papers, Manuscript series 5, 1941.
45. See the articles on Banks's role in David Philip Miller and Peter Hanns Reill (eds.), Visions of Empire: Voyages, Botany, and the Representation of Nature, Cambridge, 1996: David Philip Miller, 'Joseph Banks, empire, and "centers of calculation" in late Hanoverian London', 21-37 and David Mackay, 'Agents of empire: the Banksian collectors and evaluation of new lands', 38-57; and John Gascoigne, Joseph Banks and the English Enlightenment: Useful Knowledge and Polite Culture, Cambridge, 1994. Banks's Iceland diaries are incompletely published as Roy Rauschenberg, 'The journals of Joseph Banks' voyage', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (1973), 113, 184-216. Anna Agnarsdóttir has done considerable research on Banks and Iceland, see her 'Sir Joseph Banks and the exploration of Iceland', in Sir Joseph Banks: A Global Perspective (ed. R. E. R. Banks, B. Elliott, J. G. Hawkes, D. King-Hele and G. L. L. Lucas), London, 1994, 31-48, and 'Great Britain and Iceland 1800-1820', Ph.D. thesis, Department of International History, London School of Economics, 1989. Older, but still useful, is Halldór Hermannsson, Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, Ithaca, 1928. Some of the Banks manuscript material is contained in New Source Material on Sir Joseph Banks and Iceland, San Francisco, Sutro Branch, California State Library, Occasional Papers, Manuscript series 5, 1941.
46. LbsÍ MS 342c fol., letter to Bjarni Porsteinsson dated 6 March 1855: 'bestu feroamenn sem á Islandi hafa verio fyrir utan Rask og Maurer'.
47. On the role of Kew Gardens as a centre of scientific knowledge production and its connection to colonial exploration, see Lucile H. Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanic Gardens, New York, 1979.
48. A. Wawn argues that there was a particularly British fascination with Iceland in The Vikings and the Victorians: Inventing the Old North in Nineteenth-Century Britain, Cambridge, 2000.
49. The debate is outlined in Roy Porter, The Making of Geology: Earth Science in Britain 1660-1815, Cambridge, 1977. On Mackenzie, see A. Wawn, 'Gunnlaugs Saga Ormstunga and the Theatre Royal Edinburgh 1812: melodrama, mineralogy and Sir George Mackenzie', Scandinavica (1982), 21, 139-51.
50. The debate is outlined in Roy Porter, The Making of Geology: Earth Science in Britain 1660-1815, Cambridge, 1977. On Mackenzie, see A. Wawn, 'Gunnlaugs Saga Ormstunga and the Theatre Royal Edinburgh 1812: melodrama, mineralogy and Sir George Mackenzie', Scandinavica (1982), 21, 139-51.
51. Henry Holland, The Icelandic Journal of Henry Holland, 1810 (ed. A. Wawn), London, 1987, 254-5.
52. George Steuart Mackenzie and Henry Holland, Travels in the Island of Iceland 1810, Edinburgh, 1811. Reports on similar rock formations in the Faroe Islands were published in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1815), 7: G. S. Mackenzie, 'An account of some geological facts observed in the Faroe Islands', 213-27; and Thomas Allen, 'An account of the mineralogy of the Faroe Islands', 229-67.
53. George Steuart Mackenzie and Henry Holland, Travels in the Island of Iceland 1810, Edinburgh, 1811. Reports on similar rock formations in the Faroe Islands were published in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1815), 7: G. S. Mackenzie, 'An account of some geological facts observed in the Faroe Islands', 213-27; and Thomas Allen, 'An account of the mineralogy of the Faroe Islands', 229-67.
54. George Steuart Mackenzie and Henry Holland, Travels in the Island of Iceland 1810, Edinburgh, 1811. Reports on similar rock formations in the Faroe Islands were published in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1815), 7: G. S. Mackenzie, 'An account of some geological facts observed in the Faroe Islands', 213-27; and Thomas Allen, 'An account of the mineralogy of the Faroe Islands', 229-67.
55. George Steuart Mackenzie and Henry Holland, Travels in the Island of Iceland 1810, Edinburgh, 1811. Reports on similar rock formations in the Faroe Islands were published in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1815), 7: G. S. Mackenzie, 'An account of some geological facts observed in the Faroe Islands', 213-27; and Thomas Allen, 'An account of the mineralogy of the Faroe Islands', 229-67.
56. Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology, Being an Attempt to Explain the Former Changes of the Earth's Surface, by Reference to Causes Now in Operation, 3 vols., London, 1830-3, i, 372-6.
57. Magnús Stephensen, Kort Beskrivelse over den nye Vulcans i Vester-Skaptefields Syssel paa Island i Aaret 1783, Copenhagen, 1785, Sveinn Pálsson MS, printed as 'Eldsaga Sveins Pálssonar 1784', in Gunlaugsson et al., op. cit. (9), 419-22 , and Ebenezer Henderson, Iceland; or the Journal of a Residence in that Island during the Years 1814 and 1815, Edinburgh, 1818. Sigurour Porarinsson traces these connections in his article 'Annáll Skaftárelda', Gunlaugsson et al., op. cit. (9), 11-36.
58. Magnús Stephensen, Kort Beskrivelse over den nye Vulcans i Vester-Skaptefields Syssel paa Island i Aaret 1783, Copenhagen, 1785, Sveinn Pálsson MS, printed as 'Eldsaga Sveins Pálssonar 1784', in Gunlaugsson et al., op. cit. (9), 419-22 , and Ebenezer Henderson, Iceland; or the Journal of a Residence in that Island during the Years 1814 and 1815, Edinburgh, 1818. Sigurour Porarinsson traces these connections in his article 'Annáll Skaftárelda', Gunlaugsson et al., op. cit. (9), 11-36.
59. Magnús Stephensen, Kort Beskrivelse over den nye Vulcans i Vester-Skaptefields Syssel paa Island i Aaret 1783, Copenhagen, 1785, Sveinn Pálsson MS, printed as 'Eldsaga Sveins Pálssonar 1784', in Gunlaugsson et al., op. cit. (9), 419-22 , and Ebenezer Henderson, Iceland; or the Journal of a Residence in that Island during the Years 1814 and 1815, Edinburgh, 1818. Sigurour Porarinsson traces these connections in his article 'Annáll Skaftárelda', Gunlaugsson et al., op. cit. (9), 11-36.
60. Magnús Stephensen, Kort Beskrivelse over den nye Vulcans i Vester-Skaptefields Syssel paa Island i Aaret 1783, Copenhagen, 1785, Sveinn Pálsson MS, printed as 'Eldsaga Sveins Pálssonar 1784', in Gunlaugsson et al., op. cit. (9), 419-22 , and Ebenezer Henderson, Iceland; or the Journal of a Residence in that Island during the Years 1814 and 1815, Edinburgh, 1818. Sigurour Porarinsson traces these connections in his article 'Annáll Skaftárelda', Gunlaugsson et al., op. cit. (9), 11-36.
61. Magnús Stephensen, Kort Beskrivelse over den nye Vulcans i Vester-Skaptefields Syssel paa Island i Aaret 1783, Copenhagen, 1785, Sveinn Pálsson MS, printed as 'Eldsaga Sveins Pálssonar 1784', in Gunlaugsson et al., op. cit. (9), 419-22 , and Ebenezer Henderson, Iceland; or the Journal of a Residence in that Island during the Years 1814 and 1815, Edinburgh, 1818. Sigurour Porarinsson traces these connections in his article 'Annáll Skaftárelda', Gunlaugsson et al., op. cit. (9), 11-36.
62. Magnús Stephensen, Kort Beskrivelse over den nye Vulcans i Vester-Skaptefields Syssel paa Island i Aaret 1783, Copenhagen, 1785, Sveinn Pálsson MS, printed as 'Eldsaga Sveins Pálssonar 1784', in Gunlaugsson et al., op. cit. (9), 419-22 , and Ebenezer Henderson, Iceland; or the Journal of a Residence in that Island during the Years 1814 and 1815, Edinburgh, 1818. Sigurour Porarinsson traces these connections in his article 'Annáll Skaftárelda', Gunlaugsson et al., op. cit. (9), 11-36.
63. As Holland called it in his 'Memoir on the mineralogy of the island of Iceland', 29 July 1812, LbsÍ. 4275 4to., an address to the Portuguese Mineralogists' Society.
64. For example, see Magnús Stephensen, Island i det attenende Aarhundrede, Copenhagen, 1808, and Hannes Finnsson, Om Folkemængdens Formindske ved Uaar i Island, Copenhagen, 1831. These are both translations of books originally published in Icelandic.
65. For example, see Magnús Stephensen, Island i det attenende Aarhundrede, Copenhagen, 1808, and Hannes Finnsson, Om Folkemængdens Formindske ved Uaar i Island, Copenhagen, 1831. These are both translations of books originally published in Icelandic.
66. See, for example, Gunnarsson, op. cit. (11) and Harald Gustafsson, Mellan kung och allmode: ämbetsmän, beslutsprocess och inflytande på 1700-talets Island, Stockholm, 1985.
67. See, for example, Gunnarsson, op. cit. (11) and Harald Gustafsson, Mellan kung och allmode: ämbetsmän, beslutsprocess och inflytande på 1700-talets Island, Stockholm, 1985.
68. Átjána öldin hefir löngum verio talin öld hörmunga og hallæra í sögu pjóoar vorrar. Á fyrsta tug hennar eoa 1707 geisaoi drepsóttin ... en svo dundu Skaftáreldar og Móouharoindin yfir 1783-86, en ao peim loknum var fólksfjöldinn kominn niour í 39.000 ... Milli pessara stóráfalla var árferoi ekki verra en oft, bædi fyrr og sioar, en hverju sinni varo skepnufellir og mannfellir af hungri ef nokkuo bjátaoi á. ... En pao var fleira en drepsóttir, eldgos og hallæri sem pjáou pjóoina. Öldin var einnig öld einveldis og einokunar. Steindór Steindórsson (ed.) Um vioreisn Íslands: Deo, Regi, Patriae, Reykjavík, 1985, 5. On the writing of Icelandic history see Ingi Sigurosson, Íslenzk sagnfræoi frà miori 19. öld til miorar 20. aldar, Reykjavík, 1986.
69. Lord Dufferin, Letters from the High Latitudes, London, 1854, 97-8.
70. Jón Stefánsson, 'Iceland: its history and inhabitants', Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute, or Philosophical Society of Great Britain (1902), 38, 62-3.
71. For a discussion, see Brian M. Fagan, The Little Ice Age: How Climate Made History, 1300-1850, New York, 2000.
72. For example, see Gillian Beer in 'Writing Darwin's islands: England and the insular condition', in Inscribing Science: Scientific Texts and the Materiality of Communication (ed. Timothy Lenoir), Stanford, 1998, 119-39; and Roy MacLeod, 'Imperial reflections in the southern seas: the Funafufi expeditions, 1896-1904', in Nature in Its Greatest Extent: Western Science in the Pacific (ed. Roy MacLeod and Philip F. Rehbock), Honolulu, 1988, 159-91.
73. For example, see Gillian Beer in 'Writing Darwin's islands: England and the insular condition', in Inscribing Science: Scientific Texts and the Materiality of Communication (ed. Timothy Lenoir), Stanford, 1998, 119-39; and Roy MacLeod, 'Imperial reflections in the southern seas: the Funafufi expeditions, 1896-1904', in Nature in Its Greatest Extent: Western Science in the Pacific (ed. Roy MacLeod and Philip F. Rehbock), Honolulu, 1988, 159-91.
74. John McPhee hints at this interpretation when he compares volcanic management in Iceland with that in Hawaii in The Control of Nature, New York, 1989, 141-79.
75. The discussion surrounding the controversial company deCODE Genetics and its proposal to genetically map the entire Icelandic population also makes interesting use of the metaphor of Iceland as a laboratory. DeCODE's website is http://www.decode.is. The group 'Mannvernd' (the protection of people), which has organized itself in opposition to deCODE, has collected articles about the company at http://www.mannvernd.is. Both sites are in English and Icelandic.
76. Danmark, Copenhagen, 1856.
77. 'skemmtunar og ánægju ... gjörólík peim heimsendisfrásögnum sem lengst af höfou tíokast af eldsumbrotum á Íslandi'.
78. Sumarlioi R. Ísleifsson, op. cit. (15), 175. The pictures of Frederick Theodore Kloss, who accompanied the Danish Prince Frederik Carl Christian on his visit to Iceland in 1834, have similar qualities as Larson's. See
79. Fr. T. Kloss, Prospecter af Island malede efter Naturen paa den, i Fölge med Hans Kongelige Höihed, Prinds til Danmark Frederik Carl Christian's i Sommeren 1834 foretagene Reise, Copenhagen, 1835. On the Danish Golden Age painters see
80. Danish Painting: the Golden Age, a Loan Exhibition from the Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen, 5 September-20 November 1984 (ed. Kasper Monrad), London, 1984.
81. Gunnar Karlsson, 'Icelandic nationalism and the inspiration of history', in The Roots of Nationalism: Studies in Northern Europe (ed. Rosalind Mitchison), Edinburgh, 1980, 83.
82. hine nøgne Filde, end at vi i dem skue for egen Fortid, en gigantisk Bautasteen, opreist over en længst forsvunden Tid, der i alvorligt Eensomhed vager ind i en Verden, hvori Alt er nyt og forandret. I gamle Dage udvandrede nemlig en Skare Skandinaver derhen, og indførte der det garnie Nordens Liv og Sæder. Et paa Omskiftninger og Omvæltninger rigt, bevægeligt Liv har siden den Tid hos os ligesom forvandlet Jordens Overflade og dens Beboere; Civilisationens mægtige Haand har nedpløiet næsten erhvert Spor af Oldtidens Liv og af Alt, hvad der rørte sig i det. Men ligesom indefroset mellem hine fjerne lisfjelde, hvordan Tidens Storme et naaede, vedligeholdt det sig i næsten uforandret Reenhed paa Island, saa at vi det see en levende Oldtid, et talende Billede af Fortidens Liv - Derfor maa det islandske Folk være hver Skandinaver kjært, og vi ville i de nuværende Islænderes Characteer, Levemaade og Sædvaner vist kunne finde Træk af vor Oldtids Physiognomie, som vi forgjæves ville søge i vor Hedeolds henmuldrede Ruiner eller livløse Annaler. Orla Lehmann, review of Om de danske Provindstalstænder med specielt hensyn paa Island by B. Einarson, Maanedsskrift for Litteratur (1832), 7, 524.
83. For a more detailed discussion of the sagas and nationalism see Jesse L. Byock, 'Modern nationalism and the Icelandic sagas', in Northern Antiquity: the Post-Medieval Reception of Edda and Saga (ed. A. Wawn), Middlesex, 1994, 163-88.
84. For a study of parallel developments in the Faroe Islands see Tom Nauerby, No Nation is an Island: Language, Culture, and National Identity in the Faroe Islands, Århus, 1996. For further discussion of cultural nationalism in Scandinavia, see Jens Rahbeck Rasmussen, 'The Danish monarchy as a composite state', in European Identities: Cultural Diversity and Integration in Europe since 1700 (ed. Nils Arne Sørensen), Odense, 1995, 23-36.
85. For a study of parallel developments in the Faroe Islands see Tom Nauerby, No Nation is an Island: Language, Culture, and National Identity in the Faroe Islands, Århus, 1996. For further discussion of cultural nationalism in Scandinavia, see Jens Rahbeck Rasmussen, 'The Danish monarchy as a composite state', in European Identities: Cultural Diversity and Integration in Europe since 1700 (ed. Nils Arne Sørensen), Odense, 1995, 23-36.
86. F. Ponzi, Finnur Jónsson: Íslenskur brautryojandi, Reykjavík, 1983.
87. Sigurour H. Porsteinsson (ed.), Íslenzk Frímerki, Reykjavík, 1983, 55, 79.
88. See Anna Agnarsdóttir, 'Ráoabrugg á dulmáli: Hugleioingar um skjal frá 1785', Ný Saga. Tímarit Sögufélags (1993), 6, 28-41.
89. For the details of the costumes, Dayes probably had reference to a dress brought back by Stanley. Icelandic women's attire seems to have been of particular interest to British travellers; specimens are noted several times in journals and were brought home by Stanley, Mackenzie and Hooker in 1809, although that one was lost on a ship-board fire.
90. William Jackson Hooker, Journal of a Tour in Iceland in the Summer of 1809, 2 vols., London, 1813, i, 174. See Sumarlioi R. Ísleifsson, op. cit. (13) for a discussion of Icelanders' attitudes towards Icelandic nature.
91. William Jackson Hooker, Journal of a Tour in Iceland in the Summer of 1809, 2 vols., London, 1813, i, 174. See Sumarlioi R. Ísleifsson, op. cit. (13) for a discussion of Icelanders' attitudes towards Icelandic nature.
92. W. G. Collingwood and Jón Stefánsson, A Pilgrimage to the Saga-Steads of Iceland, Ulverston, 1899, p. v.
93. George E. J. Powell and Eiríkur Magnússon (tr.), Icelandic Legends, London, 1864 was a selected translation of Jón Árnason's Íslenzkar pjóosögur og æfintýri, Leipzig, 1862.
94. George E. J. Powell and Eiríkur Magnússon (tr.), Icelandic Legends, London, 1864 was a selected translation of Jón Árnason's Íslenzkar pjóosögur og æfintýri, Leipzig, 1862.
95. Kjærgaard, op. cit. (10), 100-5.
96. Kjærgaard, op. cit. (10), 135-7.
97. Óddgeir Stephensen and Jón Sigurosson (eds.), Lovsamling for Island (a collection of the laws concerning Iceland), Copenhagen, 1853-9, 4, 278-96.
98. See Kirsten Hastrup, Nature and Policy in Iceland 1400-1800: An Anthropological Analysis of History and Mentality, Oxford, 1990, 65-6.